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Composition Writing Manual Dorothy E. Zemach © BTB Press, 2018 Published by BTB Press (www.btbpress.com) Edited by David Barker Cover design by Paul Lewis Design and layout by Paul Lewis

Acknowledgments Thanks to Mutsumi Kawasaki, Douglas Moore, and Haruka Nomura for their help with the proof-reading.

Contents Composition Writing Manual

1 Hooks ............................................................................................4 2 Topic Sentences ............................................................................6 3 Supporting Sentences ..................................................................8 4 Concluding Sentences ...............................................................10 5 Transitions ..................................................................................12 6 Formal Language ...................................................................... 14 7 Sentence Variety ........................................................................16 8 Commas ......................................................................................18 9 Hedging ......................................................................................20 10 Avoiding Vague Language .......................................................22 11 Avoiding Repetition ..................................................................24 P Plagiarism ...................................................................................26 C Checklist......................................................................................28 英作文マニュアル 1 書き出し .......................................................................................30 2 トピックセンテンス ......................................................................31 3 サポーティングセンテンス............................................................32 4 結論 .............................................................................................33 5 接続表現 .....................................................................................34 6 公式的な言葉 ............................................................................. 35 7 センテンスの種類 ........................................................................36 8 コンマ ..........................................................................................37 9 断定的な表現を避ける ...............................................................38 10 曖昧な表現を避ける ...................................................................39 11 くり返しを避ける .........................................................................40 P 盗用 .............................................................................................41 C チェックリスト...............................................................................42

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Composition Writing Manual

Hooks

A hook is a sentence at the beginning of a composition that aims to catch the reader’s attention. There are several ways to do this. 1) With an interesting fact or statistic: More Americans have died from domestic gun violence than have been killed in every war in the country’s history, added together. 2) With a surprising or interesting statement: Dropping out of college was important to Steve Jobs’ success. I love my boyfriend, but I have already decided not to marry him. 3) With a quotation or saying: “A friend in need is a friend indeed.” The American poet Robert Frost once wrote, “Good fences make good neighbors.” (You can search for quotations online with a search like friendship + quotation.)

4) With a question: Do you know what percentage of households in Japan no longer have a landline telephone? Be very careful with questions. Do not choose a question: • for which the answer is unknown or will not be answered in your composition; instead, ask a question that you will answer.

✘ How can we stop wars forever? ✔ Do you know how many wars are currently being fought? • for which the answer is obvious, or already known to your readers. Ask a question that will make readers want to read your composition in order to find the answer.

✘ Who is the Prime Minister of Japan? ✔ What world leader has been in power for the longest amount of time? • that your readers might answer with a simple “yes” or “no,” and then lose interest; instead, ask a question that makes readers think about your topic.

✘ Would you ever want to adopt a baby? ✔ Can you guess the main reason why the adoption rate is increasing?

Practice

Judging hooks Which hook is better? Circle either a) or b). 1) a) Do you know what “globalization” means? b) “It has been said that arguing against globalization is like arguing against the laws of gravity.” (Kofi Annan) 2) a) When I stepped off the train, I could not believe what I saw in front of me. b) This composition is going to be about my high school trip to Hokkaido. 3) a) My best friend once told me, “It is really hard to get a job after you graduate.” b) Last year, a company recruiter at a top university offered some surprising advice for job-seekers. 4) a) Having a long-distance relationship is difficult. That is why I do not advise getting involved with someone far away. b) The famous saying, “Absence makes the heart grow fonder” implies that distance is not a barrier to relationships. 5) a) Do you know what the biggest reason is for the falling birthrate in Japan? b) Do you want to have children in the future? Why or why not? Choosing hooks Match each hook to the appropriate topic in the box below. 6) _____ I looked at the ticket in my hand and smiled: Istanbul, Turkey! 7) _____ “He is the richest who is content with the least,” said Socrates. 8) _____ Quick—your house is shaking violently. What do you do first? 9) _____ Plane crashes grab the headlines, but actually, traveling by car is far more dangerous. 10) _____ Do you think you know what is in your hotdog? Think again. a) disaster preparation

b) food additives

c) a memorable vacation

d) money/wealth

e) transportation

Hooks can be hard to write, so some people prefer to write the entire composition first, and then add the hook last. Note that hooks are optional, so not every composition needs to have one. 4 Composition Writing Manual

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Composition Writing Manual

Topic Sentences

In academic writing, most paragraphs contain a “topic sentence” that summarizes the main idea of the paragraph. The topic sentence is often the first or second sentence of a paragraph, but it may also come at the end of the paragraph (common) or in the middle (unusual). If the topic sentence is not the first sentence in the paragraph, it is usually preceded by a hook (see p. 4) or by one or two introductory sentences. These are good topic sentences: • • •

Studying abroad is not always an effective way to learn a foreign language. Being a member of a large family taught me how to negotiate and how to cooperate. Tokyo is a better city in which to look for work than my hometown because it is larger and has more opportunities.

