Roman republican augury: freedom and control 1st edition lindsay g. driediger-murphy - Download the

https://ebookmass.com/product/roman-republican-auguryfreedom-and-control-1st-edition-lindsay-g-driediger-murphy/

Instant digital products (PDF, ePub, MOBI) ready for you

Download now and discover formats that fit your needs...

Ancient Divination and Experience Lindsay G. DriedigerMurphy

https://ebookmass.com/product/ancient-divination-and-experiencelindsay-g-driediger-murphy/

ebookmass.com

Coordination, Cooperation, and Control: The Evolution of Economic and Political Power 1st ed. Edition Randall G. Holcombe

https://ebookmass.com/product/coordination-cooperation-and-controlthe-evolution-of-economic-and-political-power-1st-ed-edition-randallg-holcombe/

ebookmass.com

Double-Decker Dreams 1st Edition Lindsay Macmillan

https://ebookmass.com/product/double-decker-dreams-1st-editionlindsay-macmillan/

ebookmass.com

Scandalous Park Avenue Prince (Park Avenue Princes Book 3) Ella Frank & Brooke Blaine

https://ebookmass.com/product/scandalous-park-avenue-prince-parkavenue-princes-book-3-ella-frank-brooke-blaine/

ebookmass.com

Health Psychology 10th Edition, (Ebook PDF)

https://ebookmass.com/product/health-psychology-10th-edition-ebookpdf/

ebookmass.com

Methods and techniques for fire detection : signal, image and video processing perspectives 1st Edition Çetin

https://ebookmass.com/product/methods-and-techniques-for-firedetection-signal-image-and-video-processing-perspectives-1st-editioncetin/ ebookmass.com

Food, Justice, and Animals Josh Milburn

https://ebookmass.com/product/food-justice-and-animals-josh-milburn/

ebookmass.com

Beauty Is the Beast: Appearance-Impaired Children in America Ann Hill Beuf

https://ebookmass.com/product/beauty-is-the-beast-appearance-impairedchildren-in-america-ann-hill-beuf/

ebookmass.com

Delusions of Competence 1st Edition Robin Pearson

https://ebookmass.com/product/delusions-of-competence-1st-editionrobin-pearson/

ebookmass.com

Bates’ Guide to Physical Examination and History Taking (Bates Guide to Physical Examination and History Taking) 12th Edition, (Ebook PDF)

https://ebookmass.com/product/bates-guide-to-physical-examination-andhistory-taking-bates-guide-to-physical-examination-and-historytaking-12th-edition-ebook-pdf/ ebookmass.com

OXFORDCLASSICALMONOGRAPHS

PublishedunderthesupervisionofaCommitteeofthe FacultyofClassicsintheUniversityofOxford

TheaimoftheOxfordClassicalMonographsseries(whichreplaces theOxfordClassicalandPhilosophicalMonographs)istopublish booksbasedonthebestthesesonGreekandLatinliterature,ancient history,andancientphilosophyexaminedbytheFacultyBoardof Classics.

RomanRepublican Augury

FreedomandControl

LINDSAYG.DRIEDIGER-MURPHY

GreatClarendonStreet,Oxford,OX26DP, UnitedKingdom

OxfordUniversityPressisadepartmentoftheUniversityofOxford. ItfurtherstheUniversity’sobjectiveofexcellenceinresearch,scholarship, andeducationbypublishingworldwide.Oxfordisaregisteredtrademarkof OxfordUniversityPressintheUKandincertainothercountries

©LindsayG.Driediger-Murphy2019

Themoralrightsoftheauthorhavebeenasserted FirstEditionpublishedin2019

Impression:1

Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedin aretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,withoutthe priorpermissioninwritingofOxfordUniversityPress,orasexpresslypermitted bylaw,bylicenceorundertermsagreedwiththeappropriatereprographics rightsorganization.Enquiriesconcerningreproductionoutsidethescopeofthe aboveshouldbesenttotheRightsDepartment,OxfordUniversityPress,atthe addressabove

Youmustnotcirculatethisworkinanyotherform andyoumustimposethissameconditiononanyacquirer

PublishedintheUnitedStatesofAmericabyOxfordUniversityPress 198MadisonAvenue,NewYork,NY10016,UnitedStatesofAmerica

BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData Dataavailable

LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2018955536

ISBN978–0–19–883443–4

PrintedandboundinGreatBritainby ClaysLtd,ElcografS.p.A.

LinkstothirdpartywebsitesareprovidedbyOxfordingoodfaithand forinformationonly.Oxforddisclaimsanyresponsibilityforthematerials containedinanythirdpartywebsitereferencedinthiswork.

Preface

Thisbookisarevised,expanded,andupdatedversionofmyDPhil thesis(2007–11).Iwouldliketothankallthosewhomadeitpossible tobringthemonographtofruition,especiallymygraduatesupervisors,EdBispham,AnnaClark,andSimonPrice.Thecommentsof myexaminersandassessors,NeilMcLynn,JohnNorth,Jonathan Prag,andNicholasPurcell,weretremendouslyhelpful.JohnNorth, NicholasPurcell,andananonymouspeer-reviewerforOUPpainstakinglyreadthemanuscriptindraftandimproveditimmeasurably. Anyerrorsthatremainareofcoursemyown.

Manycolleaguesofferedhelp,advice,andencouragementalong theway,includingBorisChrubasik,EstherEidinow,MichaelFlower, AndrewGregory,AndrewLintott,WolfgangdeMelo,TeresaMorgan, LuciaNixon,ScottNoegel,ChristopherPelling,CatherineSteel, PeterToohey,thescholarsoftheFestusLexiconProjectandofthe FragmentsoftheRomanRepublicanOrators,andmanyotherpatient colleaguesandfriendsinOxford,Nottingham,andCalgary.Papers relatingtothisprojectwerepresentedatseminarsorconferencesin AnnArbor,Calgary,Cambridge,Kavala,Leeds,London,Oxford, Princeton,andQuebecCity,andIamgratefultotheorganizersand participantsattheseeventsfortheirstimulatingfeedback.

