StoringEnergy withSpecialReferencetoRenewable
EnergySources
SecondEdition
Editedby TrevorM.Letcher EmeritusProfessor,SchoolofChemistry, UniversityofKwaZulu-Natal,Durban, SouthAfrica
Elsevier
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TypesetbyTNQTechnologies
5Gravityenergystoragesystems91
MilesFranklin,PeterFraenkel,ChrisYendellandRuthApps
6Compressedairenergystorage(CAES)117
SeamusD.GarveyandAndrewPimm
SabineDonadeiandGregor-SonkeSchneider
12Rechargeablelithium-ionbatterysystems243 MatthiasVetterandStephanLux
14Lithium sulfurbattery:Generation5ofbatteryenergy
MahdokhtShaibaniandMainakMajumder
15Sodium sulfurbatteries329 ZhenLiandJingyiWu
19Sensiblethermalenergystorage:diurnalandseasonal419
CynthiaAnnCruickshankandChristopherBaldwin 1Storingthermalenergy
6Thermalstorageintegratedwithheatpumps
SectionDThermalstoragetechniques443
MichaelGeyerandCristinaPrieto
21Pumpedthermalenergystorage487
ZhiweiMa,MaxAlbert,HuashanBaoandAnthonyPaulRoskilly
JohnA.Noël,SamerKahwaji,LouisDesgrosseilliers, DominicGroulxandMaryAnneWhite 1Introduction
2Heatstorageatsubambienttemperatures
6HeattransferinPCM-basedthermalstoragesystems
CésarValderrama,JoséLuisCortina,AliakbarAkbarzadeh, MohammedBawahab,HosamFaqehaandAbhijitDate
28Thermochemicalenergystorage651 HuashanBaoandZhiweiMa
3Overviewofthermochemicalenergystoragewithoutsorption
29Energystorageintegration685 PhilipC.Taylor,CharalamposPatsios,StalinMu~ nozVaca, DavidM.GreenwoodandNealS.Wade
CatalinaSpataruandPierrickBouffaron
31Energystorageworldwide753
CatalinaSpataru,PriscilaCarvalho,XiaojingLv,TrevorSweetnam andGiorgioCastagnetoGissey
32StoringenergyinChina anoverview771 HaishengChen,YujieXu,ChangLiu,FengjuanHeandShanHu
33Legislation,statutoryinstrumentsandlicensesforstoringenergy
PriscilaCarvalho,CatalinaSpataruandAndréSerr
4Distributedrenewablegeneration:currentstate-of-the-art
Listofcontributors
AliakbarAkbarzadeh MechanicalandAutomotiveEngineering,Schoolof Engineering,RMITUniversity,VIC,Australia
MaxAlbert DepartmentofEngineering,DurhamUniversity,Durham,United Kingdom
RuthApps Gravitricity,Edinburgh,Scotland
ChristopherBaldwin DepartmentofMechanicalandAerospaceEngineering, CarletonUniversity,Ottawa,ON,Canada
HuashanBao DepartmentofEngineering,DurhamUniversity,Durham,United Kingdom
StephanBauer GreenGasTechnology,RAGAustriaAG,Wien,Austria
MohammedBawahab DepartmentofMechanicalandMaterialsEngineering, FacultyofEngineering,UniversityofJeddah,Jeddah,SaudiArabia
HansB€ ohm EnergieinstitutanderJohannesKeplerUniversitatLinz,Linz,Austria
PierrickBouffaron MINESParisTech,PSLResearchUniversity,CentredeMathématiquesAppliquées,Paris,France;BerkeleyEnergy&ClimateInstitute,University ofCalifornia,Berkeley,CA,UnitedStates
RobertoBrandao GESEL-ElectricSectorStudyGroup,RiodeJaneiro,Brazil
JensBurfeind FraunhoferInstituteforEnvironmental,Safety,andEnergyTechnologyUMSICHT,Oberhausen,Germany
PriscilaCarvalho EnergyInstitute,UniversityCollegeLondon,CentralHouse, London,UnitedKingdom
