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Using Statistical Methods in Social Science Research

Using Statistical Methods in Social Science Research With a Complete SPSS Guide THIRD EDITION

Soleman H. Abu-​Bader Howard University

1

1 1

1 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America. © Oxford University Press 2021, 2011 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Cataloging-in-Publication Data is on file with the Library of Congress ISBN 978–​0–​19–​752243–​1 ISBN 978–​0–​19–​752248–6 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Printed by LSC Communications, United States of America

To Buthaina, Nagham, Layanne, and Samer, my great family, friends, and support system, with love and appreciation.

Table of Contents

Preface xiii List of Figures

xvii

List of Tables xxi List of SPSS Screen Captures xxvii 1

Overview of Mathematical and Research Methodological Terms Learning Objectives 1 Introduction 1 Basic Mathematical Concepts 2 Variable and Constants 6 Levels of Measurement 9 Research Hypotheses 12 Psychometric Properties of an Instrument 13 Population and Sample 18 Descriptive and Inferential Statistics 19 Types of Relationships between Two Variables 19 Summary

21

Key Terms 22 Practical Exercises 22 2

Working with SPSS 27 Learning Objectives 27 Introduction 27 About the SPSS Program 28 Creating an Instrumentation Codebook 33 Practical Example 35

vii

1

viii

Table o f C ontents

Starting the SPSS Program 36 Summary

64

Key Terms 65 Practical Exercises 65 3

Data Organization and Summary: Frequency Tables and Graphs 69 Learning Objectives 69 Introduction 69 Frequency Distributions 70 Graphic Presentations of Data 80 Summary

100

Key Terms 100 Practical Exercises 101 4

Descriptive Statistics: Measures of Central Tendency, Variability, and Percentiles 105 Learning Objectives 105 Introduction 105 Measures of Central Tendency 106 Measures of Variability 109 What Measure(s) to Report 113 Percentile and Percentile Ranks 114 Box-​and-​Whisker Plot 124 Summary

131

Key Terms 132 Practical Exercises 132 5

Distributions, Data Transformations, and Standard Z Scores 135 Learning Objectives 135 Introduction 136 Normality of Distributions 136 Standard Scores (Z Scores) 157 Summary

164

Key Terms 165 Practical Exercises 166 6

Hypothesis Testing and Selecting a Statistical Test Learning Objectives 169 Introduction 169 Research Hypotheses 170 Errors in Hypothesis Testing 173

169

Table o f C ontents

Confidence Interval 179 Selecting a Statistical Test 183 Summary

189

Key Terms 189 Practical Exercises 190 7

Bivariate Correlations

193

Learning Objectives 193 Introduction 193 Correlation 194 Scatterplot 196 Correlation and Causality 198 Correlational Tests 198 Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficient 198 Point-biserial correlation coefficient 199 Assumptions 199 Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coefficient 202 Partial Correlation Test 202 Practical Examples 203 Summary

229

Key Terms 230 Practical Exercises 231 8

Difference between Two Group Means: The One-​Sample Case and Two-​Sample Case t-​Tests 233 Learning Objectives 233 Introduction 233 Student’s t-​Tests 234 One-​Sample Case t-​Test 235 Two-​Sample Case t-​Test 237 Mann-​Whitney U Test 239 Practical Examples 239 Summary

261

Key Terms 261 Practical Exercises 262 9

Dependent t-​Test: Two-​Paired Observations 265 Learning Objectives 265 Introduction 265 Dependent t-​Test 266 Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test 268 Practical Examples 269

ix

x

Table o f C ontents

Summary

289

Key Terms 290 Practical Exercises 290 10

K Group Comparisons: One-​Way Analysis of Variance and Covariance 293 Learning Objectives 293 Introduction 293 Why Not Use the Independent t-​Test? 294 Analysis of Variance: An Overview 296 One-​Way ANOVA 297 One-​Way ANCOVA 297 Sources of Variations in ANOVA and ANCOVA 298 Assumptions of ANOVA and ANCOVA

299

Kruskal-​Wallis H Test 301 Post Hoc Tests 302 Practical Examples 302 Summary

329

Key Terms 330 Practical Exercises 330 11

Chi-​Square Goodness-​of-​Fit Test and Test of Association Learning Objectives 333 Introduction 333 Chi-​Square Test 334 Chi-​Square Goodness-​of-​Fit Test 335 Chi-​Square Test of Association 335 Contingency Table 336 Assumptions of Chi-​Square Tests 339 Fisher’s Exact Test