ThisresearchwassupportedbytheSocialSciencesandHumanities ResearchCouncilofCanada,aswellasfundingfromtheFondation Hardtpourl’étudedel’antiquitéclassiqueandtheUniversityof Calgary.Fundingformygraduateworkwasalsoprovidedbythe GovernmentofAlberta,theMacKenzieKingScholarshipTrust, theJ.ArmandBombardierInternationalistFellowship,University College,Oxford,andtheFacultyofClassics(UniversityofOxford), toallofwhichIamdeeplygrateful.IthanktheDepartmentof ClassicsandReligionandtheFacultyofArtsattheUniversity ofCalgaryforacrucialsabbaticalin2018.Thestaffatthelibraries oftheBodleianandSacklerinOxford,theFondationHardtin Geneva,theInstituteofClassicalStudiesinLondon,theUniversity ofNottingham,andtheTaylorFamilyDigitalLibraryinCalgary workedtirelesslyto findtheresourcesIneeded.Iwouldalsoliketo thankthestaffatOxfordUniversityPress,includingCharlotte

Loveridge,GeorginaLeighton,andtheproductionteam,especially KavyaRamuandMalcolmTodd,foralltheirhelpandcare.My researchassistant,KathrineBertram,wasindefatigableingathering booksandarticles,checkingthebibliography,andhelpingtocompile theindices.

Finally,Iwouldliketothankallthosefamilymembersandfriends whohavebornewithmethroughoutthisprocess,especiallymy parents,mysisterRoxanneandbrother-in-lawJace,mycatMira (forchewingon,butnotdestroying,manybooks),andaboveallmy husbandWilliam:IreallydoloveyoumorethanIloveCicero.Lastly, allmythankstotheOnewithwhomnothingisimpossible: ‘Teachme todoyourwill,foryouaremyGod;mayyourgoodSpiritleadmeon levelground.’

1.DoAsISay,NotAsIDo?ReportversusReality inAugury51

1.2.Principle1intheHighandLateEmpire:Comments onSignification

1.3.Principle1intheHighandLateEmpire:Claimsthat AuguralRulesGaveHumanstheFreedomto AcceptorRejectSigns

1.4.Principle1intheMiddle(andLate)Republic:Claims thatHumanAwarenessofSignsDeterminedtheirValidity

1.5.Principle2intheEarlyPrincipate:TheClaimthatAugural RulesGaveHumansFreedomto ‘Create’ Signsby ReportingThem

1.6.Principle2intheLateRepublic:TheClaimthatHumans ContrivedAuspicationsoastoReceiveFavourableSigns andAvoidReceivingUnfavourableOnes

2.ConvenienceorConversation?Why ‘WatchingtheSky’ WasMorethanWishfulThinking127

2.3.DidSky-WatchingInvariablyProduceSigns?

2.4.WasSky-WatchingTechnicallySufficienttoProhibit Assemblies?

2.5.PossibleObjections:TheTimingof ServaredeCaelo

2.6.ButWouldItActuallyWork?

3.OutofControl?TheEffectsofAuguryonRoman PublicLife161

3.1.Introduction

3.2.Motives,Part1:Cicero,the AuguriumSalutis,and theLimitsofourKnowledge

3.3.Motives,Part2:TwoMethodologicalProblemsandTwo AbdicatingConsuls

3.4.Motives,Part3:TheConsul,hisColleague,aTribune,and RomanRespectforAugury

3.5.TheDynamicsofStateDivination

3.6.ButDidItReallyMatter?

3.7.Conclusion:WhenSignsSaidNo

TextsandAbbreviations

Abbreviationsofancientauthorsandworks,andofstandardreference works,arethoseofthe OxfordClassicalDictionary.Abbreviationsofjournals arethoseof L’Annéephilologique. Exceptionsandotherabbreviationsareas follows:

August. Doct.christ.Augustine, DeDoctrinachristiana

Cic. Rab.Perd.Cicero, ProRabirioPerduellionisReo

Donat. ad Ter. Adelph.Donatus, CommentaryonTerence’sAdelphoe Obseq.JuliusObsequens, LiberProdigiorum

Editionsusedinclude:

App. Hann.

App. BCiv.

Asc. Pis.

Viereck,P.,Roos,A.G.,andGabba,E.(1962), AppianiHistoriaRomanaI (Leipzig: Teubner).

Mendelssohn,L.andViereck,P.(1905), AppianiHistoriaRomanaII (Leipzig: Teubner),reprinted1986.

Lewis,R.G.andClark,A.C.(2006), Asconius: CommentariesonSpeechesofCicero (trans. Lewis,ed.Clark)(ClarendonAncientHistory Series)(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress). LatintextreprintedfromClark’ s OCT of1907.

August. Doct.christ. Green,R.P.H.(1995), Augustine:DeDoctrina christiana (OxfordEarlyChristianTexts) (Oxford:ClarendonPress).Referencesusethe traditionalnumbering,followedbyBulhart’ s numberinginthe CSEL editioninsquare brackets.

Cass.DioBoissevain,U.P.(1895–1931,repr.1955, 2002), CassiiDionisCocceianihistoriarum Romanarumquaesupersunt (Berlin: Weidmann),vols.1–3(text),vol.4(index historicus,ed.H.Smilda),vol.5(index Graecitatis,ed.W.Nawjin).IuseBoissevain’ s numbering,whichinthebookscitedmatches thenumberingofLeunclaviusandthe numberingintheLoebtranslationbyCary,E.

Cic. AdBrut.

Cic. Att.

Cic. Cat.

Cic. Div.

Cic. Dom.

Cic. Fam.

Cic. Har.Resp.

(1914–27), CassiusDio:RomanHistory, 9vols.(LoebClassicalLibrary)(Cambridge, MA:HarvardUniversityPress).