GiorgioCastagnetoGissey EnergyInstitute,UniversityCollegeLondon,Central House,London,UnitedKingdom
HaishengChen InstituteofEngineeringThermophysics,ChineseAcademyof Sciences,Beijing,China
GreigChisholm SchoolofChemistry,UniversityofGlasgow,Glasgow,United Kingdom
JoséLuisCortina Departamentd’EnginyeriaQuímica,UniversitatPolitecnicade Catalunya$BarcelonaTECH,Barcelona,Spain;WaterTechnologyCenterCETaqua, Barcelona,Spain
LeroyCronin SchoolofChemistry,UniversityofGlasgow,Glasgow,United Kingdom
FritzCrotogino DEEP-KBB,Hannover,Germany
CynthiaAnnCruickshank DepartmentofMechanicalandAerospaceEngineering, CarletonUniversity,Ottawa,ON,Canada
AbhijitDate MechanicalandAutomotiveEngineering,SchoolofEngineering, RMITUniversity,VIC,Australia
LouisDesgrosseilliers DalhousieUniversity,Halifax,NovaScotia,Canada
YulongDing BirminghamCentreforEnergyStorage,SchoolofChemicalEngineering,UniversityofBirmingham,Birmingham,UnitedKingdom;SchoolofEnergy andEnviornmentalEngineering,UniversityofScience&TechnologyBeijing,Beijing,China
PaulE.Dodds UCLEnergyInstitute,UniversityCollegeLondon,London,United Kingdom
ChristianDoetsch FraunhoferInstituteforEnvironmental,Safety,andEnergy TechnologyUMSICHT,Oberhausen,Germany
SabineDonadei DEEP.KBBGmbH,Hannover,Germany
FrankEscombe EscoValeConsultancyServices,Reigate,UnitedKingdom
HosamFaqeha MechanicalEngineeringDepartment,CollegeofEngineeringand IslamicArchitecture,UmmAl-QuraUniversity,Makkah,SaudiArabia
PeterFraenkel Gravitricity,Edinburgh,Scotland
MilesFranklin Gravitricity,Edinburgh,Scotland
SeamusD.Garvey DepartmentofMechanical,MaterialsandManufacturing Engineering,UniversityofNottingham,Nottingham,UnitedKingdom
MichaelGeyer InstituteofEngineeringThermodynamics,GermanAerospace Center(DeutschesZentrumfurLuft-undRaumfahrt DLR),Stuttgart,Germany
DavidM.Greenwood SchoolofEngineering,NewcastleUniversity,Newcastle uponTyne,UnitedKingdom
DominicGroulx DalhousieUniversity,Halifax,NovaScotia,Canada
FengjuanHe InstituteofEngineeringThermophysics,ChineseAcademyof Sciences,Beijing,China
ShanHu InstituteofEngineeringThermophysics,ChineseAcademyofSciences, Beijing,China
JulianDavidHunt InternationalInstituteforAppliedSystemsAnalysis,Vienna, Austria;FederalUniversityofEspiritoSanto,EspiritoSanto,Brazil
QiuJiang SchoolofMaterialsandEnergy,UniversityofElectronicScienceand TechnologyofChina,Chengdu,PRChina
SamerKahwaji DalhousieUniversity,Halifax,NovaScotia,Canada
GodwillMbitiKanyolo DepartmentofEngineeringScience,TheUniversityof Electro-Communications,Chofu,Tokyo,Japan
NarendraKurra SchoolofChemistry,IndianInstituteofScienceEducationand ResearchThiruvananthapuram(IISER-TVM),Thiruvananthapuram,Kerala,India; DepartmentofChemistry,IndianInstituteofTechnologyHyderabad,Kandi,Sangareddy,Telangana,India
TrevorM.Letcher ChemistryDepartment,UniversityofKwaZulu-Natal,Durban, SouthAfrica
RuixiongLi SchoolofEnergyandPowerEngineering,Xi’anJiaotongUniversity, Xi’an,Shaanxi,China