340

Measures of Association 341 Practical Examples 341 Summary

359

Key Terms 360 Practical Exercises 360 12

Simple Linear Regression 363 Learning Objectives 363 Introduction 363 Simple Linear Regression 364 Regression Equations and Scatterplot 364 Regression Coefficients 365

333

Table o f C ontents

Confidence Interval 367 Assumptions 367 Practical Example 369 Summary

383

Key Terms 383 Practical Exercises 384

Appendix A: SPSS Data Files

387

Data File 1: Experimental Design (N = 60)

387

Data File 2: Immigrants (N = 40) 387 Data File 3: Job Satisfaction (N = 218) 387 Data File 4: Mental Health (N = 155) 388 Data File 5: Refugees (N = 230) 388 Data File 6: Reliability Analysis (N = 110) 388 Data File 7: Senior Citizens (N = 90) 389 Data File 8: Well-​Being (N = 182) 391

Appendix B: Hand Calculations

393

B.1. Correlational Tests 393 B.2. One-​Sample Case and Two-​Sample Case T-Tests 404 B.3. Student’s T-Test—​Two-​Paired Observations 417 B.4. One-​Way Analysis of Variance and Covariance 425 B.5. Chi-​Square Tests

446

B.6. Simple Linear Regression 453

Appendix C: Critical Values

461

Table C.1. Z Scores 461 Table C.2. Pearson’s Correlation 470 Table C.3. Spearman’s Correlation 471 Table C.4. T Distribution 472 Table C.5. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test 473 Table C.6. F Distribution 474 Table C.7. Mann-​Whitney U Test 476 Table C.8. Tukey HSD Q Test 477 Table C.9. Chi-​Square 478 References 481 Index 483

xi

Preface

It is with great happiness and satisfaction that I was able to complete this newly edited version of Using Statistical Methods in Social Science Research: With a Complete SPSS Guide. Since the release of the second edition in 2011, many students and faculty, including myself, and researchers around the country and abroad have used it either as a required textbook or a recommended reference for their statistic courses and/​or for their research projects. Over the years, I have received a lot of feedback and comments about the book, its organization, details, and how simple it is to follow, especially its step-​by-​step SPSS guides. At the same time, many have also recommended the addition of new topics, data evaluation methods, examples, and tables. Moreover, since 2011, IBM has released many new SPSS versions that necessitate the need to update all SPSS screens and output, which originally were generated using SPSS Version 18.

Taking all of these factors into consideration, and to provide students, faculty, and researchers with the most-​up-​to date SPSS version, all chapters were carefully reviewed and updated. In particular, the following summarizes all revisions, additions, and changes made in this edition: • Updated all SPSS Version 18.0 screens and output with the latest SPSS Version 26.0.

• Updated all practical examples.

• Updated all practical exercises and added new hand calculations, multiple-​choice, true–​false, and fill-​in-​the blank exercises.

• Added key terms at the end of each chapter.

• Replaced most of the tables and graphs (histograms, Q-​Q plots, scatterplots, etc.).

• Added two new SPSS data files: Experimental Design and Immigrants (see appendix A).

• Added new sample size tables for statistical power levels of .90 and .95 (­chapters 7 to 12).

• Added new general mathematical rules (­chapter 1).

• Extended the discussion about reliability (­chapter 1).

• Added a new section about measurement errors (­chapter 1).

• Added a new SPSS example for Kuder-​Richardson 20 reliability analysis (­chapter 2).

• Added a new section about grouped percentile and percentile ranks (­chapter 4).

• Updated the content about skewness and added a new section about kurtosis and new figures (­chapter 5).

• Added a new section about normality tests (­chapter 5).

• Updated the content about power and effect size (­chapter 6). xiii

xiv

P re face

• Added a new section about critical values (­chapter 6).

• Updated the guidelines for test selection and the table (­chapter 6).

• Reorganized, updated, and introduced two new test statistics: point-​biserial and partial correlation tests (­chapter 7).

• Reorganized, updated, and added a new test statistic: one-​sample Wilcoxon signed ranks test (­chapter 8).

• Added new examples illustrating how to write and present the results of nonparametric tests in academic tables: Mann-​Whitney U test (­chapter 8), Wilcoxon signed ranks test (­chapter 9), and Kruskal-​Wallis H test (­chapter 10).

• Updated types of ANOVA/​ANCOVA tables (­chapter 10).