ShackletonBailey,D.R.(2002), Lettersto QuintusandBrutus.LetterFragments.Letter toOctavian.Invectives.Handbookof Electioneering (LoebClassicalLibrary) (Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress). Referencesusethe ‘vulgate’ numbering, followedbyShackletonBailey’snumbering (labelledSB)insquarebrackets.

ShackletonBailey,D.R.(1999), Cicero’ s LetterstoAtticus,4vols.(LoebClassical Library)(Cambridge,MA:Harvard UniversityPress).Referencesusethe ‘vulgate’ numbering,followedbyShackletonBailey’ s numbering(labelledSB)insquarebrackets.

Maslowski,T.(2003), M.TulliCiceronis Scriptaquaemanseruntomnia, fasc.17: OrationesinL.Catilinamquattuor (Munich andLeipzig:K.G.Saur).

Pease,A.S.(1920), M.TulliCiceronisDe Divinatione:LiberPrimus and(1923), M.Tulli CiceronisDeDivinatione:LiberSecundus (Urbana,IL:UniversityofIllinois).

Maslowski,T.(1981), M.TulliCiceronis Scriptaquaemanseruntomnia,fasc.21: OrationescumSenatuiGratiasEgit,Cum PopuloGratiasEgit,DeDomoSua,De HaruspicumResponsis (Stuttgart:Teubner).

ShackletonBailey,D.R.(2001), Cicero:Lettersto Friends (EpistulaeadFamiliares),3vols.(Loeb ClassicalLibrary)(Cambridge,MA:Harvard UniversityPress).Referencesusethe ‘vulgate’ numbering,followedbyShackletonBailey’ s numbering(labelledSB)insquarebrackets.

Maslowski,T.(1981), M.TulliCiceronis Scriptaquaemanseruntomnia,fasc.21: OrationescumSenatuiGratiasEgit,Cum PopuloGratiasEgit,DeDomoSua,De HaruspicumResponsis (Stuttgart:Teubner).

Cic. Leg.

Cic. Nat.D.

Cic. Phil.

Cic. Pis.

Cic. Prov.cons.

Cic. Q.Fr.

Cic. Sen.

Cic. Sest.

Cic. Vat.

Powell,J.G.F.(2006), M.TulliCiceronis:Dere publica,Delegibus,CatoMaiorDesenectute, LaeliusDeamicitia (OxfordClassicalTexts) (Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress).

Pease,A.S.(1955), M.TulliCiceronisDe NaturaDeorum,LiberPrimus and(1958) M.TulliCiceronisDeNaturaDeorum,Libri SecundusetTertius (Cambridge,MA:Harvard UniversityPress).

ShackletonBailey,D.R.(1985), Cicero: Philippics (ChapelHillandLondon: UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress).

Nisbet,R.G.M.(1961), M.TulliCiceronisin L.CalpurniumPisonemoratio (Oxford: ClarendonPress).Reprinted1975.

Maslowski,T.(2007), M.TulliusCicero,fasc. 24: OratiodeProvinciisConsularibus,Oratio ProL.CornelioBalbo (Teubner)(Berlinand NewYork:DeGruyter).

ShackletonBailey,D.R.(2002), Lettersto QuintusandBrutus.LetterFragments.Letter toOctavian.Invectives.Handbookof Electioneering (LoebClassicalLibrary) (Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress). Referencesusethe ‘vulgate’ numbering, followedbyShackletonBailey’snumbering (labelledSB)insquarebrackets.

Powell,J.G.F.(2006), M.TulliCiceronis:Dere publica,Delegibus,CatoMaiorDesenectute, LaeliusDeamicitia (OxfordClassicalTexts) (Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress).

Maslowski,T.(1986), M.TulliusCicero,fasc. 22: OratioProP.Sestio (Leipzig:Teubner).

Maslowski,T.(1995), M.TulliCiceronis Scriptaquaemanseruntomnia,fasc.23: OrationesInP.VatiniumTestem,Pro M.Caelio (StuttgartandLeipzig:Teubner).

Dion.Hal. Ant.Rom. Book1:Fromentin,V.(1998), Denys d’Halicarnasse.Antiquitésromaines. Introductiongénérale,LivreI (Budé)(Paris: LesBellesLettres).Book3:Sautel,J.-H.(1999),

Denysd’Halicarnasse.Antiquitésromaines, LivreIII (Budé)(Paris:LesBellesLettres). Books2,4,5,8,10:Jacoby,K.(1885–1905), DionysiHalicarnasensisantiquitatum Romanarumquaesupersunt (Leipzig: Teubner).Reprinted1967.

Donat. ad Ter. Adelph. Wessner,P.(1966), AeliDonatiCommentum Terenti,vol.2(Stuttgart:Teubner).

FestusLindsay,W.M.andMountford,J.F.(1930), GlossariaLatina,vol.4: Placidus,Festus (Paris: LesBellesLettres).Readingsarefromthis edition.References(labelledL)aretopage numbersinthemorecommonlycitededition ofLindsay,W.M.(1913), SextiPompeiFesti Deverborumsignificatuquaesupersuntcum Pauliepitome (Leipzig:Teubner),followedby pagenumbersinLindsayandMountford (labelledLM)insquarebrackets.

Gell.Marshall,P.K.(1990), A.GelliiNoctesAtticae, 2vols.(OxfordClassicalTexts)(Oxford: ClarendonPress).

LivyBooks1–5:Ogilvie,R.M.(1974), TitiLiviAb urbecondita,vol.1(OxfordClassicalTexts) (Oxford:ClarendonPress).

Books6–10:Walters,C.F.andConway, R.S.(1919), TitiLiviAburbecondita,vol.2 (OxfordClassicalTexts)(Oxford:Clarendon Press).

Books21–5:Briscoe,J.(2016), TitiLiviAburbe condita,vol.3(OxfordClassicalTexts) (Oxford:ClarendonPress).