YongliangLi BirminghamCentreforEnergyStorage,SchoolofChemicalEngineering,UniversityofBirmingham,Birmingham,UnitedKingdom
YuyuLi KeyLaboratoryofPhotoelectrochemicalMaterialsandDevices,Schoolof OptoelectronicMaterialsandTechnology,JianghanUniversity,Wuhan,Hubei,China
ZhenLi StateKeyLaboratoryofMaterialProcessingandDie&MoldTechnology, SchoolofMaterialsScienceandEngineering,HuazhongUniversityofScienceand Technology,Wuhan,Hubei,China
ChangLiu InstituteofEngineeringThermophysics,ChineseAcademyofSciences, Beijing,China
StephanLux FraunhoferInstituteforSolarEnergySystemsISE,Freiburg, Germany
XiaojingLv China-UKLowCarbonCollege,ShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity, Shanghai,China
ZhiweiMa DepartmentofEngineering,DurhamUniversity,Durham,United Kingdom
MainakMajumder DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,MonashUniversity, Melbourne,VIC,Australia
TitusMasese ResearchInstituteofElectrochemicalEnergy,NationalInstituteof AdvancedIndustrialScienceandTechnology(AIST),Ikeda,Osaka,Japan;AIST KyotoUniversityChemicalEnergyMaterialsOpenInnovationLaboratory(ChEM OIL),Sakyo ku,Kyoto,Japan
StalinMu ~ nozVaca UniversityofthePacifi c,Guayaquil,Ecuador Listofcontributors
AndreasNascimento FederalUniversityofEspiritoSanto,EspiritoSanto,Brazil
JohnA.Noël DalhousieUniversity,Halifax,NovaScotia,Canada
CharalamposPatsios SchoolofEngineering,NewcastleUniversity,Newcastle uponTyne,UnitedKingdom
AndrewPimm SchoolofChemicalandProcessEngineering,UniversityofLeeds, Leeds,UnitedKingdom
CristinaPrieto UniversityofSeville,DepartmentofEnergyEngineering,Seville, Spain
KeithR.Pullen HonoraryVisitingProfessor,CityUniversityofLondon,London, UnitedKingdom
AnthonyPaulRoskilly DepartmentofEngineering,DurhamUniversity,Durham, UnitedKingdom
Gregor-S€ onkeSchneider DEEP.KBBGmbH,Hannover,Germany
AndréSerrao Serr~ aoAdvogados,S~ aoPaulo,Brazil
MahdokhtShaibani DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,MonashUniversity, Melbourne,VIC,Australia
CatalinaSpataru EnergyInstitute,UniversityCollegeLondon,CentralHouse, London,UnitedKingdom
TrevorSweetnam EnergyInstitute,UniversityCollegeLondon,CentralHouse, London,UnitedKingdom
PhilipC.Taylor DepartmentofElectricalandElectronicEngineering,Universityof Bristol,Bristol,UnitedKingdom
RobertTichler EnergieinstitutanderJohannesKeplerUniversit€ atLinz,Linz, Austria
LigeTong SchoolofEnergyandEnviornmentalEngineering,UniversityofScience &TechnologyBeijing,Beijing,China
CésarValderrama Departamentd’EnginyeriaQuímica,UniversitatPolitecnicade Catalunya$BarcelonaTECH,Barcelona,Spain
MatthiasVetter FraunhoferInstituteforSolarEnergySystemsISE,Freiburg, Germany
NealS.Wade SchoolofEngineering,NewcastleUniversity,NewcastleuponTyne, UnitedKingdom
HuanranWang SchoolofEnergyandPowerEngineering,Xi’anJiaotongUniversity,Xi’an,Shaanxi,China
LiWang SchoolofEnergyandEnviornmentalEngineering,UniversityofScience &TechnologyBeijing,Beijing,China
MaryAnneWhite DalhousieUniversity,Halifax,NovaScotia,Canada