These are not topic sentences:

✘ This paper is about studying abroad. ✘ I have a large family. ✘ Tokyo is bigger than my hometown. In Japanese, it is common to say what you are going to write about before you begin. This is not necessary in English. Do not write sentences like these:

✘ I am going to write about the problem of bullying in schools. ✘ I will discuss the advantages and disadvantages of having a car. In a one-paragraph composition, or in the first paragraph of a longer composition, the topic sentence often follows the “hook” or introductory sentences. The topic sentence sometimes shows the main ideas that will be discussed in the entire composition. Here is an example: Studying abroad is expensive, but the benefits gained are invaluable.

Practice

Recognizing topic sentences Check (√) the five sentences that are strong topic sentences. 1) My major is electrical engineering. 2) 3D printing can help small businesses save time and money. 3) Living in a dormitory keeps young people from learning skills necessary for independence. 4) Working a summer internship can give you money, work experience, and selfconfidence. 5) In the evenings, I usually relax by watching television. 6) Studying abroad is not necessary to become a good English speaker. 7) In this paper, I am going to explain three reasons to go to graduate school. 8) “How to save money while still living comfortably” is the topic of my composition. 9) Three simple time management tricks can help you find two to three more hours in every day. Locating the topic sentence Underline the topic sentence in this paragraph. What do you think is the most dangerous animal in the world? You might be surprised to learn that it is the mosquito. The mosquito is the world’s deadliest animal because of the diseases it spreads. In fact, more than one million people die every year because of mosquito bites. Most of these deaths are due to malaria. In addition, mosquitoes carry diseases such as dengue fever and West Nile virus, which can also be fatal.

From this sentence, the reader knows that the topic is “studying abroad”; that the writer believes studying abroad is a good experience; that the first paragraph will talk about expenses; and that the second paragraph will talk about benefits. In a composition of more than one paragraph, the topic sentence is usually the first sentence of each following paragraph. • • •

The second advantage of living in a dormitory is that you meet many people. However, studying abroad will not necessarily lead to a higher level of English. On the other hand, owning a car is also a big responsibility.

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Composition Writing Manual

Supporting Sentences

The topic sentence states the subject and your opinion about that subject. The other sentences in the paragraph are called “supporting sentences.” They explain and give more information about your topic sentence. The topic sentence is general; supporting sentences are more specific. Every supporting sentence should be about the topic of your paragraph. There are several types of supporting sentences. For the following explanations, imagine that the topic sentence of the paragraph is: Just living in an English-speaking country does not mean that you will automatically learn English.

Practice

The function of supporting sentences Are these statements true or false? Write “T” for True or “F” for False. 1) ____ In one paragraph, there are more supporting sentences than topic sentences. 2) ____ An expert’s opinion can be used in a supporting sentence. 3) ____ Supporting sentences show a variety of opinions about the topic. 4) ____ A topic sentence is more general than a supporting sentence. 5) ____ There can only be one type of supporting sentence in a paragraph.

Details / examples / explanations

These explain or give specific information about the idea in the topic sentence. These sentences are sometimes introduced with expressions such as One reason is… , This is because… , or For example,…. (See p. 12 for more information on transitions.) One reason is that not much English is needed for daily activities such as riding the bus or buying food. You will say the same few sentences over and over again, but you will not engage in varied and meaningful conversations. In addition, students who feel homesick might find friends from the same country and speak their native language. Thanks to the Internet, it is easy and tempting to email and chat with friends back home instead of making new friends.

A short narrative or story

This type of support, also called an “anecdote,” is a short personal story. It can be about you—the writer—or someone you know about. When I spent a semester in Australia, I asked for a homestay. I thought if I were living with an Australian family, I would speak English with them every day. However, when I met the family, I found out that they had just moved to Australia from Japan! In fact, their daughter was in my English class. We sometimes did our homework together—in Japanese.