• Extended the discussion about post hoc tests and introduced two new post hoc tests: Tukey HDS and Games-​Howell tests (­chapter 10).

• Introduced a new SPSS method to calculate the Kruskal-​Wallis H test and its post hoc test (­chapter 10).

• Introduced two SPSS methods to calculate one-​way ANOVA: SPSS compare means and SPSS general linear model (­chapter 10).

• Removed the section about hand calculations of the expected frequencies (­chapter 11) and moved it to appendix B (“Hand Calculations”).

• Added a new section about standardized residuals (­chapter 11).

• Added a new section about Fisher’s exact test (­chapter 11).

• Replaced “Multiple Regression Analysis” with “Simple Linear Regression Analysis” (­chapter 12).

• Updated the references list.

In addition to these revisions and changes, I included a new detailed appendix (appendix B) that discusses step by step how to calculate each test statistic presented in c­ hapters 7 to 12, as well as a new appendix (appendix C) containing nine critical values tables used to determine the level of significance for each test statistic. These hand calculations and critical values are of great importance for graduate students who may seek to teach undergraduate statistics courses, which require basic knowledge of mathematical concepts and statistical equations.

I hope that by releasing this new edition, I met your expectations of a providing you with a user-​friendly edition that will greatly benefit you in developing your hypotheses and evaluating, organizing, analyzing, and reporting your data in ways that are easy to understand.

Data Files

This book uses the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 26.0 as the main computer software to organize, summarize, and analyze the data. This program was chosen because it is one of the most popular computer software programs and is available in most university computer labs. Users of other statistical software, such as Excel, R Stat, SAS, or Stata, or users of handheld calculators still can greatly benefit from this book because it provides a detailed discussion of the process of organizing and summarizing data, selecting the appropriate test statistic, understanding the test and its underlying assumptions, and writing and presenting the results in summary tables and graphs. These same descriptive and inferential statistics can be computed by any other computer software or hand calculators (appendix B).

Finally, practical examples and exercises that are discussed in this book rely on eight SPSS data files. These files can be obtained from Learning Link at Oxford University Press: www. oup.com/​he/​abu-​bader3e. Appendix A describes these files in detail.

P re face

Acknowledgments

Many thanks to my Data Analysis and Quantitative Methods students at Howard University for their feedback and comments, especially the 2018–2020 classes. Thank you also to my graduate assistants, Latoya Hogg and Imani Smith, for their help, suggestions, and edits.

A special thank you and my sincere appreciation goes to my former research assistant and current colleague, Dr. Tiffanie Jones, who took her time to review each chapter and provided very helpful constructive comments and corrections. For that I am grateful.

I also would like to extend special thanks to Dr. Thomas O’Hare of Boston College and the Oxford University Press editors and staff, Sarah Butcher, Stefano Imbert, Alyssa Palazzo, and Melissa Yanuzzi, whose suggestions enhanced this new edition.

xv

List of Figures

Chapter 1 Figure 1.1: Figure 1.2: Figure 1.3:

Scatterplot for Burnout and Turnover 20 Scatterplot for Job Satisfaction and Turnover Scatterplot for Workload and Burnout 21

20

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1: Bar Graph for Levels of Education 82 Figure 3.2: Histogram for Age 87 Figure 3.3: Histogram for Age by Gender 89 Figure 3.4: Frequency Polygon for Age 90 Figure 3.5: Frequency Polygon for Age 93 Figure 3.6: Cumulative Frequency Polygon for Cognitive Status 93 Figure 3.7: Cumulative Percentage Polygon for Cognitive Status 95 Figure 3.8: Stem-​and-​Leaf Plot for Cognitive Status 96 Figure 3.9: Stem-​and-​Leaf Plot for Cognitive Status—​Counterclockwise Figure 3.10: Stem-​and-​Leaf Plot for Age 99

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1: Boxplot for English Proficiency Scores Figure 4.2: Boxplot for Burnout 129 Figure 4.3: Boxplot for Burnout by Gender 131

Chapter 5 Figure 5.1: Figure 5.2: Figure 5.3: Figure 5.4: Figure 5.5:

Standard Normal Distribution 137 Positively Skewed Distribution 138 Negatively Skewed Distribution 138 Leptokurtic Distribution 139 Platykurtic Distribution 139 xvii