JingyiWu StateKeyLaboratoryofMaterialProcessingandDie&MoldTechnology,SchoolofMaterialsScienceandEngineering,HuazhongUniversityofScience andTechnology,Wuhan,Hubei,China
GuangXi SchoolofEnergyandPowerEngineering,Xi’anJiaotongUniversity, Xi’an,Shaanxi,China
YujieXu InstituteofEngineeringThermophysics,ChineseAcademyofSciences, Beijing,China
ErrenYao SchoolofEnergyandPowerEngineering,Xi’anJiaotongUniversity, Xi’an,Shaanxi,China
ChrisYendell Gravitricity,Edinburgh,Scotland
BehnamZakeri InternationalInstituteforAppliedSystemsAnalysis,Vienna,Austria;SustainableEnergyPlanningResearchGroup,AalborgUniversity,Copenhagen, Denmark
TingtingZhao SchoolofChemistry,UniversityofGlasgow,Glasgow,United Kingdom
HansenZou SchoolofEnergyandPowerEngineering,Xi’anJiaotongUniversity, Xi’an,Shaanxi,China
Thispageintentionallyleftblank
Preface
Renewableenergysourcessuchaswindturbinesandsolarpanelsforelectricity generationhavebecomecommonplaceinoursociety.Theiraimistosupplyenergy thatisfreefromcarbondioxideproductionwhilesustainableandnotdependentona finiteenergysupply,suchascoalandmethane.Unfortunately,theirfullpotentialis reducedbytheirintermittency.Inorderfortheseandotherdevelopingrenewable technologies,suchastidalcurrentenergyandwaveenergy,tomakearealdifference, weneedto findeffectivewaystostoretheirpower.Thisbook,anupdatedversionof the firstedition[1],showcasesthecurrentstateofthedifferentmethodsthatarebeing exploredtostoreenergy;thus,makingenergyavailablenotonlywhenthesunisshining, thewindisblowing,thetides flowing,theseacurrentsmoving,orwhenthewavesare breaking.Thesestoragemethodsarealsousefulintimeswhenthedemandforelectricity islowandelectricitycanbeboughtcheaplyandstoreduntildemandrisesandthestored energycanbeused.Atpresent,thechiefwayofstoringlargeramountsofenergyis throughpumpedhydroelectricstorage.Mostcountrieshavenowexhaustedtheplaces wherelargereservoirscanbebuiltsothisfocusonstoringenergyisbothtimelyand necessaryastheworldmovestowardsustainablecarbon-freeenergy.
Mostofthechaptersinthebookfocusonstoringenergyforelectricitygeneration. However,thegoalofthetransitionfromfossilfueltorenewableenergyisto decarbonizeallenergysectors,notjusttheelectricitysector.Onepossibilityto generateenergyfortheseothersectorsistheproductionofhydrogenfromrenewable sources(greenhydrogen)inordertomatchproductionanddemandontheonehand andtoensureafail-safesupplyontheotherhand,e.g.,inthechemicalindustry.In recentyears,therehasbeenmuchdiscussionaboutsectorcoupling:Thecouplingof allenergysectors(electricity,industry,mobility,buildings).Indeed,theshareofthe additionalsectorsexceedsthatoftheelectricitysectorbyfar.Inconcreteterms,for example:
• intheindustrialsector,thereplacementofcoalwithgreenhydrogeninsteelproduction,
• thereplacementofnaturalgaswithgreenhydrogeninammoniaandfertilizerproduction,
• inthemobilitysector,thereplacementofpetrol,paraf fin,andheavyoilwithgreenhydrogen, greenammonia,ore-fuels.