Books26–30:Johnson,S.K.andConway, R.S.(1935), TitiLiviAburbecondita,vol.4 (OxfordClassicalTexts)(Oxford:Clarendon Press).Reprintedwithcorrections1953.

Books31–40:Briscoe,J.(1991), TitiLiviAb urbeconditaLibriXXXI–XL,2vols.(Stuttgart: Teubner).

Books41–5:Briscoe,J.(1986), TitiLiviAburbe conditaLibriXLI–XLV,vol.2(Stuttgart: Teubner).

Livy Per.

Macrob. Sat.

Rossbach,O.(1959), T.LiviAburbecondita Libri.Periochaeomniumlibrorum,Fragmenta Oxyrhynchireperta,IuliiObsequentis ProdigiorumLiber (Stuttgart:Teubner). Reprintof1910edition(Leipzig).

Kaster,R.A.(2011), MacrobiiAmbrosii TheodosiiSaturnalia (OxfordClassicalTexts) (Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress).

Obseq.Rossbach,O.(1959), T.LiviAburbecondita Libri.Periochaeomniumlibrorum,Fragmenta Oxyrhynchireperta,IuliiObsequentis ProdigiorumLiber (Stuttgart:Teubner). Reprintof1910edition(Leipzig).

Plin. HN

Jan,L.vonandMayhoff,K.F.T.(1892–1909), C.PliniSecundiNaturalishistoriaelibri XXXVII (LeipzigandStuttgart:Teubner).

Plut. Mor. (Quaest.Rom.)Nachstädt,W.,Sieveking,W.,andTitchener,J. (1971), Plutarchus:Moralia,vol.2,second edition(Leipzig:Teubner).Referencesusethe pagenumbersoftheFrankfurteditionof Stephanus(1599).

Plut. Vit.

Ziegler,K.(1964–73), PlutarchiVitae Parallelae,3vols.,second–fourtheditions (Leipzig:Teubner);andGärtner,H.(2000), Plutarchus:VitaeParallelae,vol.1,fasc.1, fifth edition(MunichandLeipzig:K.G.Saur). IhaveusedZiegler–Gärtnerforthetext,but retainthemorecommonchapterand subdivisionnumberingoftheLoebeditionby Perrin,B.(1914–26), Plutarch:Lives (Loeb ClassicalLibrary)(Cambridge,MAand London:HarvardUniversityPress).

Polyb.Book3:deFoucault,J.andFoulon,E.(2004), Polybe:Histoires,LivreIII (Budé)(Paris:Les BellesLettres).

Book6:Weil,R.andNicolet,C.(1977), Polybe:Histoires,LivreVI (Budé)(Paris:Les BellesLettres).

Book10:Foulon,E.andWeil,R.(1990), Polybe:Histoires.LivreXetLivreXI (Budé) (Paris:LesBellesLettres).Divergentreadings

inWalbank,F.W.(1957–79), AHistorical CommentaryonPolybius (Oxford:Clarendon Press)andintherevisedLoebeditionsby W.R.Paton,F.W.Walbank,C.Habicht,and D.Olson(2010–12,LoebClassicalLibrary) (Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress) areindicatedasrelevantinthenotes.

Schol.Bob.Stangl,Th.(1964), Ciceronisorationum scholiastae.Asconius,scholiaBobiensia, scholiaPseudasconiiSangallensia,scholia CluniacensiaetrecentioraAmbrosianaac Vaticana,scholiaLugdunensiasive GronovianaeteorumexcerptaLugdunensia, 2vols.(Hildesheim:G.Olms).Reprintof Stangl’s1912edition(Vienna:F.Tempsky; Leipzig:G.Freytag).

Sen. Q.Nat. Hine,H.M.(1996), L.AnnaeusSeneca NaturaliumQuaestionumLibros (Stuttgart andLeipzig:Teubner).

Sen. Vit.Beat. Grimal,P.(1969), L.AnnaeiSenecaeDevita beata.Sénèque:Surlebonheur (Paris:Presses UniversitairesdeFrance).

Serv. Aen.Books1–2:Rand,E.K.(1946), Servianorumin Vergiliicarminacommentariorumeditionis Harvardianae,vol.2(TheCommentarieson AeneidI–II)(AmericanPhilological Association)(Oxford:Clarendon Press).

Books9–12:Murgia,C.E.andKaster,R.A. (2018), ServianiinVergiliAeneidosLibros IX–XIICommentarii (SocietyforClassical xvi TextsandAbbreviations

Books3–5:Stocker,A.F.andTravis,A.T. (1965), ServianoruminVergiliicarmina commentariorumeditionisHarvardianae, vol.3(TheCommentariesonAeneidIII–V) (AmericanPhilologicalAssociation)(Oxford: ClarendonPress).

Books6–8:Thilo,G.andHagen,H. (1881–1902), ServiiGrammaticiquiferuntur inVergiliicarminacommentarii,vol.2.1(In VergiliiAeneidosLibrosVI–VIIICommentarii) (Leipzig:Teubner).Reprinted1961.

Studies)(OxfordandNewYork:Oxford UniversityPress).

Suet. Iul., Aug., Tib., Claud. Kaster,R.A.(2016), C.SuetoniTranquilliDe vitaCaesarumlibrosVIIIetDeGrammaticis etRhetoribusLibrum (OxfordClassicalTexts) (Oxford:ClarendonPress).

Val.Max.Briscoe,J.(1998), ValeriMaximiFactaet DictaMemorabilia,2vols.(Stuttgartand Leipzig:Teubner).

Varro, ARD

Varro, Ling.

Varro, Rust.

Verg. Aen.

Cardauns,B.(1976), M.TerentiusVarro: AntiquitatesRerumDivinarum,2vols. (Mainz:AkademiederWissenschaftenund derLiteratur;Wiesbaden:FranzSteiner).