125

97

xviii

L ist o f Figures

Figure 5.6: Histogram for Supervision 148 Figure 5.7: Normal Q-​Q Plot for Supervision 148 Figure 5.8: Histogram for Promotion 149 Figure 5.9: Normal Q-​Q Plot for Promotion 149 Figure 5.10: Histogram for Reversed Supervision 153 Figure 5.11: Q-​Q Plot for Reversed Supervision 154 Figure 5.12: Histogram for Square Root of Supervision 156 Figure 5.13: Q-​Q plot for Square Root of Supervision 156 Figure 5.14: Histogram for Standard Score of Promotion 159 Figure 5.15: Q-​Q Plot for Standard Score of Promotion 160 Figure 5.16: Normal Z Scores 161

Chapter 6 Figure 6.1: Figure 6.2: Figure 6.3: Figure 6.4:

Directional Relationships between Variables 171 Two-​Tailed Rejection Area 177 One-​Tailed Rejection Area—​Positive Relationship 177 One-​Tailed Rejection Area—​Negative Relationship 178

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1: Venn Diagram—​Correlation between Two Variables 195 Figure 7.2: Scatterplot Illustrating Positive Relationship 197 Figure 7.3: Scatterplot Illustrating Negative Relationship 197 Figure 7.4: Scatterplot Illustrating No Relationship 198 Figure 7.5: Partial Correlation Venn Diagram 203 Figure 7.6: Histogram and Q-​Q Plot for Physical Health 207 Figure 7.7: Histogram and Q-​Q Plot for Life Satisfaction 207 Figure 7.8: Venn Diagram for Physical Health and Life Satisfaction 212 Figure 7.9: Scatterplot for Physical Health and Life Satisfaction 213 Figure 7.10: Histogram and Q-​Q Plot for Emotional Balance 217 Figure 7.11: Point-​Biserial Correlation between Sickness and Emotional Balance 218 Figure 7.12: Scatterplot for the Correlation between Sickness and Emotional Balance 220 Figure 7.13: Histogram and Q-​Q Plot for Self-​Esteem 223 Figure 7.14: Histogram and Q-​Q Plot for Depression 223 Figure 7.15: Histogram and Q-​Q Plot for Square Root Depression 224 Figure 7.16: A Matrix Scatterplot 225 Figure 7.17: Venn Diagram for Self-​Esteem and Depression Controlling for Emotional Balance 229

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1: Two Means Comparison 234 Figure 8.2: Histogram and Q-​Q Plot for Age 242 Figure 8.3: Observed and Hypothetical Median Age

249

L ist o f Figures

Figure 8.4: Histogram and Q-​Q Plot for PTSD 251 Figure 8.5: Histogram and Q-​Q Plot for Square Root of PTSD

Chapter 9 Figure 9.1: Figure 9.2: Figure 9.3: Figure 9.4: Figure 9.5: Figure 9.6:

253

Histogram and Q-​Q Plot for Pretest Anxiety—​Experiment Group 275 Histogram and Q-​Q Plot for Pretest Anxiety—​Control Group 275 Histogram and Q-​Q Plot for Posttest Anxiety—​Experiment Group 275 Histogram and Q-​Q Plot for Posttest Anxiety—​Control Group 276 Histogram and Q-​Q Plot for Emotional Balance 286 Histogram and Q-​Q Plot for Cognitive Status 287

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1: Multiple Means Comparison 294 Figure 10.2: Sources of Variability in ANOVA and ANCOVA 299 Figure 10.3: Means Plot—​Self-​Esteem by Marital Status 310 Figure 10.4: Kruskal-​Wallis H Mean Ranks Comparisons—​Self-​Esteem by Marital Status 314 Figure 10.5: Scatterplot—​Emotional Balance and Self-​Esteem 318 Figure 10.6: ANCOVA—​Adjusted Means Plot 327

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1: Scatterplot of Y by X 366 Figure 12.2: Histogram and Q-​Q Plot for Cognitive Status 371 Figure 12.3: Scatterplot for Self-​Esteem by Cognitive Status 372 Figure 12.4: Scatterplot for Predicted Scores and Residual Scores 373 Figure 12.5: Histogram and Normal Probability Plot for Self-​Esteem Residuals Figure 12.6: Scatterplot for Self-​Esteem by Cognitive Status 382

373

xix

List of Tables

Chapter 1 Table 1.1: Table 1.2: Table 1.3: Table 1.4:

Tests Scores in Statistics Courses 2 Characteristics of Levels of Measurement 9 Comparison of Reliability Coefficients 16 Construct Validity 17