Thereisstillmuchcatchinguptodoindecarbonization.However,theEuropean Union,Germany,andespeciallytheUKhavemadegreateffortsinrecentyearsto makehydrogenavailableincludingstorageinthefuturenotonlyasanenergycarrier butalsoasanenergeticrawmaterial.InEngland,forexample,largeprojectsare
plannedontheeastcoasttoproducebluehydrogenfromnaturalgas,withtheresulting CO2 tobestoredinNorwegiandepletedgasreservoirs.InAfrica,Australia,andSouth America(Patagonia),hugewindorsolarfarmsareplannedtoproducehydrogen, whichcanthenbeshippedintheformofcryogenicliquefiedhydrogentoindustrializedcountrieswithlimitedsolarorwindresourcesforuseinthevariousenergy sectors.ThereareplanstoharvestsolarpowerinWesternAustraliatoproduce hydrogenforJapan.Thisimportantaspectinvolvingotherenergysectorsisdescribed inmoredetailin Chapter27
Somechaptersinthebookareconcernedwithdevelopmentsinwell-knownenergy storagetechniques,othersareconcernedwithnewtechniqueswhicharebeingtested andresearchedforthe firsttime,andafewinvolvetechniqueswhichhaveyettoleave thedrawingboard.Thisneweditioncontains34chaptersasopposedto25chaptersin the fi rsteditionandcontainsnewtopicssuchassupercapacitorsandpumpedthermal energy,gravityenergystorage,anumberofdifferenttypesofbatterysystems, thermochemicalenergystorage,andmoltensaltsenergystorage.
Unfortunately,therestillremainssometopicsthathaveeludedusandoneis superconductingmagneticenergystorage(SMES).Thishasrecentlybeenreviewed byWeijiaYuanandMinZhang[2].FacilitiesforSMESexistallroundtheworld foruseinpowerqualitycontrolandforgridstabilizationandunitsof1MWhare notuncommon.
Ourbookisanaturalfollow-uptoourrecentlypublishedbook FutureEnergy: ImprovedSustainableandCleanOptionsforourPlanet3rdedition [3].In Future Energy, thecasewasmadefordevelopingnewandsustainableenergysourcesin thelightofclimatechangeandincreasinglevelsofgreenhousegases.Inmany ways,asdiscussedin chapter1 ofourbook,storingenergyalsogoeshandinhand withanotherbookwepublishedrecently: ClimateChange:ObservedImpactson PlanetEarth,3rdedition [4].Thepresentbookisdividedintosixsections:Introduction;Gravitational/MechanicalStorageTechniques;ElectricalEnergyStorage Techniques;ThermalStorageTechniques;ChemicalStorageTechniques;andInternationalandMarketingIssues.
ManyGovernmentsandpeopleofinfluencethroughouttheworldaresupporting thedrivetoreduceourdependencyonfossilfuelswithinterestingandinnovativeprograms.OnesuchprogramistheGlobalApolloProgramme,spearheadedbySirDavid King,whichcallsfor £15 109 (£15bn)ayeartobespentonresearch,development, anddemonstrationofgreenenergyandenergystorage.Signi ficantly,thisamountis thesame,intoday’smoney,thattheUSApolloprogramspentinputtingastronauts onthemoon.ProfessorMartinRees,formerheadoftheRoyalSocietyandanother memberoftheApollogroup,explainsthereasonforusingthenameApollo: “NASAshowedhowastupendousgoalcouldbeachieved,amazinglyfast,ifthe willandtheresourcesarethere.”
Thisbookhasbeenproducedinordertoallowthereadertohaveanunderstanding andinsightintoavitalaspectofourfuturedeploymentofrenewableenergy its storage.The finaldecisionastowhichoptionshouldbedevelopedinacountryor regionmusttakeintoaccountmanyfactorsincluding:topography,forexample:are
theresuitablesitesforreservoirstotapintoPHES?arethereconvenientsaltformations forcreatingcavernsavailableforgasstorage?istheamountofsunlightavailable suf ficientforsolarenergysystems?isitpossibletotakeadvantageofthermalenergy storage?isthechemicalindustryinfrastructuresuf ficientlymature?isitpossibleto installelectrolysisplantsforhydrogenproductionordevelopchemicalreactionstorage orinstallasophisticatedbatterysystem?andisthedensityofpopulationanimportant issueandshouldoff-gridtechnologiesbeincorporatedorcannetworkintegrationand smartgridsbeused?