Appropriate support Check (√) the four best types of support for a paragraph about why smoking is harmful. ____ The name of a disease caused by smoking ____ How many years you have been smoking ____ How many different brands of cigarettes are sold in Japan ____ A doctor’s explanation of why second-hand smoke is dangerous ____ A story about why you started smoking ____ A narrative about a close friend who died of lung cancer ____ An explanation of how growing tobacco takes farmland away from food crops ____ A friend’s opinion about why cigarettes taste bad ____ A comparison between cigarette prices in Japan and Canada

Information from other people or publications

This type of support is more common in research papers than in compositions based on your own knowledge or ideas. However, as you read in English and think about how main ideas are supported, you are sure to notice this method. Approximately 30 percent of students surveyed in the study abroad program at Daisuki University felt that living in an English-speaking country did not significantly improve their English ability. Reasons for this included living with a roommate from the same country, lack of opportunities to interact with local people, and not having enough time to spend on homework and assignments.

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C Checklist ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏

You have written your name, your student number, and any other information required by your teacher. The title of your composition is in the center of the page. All the main words of the title begin with a capital letter. If you have written a “hook,” it follows the rules on page 4. Each paragraph contains a topic sentence. Each paragraph contains supporting sentences that give more detail about the topic sentence. The final paragraph of the composition ends with a concluding sentence that restates your main idea in different words. You have used a variety of transitions to connect your ideas. The style of your writing is formal. You have used a variety of sentence types. No sentences start with and, but, or so. There are no contractions (I’d, don’t, etc.). All of your commas are used correctly and look clearly different from periods.

英作文マニュアル

You have softened statements where necessary using the techniques described on page 20. You have chosen appropriate and precise vocabulary. All the words in your composition have been spelled correctly.

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書き出し

1) 興味深い事実や統計 More Americans have died from domestic gun violence than have been killed in every war in the country’s history, added together. 2) 意外な、または興味深い意見 Dropping out of college was important to Steve Jobs’ success. I love my boyfriend, but I have already decided not to marry him. 3) ことわざや格言 “A friend in need is a friend indeed.” The American poet Robert Frost once wrote, “Good fences make good neighbors.” インターネットで検索すると、英語のことわざや格言を見つけることができます。例えば、「友情」についての作文であれば、「friendship + quotation」で検索しましょう。 4) 読み手に問いかける Do you know what percentage of households in Japan no longer have a landline telephone? 質問を投げかけるときは注意が必要です。下記のような質問は避け、読み手を考えさせるような質問をしましょう。 • 答えのない、または作文・小論文中に答えが出てこない質問 x How can we stop wars forever? o Do you know how many wars are currently being fought? 必ず、作文・小論文中であなたが答えられる質問をしましょう。 • 答えが明らかなもの、または読み手がすでに答えを知っている質問 x Who is the Prime Minister of Japan? o What world leader has been in power for the longest amount of time?

英作文では、各パラグラフにそのパラグラフの内容を要約する「トピックセンテンス」が含まれています。よいトピックセンテンスの例 • • •

トピックセンテンスではない例 x This paper is about studying abroad. x I have a large family. x Tokyo is bigger than my hometown. 日本語では、何について書くのかを先に説明するのが一般的ですが、英語では必要ありません。下記のような文章は避けましょう。 x I am going to write about the problem of bullying in schools. x I will discuss the advantages and disadvantages of having a car. 英作文の最初のパラグラフでは、トピックセンテンスはよく書き出しや導入部分に続きます。トピックセンテンスは、これから書く主題の前置きになることもあります。 Studying abroad is expensive, but the benefits gained are invaluable. この文から、主題が「留学」だということ、筆者が「留学は良い経験になる」と思っていること、最初のパラグラフは「留学費用について」だということ、そしてその次のパラグラフは「留学することのメリットについて」だということが分かります。複数のパラグラフから成る英作文では、各パラグラフの最初の文章がトピックセンテンスになることが多いです。 • • •

読み手に続きを読みたいと思わせるような質問をしましょう。 • 簡単にYes / No で答えられ、興味を失ってしまうような質問 x Would you ever want to adopt a baby? o Can you guess the main reason why the adoption rate is increasing? 30 Composition Writing Manual