Chapter 2

Table 2.1: Immigrants Survey—​Instrumentation Codebook 35 Table 2.2: Statistics Table for Immigrants’ Data File 48 Table 2.3: Frequency Table for “Age” 50 Table 2.4: Frequency Table for “Gender” 50 Table 2.5: Frequency Table for “USBorn” 51 Table 2.6: Frequency Table for “Esteem5” 51 Table 2.7: Cronbach’s Alpha for Self-​Esteem 60 Table 2.8: Inter-​Item Correlation Matrix for Self-​Esteem 60 Table 2.9: Inter-​Item Correlation Summary Statistics 60 Table 2.10: Item-​Total Statistics 61 Table 2.11: KR20 Reliability for Promotion 62 Table 2.12: Inter-​Item Correlation Matrix for Promotion 63 Table 2.13: Inter-​Item Correlation Summary Statistics for Promotion Table 2.14: Item-​Total Statistics for Promotion 63 Table 2.15: Raw Data 64

Chapter 3

Table 3.1: Raw Data 71 Table 3.2: Array Data 72 Table 3.3: Frequency Distribution Table Table 3.4: Statistics 74

73

xxi

63

xxii

L I S T O F TA B L E S

Table 3.5: Frequency Table for Age 75 Table 3.6: Frequency Table for Gender 76 Table 3.7: Class-​Interval Frequency Table for Cognitive Status 76 Table 3.8: Exact-​Limits Frequency Table for Cognitive Status 77 Table 3.9: Class-​Interval Frequency Distribution for Cognitive Status 81 Table 3.10: Class Intervals and Exact Limits Summary Table for Cognitive Status

82

Chapter 4

Table 4.1: English Proficiency Scores 106 Table 4.2: English Proficiency Scores—​Array Data 107 Table 4.3: English Proficiency Scores—​Frequency Table 108 Table 4.4: English Proficiency Scores—​Mean Deviation 110 Table 4.5: English Proficiency Scores—​Variance 112 Table 4.6: Exact-​Limits Frequency Table for Cognitive Status 115 Table 4.7: English Proficiency Scores—​Quartiles 117 Table 4.8: Descriptive Statistics for Gender and Job Satisfaction 121 Table 4.9: Mean Deviation for Satisfaction 123 Table 4.10: Frequency Table for Absolute Deviations from Mean 123 Table 4.11: Descriptive Statistics for Burnout 128 Table 4.12: Descriptive Statistics for Burnout by Gender 130

Chapter 5 Table 5.1: Table 5.2: Table 5.3: Table 5.4: Table 5.5: Table 5.6: Table 5.7: Table 5.8:

Chapter 6 Table 6.1: Table 6.2: Table 6.3: Table 6.4: Table 6.5:

Chapter 7 Table 7.1: Table 7.2: Table 7.3:

Descriptive Statistics for Supervision and Promotion 146 Calculations of Skewness and Kurtosis for Supervision and Promotion 147 Normality Tests for Supervision and Promotion 147 Descriptive Statistics for Reversed Supervision 153 Descriptive Statistics for Reversed Supervision 155 Calculations of Skewness and Kurtosis for the Square Root of Supervision 155 Normality Tests for the Square Root of Supervision 156 Descriptive Statistics for Promotion and Its Standard Scores 159

Experimental Pretest–​Posttest Control Group Design 172 Errors in Hypothesis Testing 174 Case Processing Summary Table for Depression 183 Descriptive Statistics Table for Depression 183 Guidelines for Selecting a Statistical Test 186

Interpretations of Correlation Coefficients 196 Minimum Sample Size Required for Pearson’s Correlation 201 Descriptive Statistics for Physical Health and Life Satisfaction 205

L ist o f tables

Table 7.4: Table 7.5: Table 7.6: Table 7.7: Table 7.8: Table 7.9: Table 7.10: Table 7.11: Table 7.12: Table 7.13: Table 7.14: Table 7.15: Table 7.16: Table 7.17: Table 7.18: Table 7.19: Table 7.20: Table 7.21: Table 7.22: Table 7.23:

Chapter 8 Table 8.1: Table 8.2: Table 8.3: Table 8.4: Table 8.5: Table 8.6: Table 8.7: Table 8.8: Table 8.9: Table 8.10: Table 8.11: Table 8.12: Table 8.13: Table 8.14: Table 8.15: Table 8.16: Table 8.17: Table 8.18: Table 8.19: Table 8.20: Table 8.21:

Calculations of Skewness and Kurtosis for Physical Health and Life Satisfaction 206 Normality Tests for Physical Health and Life Satisfaction 206 Descriptive Statistics for Physical Health and Life Satisfaction 210 Pearson’s Correlation between Physical Health and Life Satisfaction 210 Spearman’s rho Correlation between Physical Health and Life Satisfaction 210 Correlation Matrix (N = 90) 212 Descriptive Statistics for Emotional Balance 216 Calculations of Skewness and Kurtosis for Emotional Balance 216 Normality Tests for Emotional Balance 217 Pearson’s Correlation between Sickness and Emotional Balance 218 Correlation Matrix—​Sickness and Emotional Balance (N = 90) 219 Descriptive Statistics for Self-​Esteem and Depression 221 Calculations of Skewness and Kurtosis for Self-​Esteem and Depression 222 Normality Tests for Self-​Esteem and Depression 222 Descriptive Statistics for Square Root Depression 223 Calculations of Skewness and Kurtosis for Self-​Esteem and Depression 224 Normality Tests for Square Root Depression 224 Descriptive Statistics 227 Pearson’s and Partial Correlation Coefficients 227 Partial Correlation Matrix 229

Sample Size for One-​Sample Case t-​Test 236 Sample Size for Independent t-​Test (per Group) 239 Descriptive Statistics for Age 241 Calculations of Skewness and Kurtosis for Age 241 Normality Tests for Age 242 Descriptive Statistics for Age 244 One-​Sample Case t-​Test 244 One-​Sample Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Summary Results 247 One-​Sample Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Statistics 248 Descriptive Statistics for PTSD 250 Calculations of Skewness and Kurtosis for PTSD 251 Normality Tests for PTSD 251 Descriptive Statistics for Square Root of PTSD 252 Calculations of Skewness and Kurtosis for Square Root of PTSD 252 Normality Tests for Square Root of PTSD 252 Group Statistics—​Square Root of PTSD by Country 255 Independent t-​Test—​Square Root of PTSD by Country 255 Mann-​Whitney U Mean Ranks—​PTSD by Country 258 Mann-​Whitney U Test Statistics—​PTSD by Country 259 Results of the Independent t-​Test—​PTSD by Country 260 Results of the Mann-​Whitney U Test—​PTSD by Country 260

xxiii

xxiv

L I S T O F TA B L E S

Chapter 9 Table 9.1: Table 9.2: Table 9.3: Table 9.4: Table 9.5: Table 9.6: Table 9.7: Table 9.8: Table 9.9: Table 9.10: Table 9.11: Table 9.12: Table 9.13:

Table 9.14: Table 9.15: Table 9.16: Table 9.17: Table 9.18: Table 9.19: Table 9.20: Table 9.21:

Chapter 10

Sample Size for Dependent t-​Test 268 Descriptive Statistics for Pretest–​Posttest Control Group Design 272 Calculations of Skewness and Kurtosis for Levels of Anxiety 274 Normality Tests for Levels of Anxiety 274 Descriptive Statistics—​Pretest–​Posttest Levels of Anxiety per Group 278 Correlation between Pretest–​Posttest Levels of Anxiety per Group 278 Dependent t-​Test—​Pretest–​Posttest Levels of Anxiety per Group 279 Wilcoxon Test—​Pretest–​Posttest Levels of Anxiety per Group 281 Wilcoxon Test—​Pretest–​Posttest Levels of Anxiety per Group 282 Results of the Dependent t-​Test for Levels of Anxiety (N = 30) 283 Results of Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test for Levels of Anxiety (N = 30) 284 Descriptive Statistics for Emotional Balance and Cognitive Status 285 Calculations of Skewness and Kurtosis for Emotional Balance and Cognitive Status 286 Normality Tests for Emotional Balance and Cognitive Status 286 Descriptive Statistics for Emotional Balance and Cognitive Status 287 Correlation between Emotional Balance and Cognitive Status 287 Dependent t-​Test—​Emotional Balance and Cognitive Status 288 Wilcoxon Ranks—​Emotional Balance and Cognitive Status 288 Wilcoxon Test—​Emotional Balance and Cognitive Status 288 Results of the Dependent t-​Test for Emotional Balance and Cognitive Status 289 Results of Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test for Emotional Balance and Cognitive Status 289