Itisalsotobehopedthatthebookwillactasaspringboardfornewdevelopments. Onewaythatthiscantakeplaceisthroughcontactbetweenreadersandauthorsandto thiseffecte-mailaddressesoftheauthorshavebeenincluded.
TheadherenceofIUPACtotheInternationalSystemofQuantitiesthroughits InterdivisionalCommitteeforTerminology,NomenclatureandSymbols(ICTNS), isrefl ectedinthebookwiththeuseofSIUnitsthroughout.Theindexnotationis usedwherepossibleinordertoremoveambiguities;forexample,billionandtrillion arewrittenas109 and1012,respectively.Tofurtherremoveanyambiguities,the conceptofthequantitycalculusisused.Itisbasedontheequation:physical quantity ¼ number unit.Togiveanexample:power ¼ 200Wandhence:200 ¼ power/W.Thisisofparticularimportanceintheheadingsoftablesandthelabeling ofgraphaxes.
Thisvolumeisuniqueinthegenreofbooksofrelatedinterestsinthateachchapter of StoringEnergy hasbeenwrittenbyanexpertscientistorengineer,workinginthe field.Authorshavebeenchosenfortheirexpertiseintheirrespective fieldsandcome from12countries:Australia,Austria,Canada,China,France,Germany,Japan,South Africa,Spain,Switzerland,UnitedKingdom,andtheUSA.Mostoftheauthorscome fromdevelopedcountriesasmostoftheresearchanddevelopmentinthisfast-moving field,presently,comefromthesecountries.Welookforwardtothefuturewhennew approachestostoringenergyfromscientistsandengineersworkingindeveloping countrieswillbedevelopedwhichfocusontheirlocalconditions.
Avitalconcernrelatedtofutureenergyandstoringenergyis:whatistobedone whenitappearsthatpoliticiansmisunderstandorignoreandcorporationsoverlook, therealitiesofclimatechange,andtheimportanceofrenewableenergysources? Thesolutionliesinsoundscienti ficdataandeducation.Aseducators,webelieve thatonlyasustainedgrassrootsmovementtoeducatecitizens,politicians,and corporateleadersoftheworldhasanyhopeofsuccess.Thisbookispartofthis aim.Itpresentsoptionsforreaderstoconsiderandwehopethatnotonlystudents, teachers,professors,andresearchersofrenewableenergy,butpoliticians,government decisionmakers,captainsofindustry,corporateleaders,journalists,editors,andall interestedpeoplewillreadthebook,takeheedofitscontents,andabsorbthe underlyingmessagethatrenewableenergysourcesareourfutureandstoringenergy isavitalpartofit.
Iwishtothankall84authorsandcoauthorsfortheircooperation,help,and especiallyforwritingtheirchapters.Ithasbeenapleasureworkingwitheachand everyoneoftheauthors.Ithankmywife,Valerie,forallthehelpshehasgivenme
overtheselongmonthsofputtingthebooktogether.IalsowishtothankElsevierand LisaReadingandLeticiaLimainparticular,fortheirprofessionalismandhelpin producingthiswell-presentedvolume.
TrevorM.Letcher StrattonontheFosse Somerset,UnitedKingdom April2021
FritzCrotogino Hannover Germany April,2021
References
[1]StoringEnergy:withSpecialReferencetoRenewableEnergySystems,Elsevier,Oxford, UK,2016,ISBN9780128034408.
[2]WeijiaYuan,MinZhang,in:JinyueYan(Ed.),AHandbookofCleanEnergySystem,John Wiley,Chichester,UK,2015, https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118991978.hces210
[3]T.M.Letcher(Ed.),FutureEnergy:ImprovedSustainableandCleanOptionsforour Planet,3rdedition,Elsevier,Oxford,UK,2020.
[4]T.M.Letcher(Ed.),ClimateChange:ObservedImpactsonPlanetEarth,3rdedition, Elsevier,Oxford,UK,2021.