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英作文マニュアル

読み手の興味を引くには、主に次の4つの方法があります。

2 トピックセンテンス

各パラグラフのトピックセンテンスは、主題と筆者の主題に対する意見を表す文章です。それ以外の文章はサポーティングセンテンスといい、主題について詳しく説明したり、筆者の主張を支える補足文です。トピックセンテンスは全体の要点をまとめたものですが、サポーティングセンテンスはもっと具体的な内容です。すべてのサポーティングセンテンスは主題に関するものでなければなりません。サポーティングセンテンスにはいくつかの種類があります。次のトピックセンテンスに対するサポーティングセンテンスを見てみましょう。 Just living in an English-speaking country does not mean that you will automatically learn English. 詳細・具体例・説明具体的な例を挙げたり、理由を述べたりして、トピックセンテンスの内容を詳しく説明します。 One reason is...やThis is because...、For example,...などの表現がよく使われます。（接続表現については３４ページを参照）

One reason is that not much English is needed for daily activities such as riding the bus or buying food. You will say the same few sentences over and over again, but you will not engage in varied and meaningful conversations. In addition, students who feel homesick might find friends from the same country and speak their native language. Thanks to the Internet, it is easy and tempting to email and chat with friends back home instead of making new friends. 実話や体験談

4 結論結論を述べる文章はパラグラフの終わりに置かれ、筆者の言いたいことを要約します。通常、最後のパラグラフに置かれます。パラグラフが1つしかない英作文では、最後の文章で結論を述べます。短いパラグラフや本論の部分に結論が置かれることはあまりありません。結論はトピックセンテンスとほぼ同じ内容になりますが、違う表現を使って言い換えることが大切です。以下は、３１ページのトピックセンテンスに対する結論の例です。【トピックセンテンス】 Studying abroad is not always an effective way to learn a foreign language. 【結論】 Because of the stress of culture shock and the distractions of sightseeing, you might not learn as much English on a trip abroad as you would working hard in a classroom at home.

【トピックセンテンス】 Being a member of a large family taught me how to negotiate and how to cooperate. 【結論】 The skills I learned working together with the members of my family prepared me to bargain and discuss issues at work.

実話や、自分や自分の周りの人の体験談などを加えてトピックセンテンスの内容に説得力を持たせます。 When I spent a semester in Australia, I asked for a homestay. I thought if I were living with an Australian family, I would speak English with them every day. However, when I met the family, I found out that they had just moved to Australia from Japan! In fact, their daughter was in my English class. We sometimes did our homework together—in Japanese. ほかの人からの情報や参考文献参考文献などからの情報を加える方法は、筆者自身の知識や考えに基づく文章よりも、よく研究論文などで使われます。効果的にトピックセンテンスに説得力を持たせることができるので、一般的な文章を書くときにも役立ちます。 Approximately 30 percent of students surveyed in the study abroad program at Daisuki University felt that living in an English-speaking country did not significantly improve their English ability. Reasons for this included living with a roommate from the same country, lack of opportunities to interact with local people, and not having enough time to spend on homework and assignments. 32 Composition Writing Manual

英作文マニュアル

3 サポーティングセンテンス

【トピックセンテンス】 Tokyo is a better city in which to look for work than my hometown because it is larger and has more opportunities. 【結論】 Because the types of companies I want to work for are located in Tokyo, I believe that relocating there is the best thing I can do for my career. 作文のテーマに合っていれば、今後の予測や行動を起こすことを呼びかける内容で終わってもかまいません。 Clearly, a new recycling program must be introduced at our university in order to reduce waste and save money.

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英作文マニュアル

C チェックリスト

❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏

The Read to Write series from BTB Press (www.btbpress.com)

名前、学籍番号など、必要事項がすべて記入されている。タイトルはページの中央に書かれている。タイトルの主要語が大文字で始まっている。書き出し部分が30ページのルールに沿って書かれている。各パラグラフにトピックセンテンスが1つ含まれている。各パラグラフにトピックセンテンスを補足するサポーティングセンテンスが含まれている。最後のパラグラフがトピックセンテンスを別の表現で言い換えた結論で締めくくられている。接続副詞などの接続表現を使って論点の移行をしている。公式的な文体で書かれている。文章全体で単文、重文、複文をバランスよく使っている。

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and、but、so などから始まっている文章がない。 I’d、don’t などの短縮形を使っていない。コンマを正しく使用し、ピリオドとの区別がはっきりしている。 38ページの説明に従って、断定的な表現を避けている。適切で正確な表現を使って事実を述べている。スペルミスがない。 Read to Write Email

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