Goetz,G.andSchoell,F.(1910), M.Terenti VarronisDeLinguaLatinaquaesupersunt (Leipzig:Teubner).

Goetz,G.(1929), M.TerentiVarronisRerum RusticarumLibriTres (Leipzig:Teubner).

Conte,G.B.(2005), P.VergiliusMaroAeneis (Teubner)(BerlinandNewYork:De Gruyter).

Zonar.Dindorf,L.(1868–70), IoannisZonarae EpitomeHistoriarum (Leipzig:Teubner). Referencesaregivenusingthestandardbook andchapterdivisions,followed(inbrackets) byvolumeandpagenumberinDindorf.For easeofreference,Ialsoprovide(insquare brackets)thevolumenumber,pagenumber, andDiobooknumberofeachpassagein Boissevain’seditionofDio.

Othereditionsusedareidentifiedinthenotesasneeded.Wherenoeditionis given,Ihaveusedthe PackardHumanitiesInstitute(PHI) forLatintextsand the TLG forancientGreektexts.Translationsaremyown,unlessotherwise noted,thoughtheyhavebenefittedfromconsultationofmanypublished translations.InLatin,Iprintconsonantaluas ‘ v ’,andhavecapitalizedthe beginningsofsentences.

Introduction

0.1.OFGODSANDMEN

FortheRomans,thegodJupiterwasthe ‘all-powerfulfather’ (pater omnipotens),the ‘KingofGodsandMen,whoseawfulhand/dispersesthunderontheseasandland,/disposingallwithabsolute command’ (asDrydensomemorablytranslatedVenus’ invocationof thegod’spowerinVergil’ s Aeneid).1 Hewasthe ‘greatestandbest’ of alldivinepowers(JupiterOptimusMaximus,ashewascalledonthe CapitolineHillandininscriptionsthroughouttheEmpire).Inhis manifestationsintheRomanpast,itwashewhohadblessedthe foundingofthecitybyRomulus,hewhoasStayerofFlighthad preservedthecityfromdestruction,hewhoasFeretriusgaveRoman commandersthestrengthtokillrivalleadersinbattle.Itwastohim thattheconsuls,Rome’shighestregularmagistrates,sworetheiroath ofoffice,andatthefeetofhisimageintheCapitolinetemplethatthe triumphator,havingachievedthegreatestmilitarygloryofhislife, offeredthesymbolsofhisvictory.2

Jupiterwasalsothesourceofoneofthemostimportantformsof public,state-mandateddivinationatRome:3 augury,thesolicitation,

1 Verg. Aen. 1.229–30: Oquireshominumquedeumque/aeternisregisimperiiset fulmineterres.

2 ForoverviewsoftheseattributesofJupiter,seeWissowa1912:113–29;Koch 1937;Dumézil1977:153–82;Fears1981;Ziolkowski1992:79–94;Scheidand Montremy2008.

3 Cic. Div. 2.72,78;Cic. Leg. 2.20;Livy1.12.4–7;Linderski1986a:2226andn.312, withreferences.TheDanielisScholiast’sclaimthat ‘inthebooksoftheaugursJunois saidtopresideovertheauspices’ ([Iuno]inlibrisaugurumpraeessedicaturauspiciis: Serv.Dan. Aen.4.45)refersonlytomarriageauspices,notto auspiciapublica (Linderski1985:214n.36;Ziolkowski1993:217).

2 Introduction

identification,andinterpretationofsignscalledauguries(auguria) andauspices(auspicia).Publicauguriesweresignswithapermanent effect,inthattheywerethoughttochangethestatusofthethingto whichtheypertained,suchasatempleorapriest:thingsalteredin thiswayweresaidtobe ‘inaugurated’ . 4 Publicauspicesweresigns whichwerethoughttopertaintoaspecificactionproposedata specificpointintimebystateofficials.TheycouldbesentspontaneouslybyJupitertoanyRomancitizen(auspiciaoblativa),orsolicited throughritualbymagistratesandaugurs(auspiciaimpetrativa).5 Inthecaseofsolicitedauguriesandauspices,theenquirerseems bothtohaveaskedthegodaspecificquestion,andtohavespecified thesign(s)hehopedtoreceiveasindicatingthegod’sanswer.6 Auspicesweretheformofaugurymostfrequentlyemployedby Romanpoliticiansindailylife,andtheywillthereforereceivemost ofourattentioninthisbook.7

Throughthesesigns,thegodwasthoughttogiveorwithholdhis assenttonearlyeveryaspectofRomanpubliclife,fromthecreation ofprieststotheelectionofmagistrates,fromholdinganassemblyof citizenstopassinglegislation.Hewastobeconsultedeverytimea magistratecrossedthe pomerium (thesacredboundaryoftheancient urbs),everytimeanarmyinthe fieldcrossedariver,andeverytimea generalcontemplatedjoiningbattlewiththeenemy.8 Itwasforthis

4 Therighttosolicitthemthroughritualwasprobablyrestrictedtoaugurs.These featuresdifferentiatethemfromauspices:seeespeciallyCatalano1960:64–72, 98–101,103,128ff.,148ff.,312n.266,340ff.;andLinderski1986a:2290–6;also helpfulareFlinck1921:11–18;Coli1951[1973]:406;Latte1960:66–7;Dumézil 1970(vol.1):119and(vol.2):595–6;Magdelain1977:17–21;ErnoutandMeillet 1979:56–7;Linderski1986b:338.

5 ThekeytextforthisdistinctionisServ. Aen. 6.190,withCatalano1960:83f; Linderski1985:227ff.

6 Seetheplausible(thoughnotcertain)reconstructioninLinderski1986a:2291–4.

7 Festus316–17L[367LM]reportsthattherewereatleast fivewaysofreceiving auspices: excaelo (fromthesky,asthunderorlightning), exavibus (frombirds, throughtheirsongsand flight), extripudiis (frombirds,throughtheeagernesswith whichtheyate), exquadrupedibus (fromfour-footedanimals,signsaboutwhichwe knowlittle),and exdiris (fromdirefullyunfavourableoccurrences[dirae]).Onthese signs,seeRegell1893.