Table 10.1: Types of Analysis of Variance and Covariance 297 Table 10.2: Sample Size for One-​Way ANOVA/​ANCOVA 300 Table 10.3: Levene’s Test for Self-​Esteem by Marital Status 304 Table 10.4: One-​Way ANOVA Descriptive Statistics—​Self-​Esteem by Marital Status 307 Table 10.5: One-​Way ANOVA—​Self-​Esteem by Marital Status 308 Table 10.6: Robust Tests—​Self-​Esteem by Marital Status 308 Table 10.7: Post Hoc Tests—​Self-​Esteem by Marital Status 309 Table 10.8: Kruskal-​Wallis H Test Hypothesis Testing—​Self-​Esteem by Marital Status 313 Table 10.9: Kruskal-​Wallis H Test Summary—​Self-​Esteem by Marital Status 313 Table 10.10: Nonparametric Post Hoc Test—​Self-​Esteem by Marital Status 313 Table 10.11: One-​Way ANOVA Summary Table—​Self-​Esteem by Marital Status 316 Table 10.12: Tukey HDS Multiple Comparisons —​Self-​Esteem by Marital Status 316 Table 10.13: Results of Kruskal-​Wallis H Test—​Self-​Esteem by Marital Status 316 Table 10.14: Levene’s Test for Self-​Esteem by Marital Status by Emotional Balance 317 Table 10.15: Pearson’s Correlation—​Emotional Balance and Self-​Esteem 318 Table 10.16: ANCOVA Custom Table—​Homogeneity of Regression 319 Table 10.17: ANCOVA—​Descriptive Statistics—​Unadjusted Means 325 Table 10.18: ANCOVA—​Tests of Between-​Subjects Effects 325 Table 10.19: ANCOVA—​Adjusted Grand Mean 326

L ist o f tables

Table 10.20: ANCOVA—​Adjusted Group Means 326 Table 10.21: ANCOVA—​Post Hoc Pairwise Comparisons 327 Table 10.22: One-​Way ANCOVA Summary Table—​Self-​Esteem by Marital Status by Emotional Balance 329 Table 10.23: Bonferroni Multiple Comparisons—​Self-​Esteem by Marital Status 329

Chapter 11

Table 11.1: Two-​Way Contingency Table (3 * 3 Table)—​Anxiety Disorder by Race Table 11.2: Sample Size for Chi-​Square Test 340 Table 11.3: Observed and Expected Frequencies for Levels of BMI 343 Table 11.4: Frequencies for Body Mass Index 345 Table 11.5: Chi-​Square Test Statistics 345 Table 11.6: Results of Chi-​Square Goodness-​of-​Fit for Levels of BMI 346 Table 11.7: Observed and Expected Frequencies for Gender by BMI 347 Table 11.8: A 2 × 3 Contingency Table for Gender by BMI 351 Table 11.9: Results of Chi-​Square Test of Association—​Gender by BMI 353 Table 11.10: Measures of Association—​Gender by BMI 353 Table 11.11: Results of Chi-​Square Test—​Gender by BMI 354 Table 11.12: Observed and Expected Frequencies—​Race by Sickness 355 Table 11.13: A 2 × 2 Contingency Table—​Race by Sickness 357 Table 11.14: Results of Chi-​Square Test of Association—​Race by Sickness 358 Table 11.15: Measures of Association—​Race by Sickness 358 Table 11.16: Results of Chi-​Square Test—​Sickness by Race 359

Chapter 12

Table 12.1: Minimum Sample Size Required for Simple Linear Regression 368 Table 12.2: Descriptive Statistics for Cognitive Status 370 Table 12.3: Calculations of Skewness and Kurtosis for Cognitive Status 371 Table 12.4: Normality Tests for Cognitive Status 371 Table 12.5: Correlation between Self-​Esteem by Cognitive Status 372 Table 12.6: Analysis of Residuals 374 Table 12.7: Regression Model Summary 379 Table 12.8: ANOVA Summary Table 379 Table 12.9: Unstandardized and Standardized Coefficients 380 Table 12.10: The Results of Simple Linear Regression—​Self-​Esteem by Cognitive Status 382

Appendix A Table A.1: Table A.2: Table A.3: Table A.4: Table A.5:

Job Satisfaction SPSS Variables List 389 Mental Health SPSS Variables List 390 Refugees SPSS Variables List 390 Senior Citizens SPSS Variables List 391 Well-​Being SPSS Variables List 392

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