8 e.g.Cic. Leg. 2.31; Div. 1.3,28;overviewinVervaet2014:314–15.Theaccuracyof Cicero’sassertionthatpromagistrateslackedtherighttotakeauspicesinsituationslike this(Div. 2.76)isdebated,butitseemsmostlikelythattheyretainedtherighttoalimited setofauspices,evenundertheEmpire.Forarangeofmodernviewsonhowthismay haveworked,seeMagdelain1968:54ff.;Giovannini1983:42–3,77ff.;Girardet1990; North1990b:55;Hurlet2001:160ff.;Tarpin2003;DallaRosa2003;Hurlet2006:164–77;

reasonthattheaugurs,themembersofthepriestlycollegecharged withsupervisingandadministeringtheaugurysystem,couldbe describedasthe ‘intermediaries’ (interpretes)andthe ‘ messengers ’ (internuntii)ofJupiter.9

Todate,theaugursandmagistrateswhousedtheaugurysystem haveattractedrathermorescholarlyattentionthanthegodwhowas theputativesourceoftheirpower.Thisispartlytheresultofhow Romansthemselvessometimesspokeaboutaugury.Perhapsthemost famousquotationinthisconnectioncomesfromthestatesman, orator,andphilosopherCicero,whowashimselfanaugurfrom 53or52 BC tohisdeathin43 BC.10 In DeLegibus, 11 hewritesas follows(2.31):

Butinourrepublicthehighestandmostimportantlaw(ius)isthatof theaugurs,conjoinedasitiswithauthority(auctoritas).Anditisnot becauseImyselfamanaugurthatIhavethisopinion,butbecauseitis necessarythatweshouldbethoughtofinthisway.12 Forifweconsider theirlegalrights,whatisgreaterthantheabilitytoadjournassemblies andmeetingsconvenedbyofficialswiththehighestimperiumand powers,ortherightofdeclaringnullandvoidtheactsofassemblies alreadyheld?Whatismoremomentousthantheabandonmentof businessalreadybegun,ifasingleaugursays, ‘Onanotherday’?What ismoremajesticthantherightofdecreeingthattheconsulsshould abdicatefromtheirmagistracy?Whatismoresacredthantherightof givingorrefusingpermissiontoholdanassemblyofthepeopleorofthe plebs,orthatofabrogatinglawsunlawfullypassed, orthatnothing doneinmagisterialofficeathomeorinthe fieldcanhaveanyvalidity foranypersonwithouttheaugurs’ authority?13

Maximumautemetpraestantissimuminrepublicaiusestaugurumcum auctoritateconiunctum,nequeverohocquiasumipseauguritasentio, sedquiasicexistimarinosestnecesse.Quidenimmaiusest,sideiure quaerimus,quamposseasummisimperiisetsummispotestatibuscomitiatusetconciliavelinstitutadimittere,velhabitarescindere?Quid

DallaRosa2011;Drogula2015:79andch.7(notentirelyconvincing);Tarpin2015; Hurlet2015;Berthelet2015:157–68.Foranoverviewofthevarioustheories,seeDalla Rosa2011:247n.16.

9 Cic. Leg.2.20; Phil.13.12.Onthemeaningofthesetermswhenusedforaugurs, cf.Linderski1982[1983]:31–2;Linderski1986a:2226–9.

10 Broughton1952:233;Linderski1972;Rüpke2005b(vol.2):1328(no.3290).

11 Probablywritteninthelate50s BC:Dyck2004:5–7.

12 Forthetranslation,seeDyck2004:343. 13 Trans.Rudd,modified.

4 Introduction

graviusquamremsusceptamdirimi,siunusaugur ‘alio<die>’14 dixerit?

Quidmagnificentiusquampossedecernereutmagistratuseabdicent consules?Quidreligiosiusquamcumpopulo,cumplebeagendiiusaut dareautnondare?Quidlegem,sinoniurerogataest,tollere ... ;nihil domi,nihilmilitiaepermagistratusgestumsineeorumauctoritateposse cuiquamprobari?

Themodernreadersnortsderisively(andrightly)atCicero’ sassurancethatheisnothererevellinginthepowerofthecollegetowhich hehimselfhad finallygainedalong-covetedadmission.Butthe powersheattributestotheaugursherewererealenough,evenifhe omitsorobscurestherolesofotherparticipantsintheaugury system.15 Whatwillcarryconvictionforeverymodernreaderis Cicero’sfocusonthepowerthesystemgavetohumanbeings.For iftheaugurormagistratecouldpersuadeotherstoaccepthisclaim thatJupiterwasopposedtoagivenactionordecision,hecould influencethespecificcoursesofaction,thepoliticalopinions,sometimeseventheentirecareersofhiscontemporaries.16

ModernstudiesoftheeffectsofauguryonRomanlifehavebeen quicktotakeCicero’slead,understandingthisformofdivination primarilyinwhatanthropologistscall ‘functionalist’ terms,17 thatis, withparticularattentiontoitsroleinmaintainingandperpetuating Romansocialandpoliticalstructures.18 Likeotherformsofpublic divination,auguryissaidtohaveenhancedmagisterialandsenatorial

14 <die>issuppliedbyTurnebus;acceptedbyDyck2004:343;Powell2006:212.

15 Mostimportantlythesenate,whichhadthe finalsayindecidingwhetherto acceptarecommendationfromtheaugursonsomeofthesepoints(specifically,the invalidationoflawsandmagistracies).Ontheaccuracyofthispassage,seeSchmidt 1969:54–7;Powell2001;Dyck2004 adloc.Thisisonlyoneofnumerouspassages whereCiceroextolsthepowersoftheaugursandemphasizestheimportanceof augury:foralist,seeTucker1976.

16 InCicero’sview,suchpowerswerenecessarytoblockthepassageofproposals dangeroustothestate:Cic. Div. 2.43;2.74.AsaLateRepublican optimas,Cicerotends tostresstheobstructivepowerofdivinationasacheckontheallegeddemagogueryof the populares. Thisisespeciallyevidentinhistreatmentofthe legesAeliaetFufia, whichgovernedauspicationwithrespecttoassemblies:seeCh.2,nn.27,33.

17 Forhistoriographicaloverviewsoffunctionalisttheories,andsubsequentcriticismsofthem,seeHolmwood2005;Bell2009:esp.23–60.Foranoverviewof anthropologicalapproachestodivination,seeBeerden2013:ch.3.

18 Adifferentapproachhasbeentoconcentrateontheplaceoftheauspicesin defining,structuring,andcircumscribingthepreciseconstitutionalpowersofmagistrates:recentandlearnedexponentsareVervaet2014;Drogula2015;Berthelet2015; paperscollectedinBertheletandVervaet2015.AlthoughIwillengagewithsuch issuesasrelevant,theyarenotmyfocushere.

authority;tohavecalmedpanicandvalidateddecisionstakenby magistratesandsenate;tohaveenforcedmagisterialsubmissionto thesenateandpriestlybodies;tohavehelpedRomanstocopewith situationsofuncertaintyandhelplessness;andtohavecreateddelay inordertobuy ‘breathingspace’ forcalmerandmorereasoned discussionand/ortheapplicationof ‘ peerpressure ’ . 19 Itisseen aboveallasatooloftheelite,employedbythepoliticalauthorities tobolstertheirpoweroverthelowerorders,bythesenatemajorityto compelindividualpoliticians’ adherencetoanemergingconsensus, orbytheindividualmagistrateoraugurtoalterthebehaviourofhis rivalsandopponents.20

Yetthereisoneimportantdifferencebetweentheancientand modernapproacheswehavejustoutlined.ForCicero,thesocial andpoliticalpowerofaugurylayultimatelyinthefactthatthe augur(orthemagistrate)actedonbehalfofJupiter,astheonewho expressedhiswill.Inthecurrentconsensusviewofaugury,onthe otherhand,theseroleshavebeenreversed.Formanymodern scholars,itistheaugurorthemagistratewhoexpresseshisown willthroughaugury,andthegodwhothenactsontheman’sbehalf. ThusinthewordsofJerzyLinderski,themostdistinguishedmodern

19 Afewexamples:Vernant1974:10(divinationmakesdecision-makingappear more ‘objective’);Liebeschuetz1979:8ff.;Wardman1982:20,45;Scheid1985b:46 (augurylegitimatedpublicdecisions);Gordon1990a:192–3(religionasa ‘veil’ concealingthe ‘real-worldforces’ [i.e.actionsoftheelite]thattrulyshapedevents); North1990b:62–5(divinationcouldvalidatepublicdecisions,thoughnotehis criticismsofLiebeschuetz’semphasisonthis);Dowden1992:35;Orlin1997:90–1 (consultationsoftheSibyllineBookscalmedpanicandvalidatedsenatedecisions, thoughherecognizesthatconcernaboutthegodscouldalsoplayarole);Rosenberger 1998;Rüpke2005a(divinationboughttimeforthenegotiationofeliteconsensus);Rüpke 2005b(vol.3):1443–4(divinationaspsychologicalaid,socialprocess,andsymbol), 1450(divinationas ‘Widerspruchsschleifen,dieinsgesamtdenEntscheidungsprozeßin RichtungKonsensoptimieren’);Rüpke2012b:47,81,213(religionasameansofsocial controlofaristocraticcompetition,awayofkeepingelitesinlinewithinthesociopoliticalsystem);Berthelet2015:145–6(augurs ‘remplissaientunefonctiondecontrôle surlesmagistratsetlesassemblées ... assurantainsiunéquilibreentrel’auctoritas du Sénat,d’unepart,la potestas desmagistrats,d’autrepart’),232.The ‘controlofhelplessness ’ theoryisalsoprominentinstudiesofGreekdivination,e.g.Eidinow2007;Flower 2008:74ff.,243–4(divination’ s ‘primaryfunction isitsabilitytohelpindividualsand groupsmakedecisionsthatareparticularlydifficult,stressful,contentious,orconsequential’).ItsapplicabilitytoRomeisquestionedbyNorth1990b:62–4.

20 IntherecentandpromisinglytitledFranco-Germanproject ‘Divinationet décision’,forexample,thepossibilitythattheresultsofdivinationmightclashwith theinterestsoftheeliteisallbutignored(CahiersduCentreGustaveGlotz 16[2005]; Revuedel’histoiredesreligions 224.2[2007]).

scholarofaugury,thisformofdivinationreveals ‘anactive,boldbut carefulattitudeoftheRomanstowardsupernaturalpowers’,suchthat ‘oneshoulddowhateveronecouldtoappeasethem,butalsowhenever itwaspossibleoneshouldtrytogaincontroloverthem ... Like everybodyelse,thedeityhadtoservethestate. ... InRomethe fight forpoliticalpowerwasalsoa fightforcontroloverthegods.’21 Other influentialscholarsofRomanreligionexpresssimilarviews.ForJohn Scheid, ‘danslesritesdivinatoires,lesmagistratsoulesprêtresseulsont laparole,lesdieuxrestentsilencieux’,foritwasthepriestsandmagistrateswho ‘createdandannounced’ thedivinewill,22 withtheresult that ‘thegodswereunderthecontrolofthemagistrates’ . 23 ForJörg Rüpke,Romandivinationcanbeunderstoodwithoutanymentionof thegodsatall:itissimply ‘uneformedecomportementcollectifqui,en situationd’incertitude,àl’aidederôlessociauxdéfinispourl’interprétationetl’élaborationrituelledesignesstandardisés,rechercheet articulel’accordetledésaccord’ . 24 Andinspecializedstudiesofthe rulesofaugury,wereadagainandagainthatitwastheRoman magistrateoraugurwhowasthoughtto ‘create’ auguralreality, ‘binding’ Jupitertoactualizewhateversignshumanbeingschosetoreport.25

21 Linderski1986a:2207.

22 Scheid1987–9:133–4: ‘ilsontledroitdecréeretd’annoncerlavolontédivine’ .

23 Scheid2003a:150;similarly1985b:52,55;1987–9:126–7(‘lesréponsesdes dieuxsontpratiquementtoujourspositives,ellesvonttoujoursdanslesensdemandé etespéré’).ThereisnotmuchdistanceherefromSzemler1971:124:Romans ‘expectedthegodstofulfilltheirobligationstowardsthem,inmaintainingtheir goodwillandfendingoffhostilepowers.Thereligiousactsandceremonials,therefore,weredesignedintheorynotsomuchtopleasethegodsastobringaboutsome manifestationofthedivinitybyprofferingcertain formulae,thusexercisingcoercive forceuponthedivinitytoassistandcooperatewiththeindividualorcommunity’ . Scheid1985a:47marksadeparture,incallingdivinationa ‘dialogue’,butScheid’ s subsequentpublicationsrejecttheterm.

24 Rüpke2012a:479.Cf.thesummaryofRomanpublicreligioninRüpke2007b: 29: ‘the sacrapublica shouldbeunderstoodnotonlyasreligiousceremonialorganized bytheélitesoastoattachtheignorantmassestoitselfandensuretheirloyalty throughfearofthegods(aperceptionwidespreadeveninantiquity)butalsoasthat importantpartofthereligioussystemasawholethatwasperformedbythemembers oftheupper-class,infactasasystemofsigns,asamediumofinternalcommunication.And,atanyrateintheeyesoftheparticipants,itwasatthesametimeanefficient meansoffulfillingthegods’ expectationthattheirgiftsshouldbeproperlyrecognized.’ Notehowtheperceptionsofparticipantscomelastinthisschema.

25 Detailedoverviewsofthebibliography,withfullreferences,willbeprovidedfor eachoftheseviewsineachchapterofthisbook;forthemodernnotionof ‘binding’ Jupiter,seeespeciallyCh.1.

Likeotherformsofpublicdivination,auguryisthusseenprimarily assupportingRomanindividualsand/orgroupsinplansanddecisionsthattheyhadalreadyformed.Jupiter,inotherwords,wastotell thosewhoconsultedhimwhattheywantedtohear.26 Hewasnot reallyexpectedtoanswerback,ortointerfere.27 Andintheunlikely eventthathedidexpressanopinionwhichclashedwiththatofhis humanenquirers,hewasnottoexpectthattheywouldheedhis advice.Foronly ‘aquiteimprobablystrongbeliefwouldhaveproducedacquiescenceinadecisiononthesolegroundofitbeing supportedbydivination’ , 28 and ‘fearofdivinedispleasurewasvery rarelyamotivewhenaRomandecidedonacourseofaction’ . 29 The Romanswereapracticalpeople,afterall;theywouldnothaveallowed adivinatorypracticesuchasaugurytodamagetheirrealinterests.30 Evenwhentheyperformeddivinatory(andother)ritualsincorrectly, theydidnotworrymuch:ritualremediestokeepthegodsonside wereconvenientandreadytohand.31 Itistruethattheyspentagreat

26 InScheid’swords,formsofstatedivinationsuchasauguryfunctionedprimarily asare-enactmentofatheologicalgiven,revealingoncemorethegods’ supportof Rome(‘Lerôledel’officiantconsisteàmettreenévidence,àdecouvrirdanslesfaitset d’annoncerl’assentimentdivin.Laconsultationdesdieuxn’estdonc,àproprement parlerpasundialogueentreunofficiantetundieu,maislamiseenscènedramatique d’unedonnéethéologique.OnpourraitconsidérerlesritesdivinatoiresdesRomains commel’équivalentd’untextesacréexposantquelepeupleromainétaitlepeupledu dieu,lepeupledesdieux’ [Scheid1987–9:132]).SimilarlyScheid2003a:112:divinatoryriteswere ‘notsomuch ... anempiricalanddirectconsultationwiththegods, butrather therecitationofakindofprayerthatrevealedthegods’ agreementwith whoeverwasconsultingthem’.SimilarlyChampeaux2005:211: ‘Laplusancienne divinationromaine’ had ‘uneseulepréoccupation ’,whichwas ‘obtenir,pourl’action humaine,l’assentiment,donclagarantie,desdieux’ .

27 e.g.Rüpke2006:225: ‘Ingeneral,theRomanswerenotexcessivelyeagerto contact[thegods].Thegodswerethoughtofasmembersofanorderedsocietywho hadobligationsandrights.Theyweretoreceivetheirshareand,forthemostpart, nomore. ’

28 Liebeschuetz1979:29. 29 Liebeschuetz1979:3.

30 BibliographicoverviewandfullreferencesinCh.3.Perhapsthemostextreme formulationofthisviewisthatofGoodmanandHolladay1986:160: ‘thereisno certainevidencethattheobservanceofreligiousscrupleseveractedtoRome’ s detriment’.Champion2017mountsoneassaultonthisview,reachingsomeconclusionssimilartomyown,althoughhisdiscussionofspecificcasesisnotthorough enoughtobefullyconvincing,andIamnotfullypersuadedbyhisassumptionsabout Romanpsychology:cf.Introductionn.32andsection0.3.

31 Richardson2011:102: ‘AtRomereligiouserrorswereusuallyeasilyrepaired. Improperlyperformedritualscouldberepeated,andanyritesneededtoplacatethe godscouldbeperformedreadilyenough.’ SoalsoBloch1984:100–1;Goodmanand Holladay1986:160–4.