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McEVOY ’SHANDBOOK OFPHOTOVOLTAICS
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McEVOY ’SHANDBOOK OFPHOTOVOLTAICS
FundamentalsandApplications
ThirdEdition
Editedby
SOTERISA.KALOGIROU
CyprusUniversityofTechnology,Limassol,Cyprus
AcademicPressisanimprintofElsevier 125LondonWall,LondonEC2Y5AS,UnitedKingdom 525BStreet,Suite1800,SanDiego,CA92101-4495,UnitedStates 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom
Copyright r 2018ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved.
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Thisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyrightbythe Publisher(otherthanasmaybenotedherein).
Notices
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DEDICATION
BorninLarne,NorthernIrelandin1942,AugustinJosephMcEvoygained hisBScfromQueen’sUniversity,Belfast,thenaMScinphysicsfrom CatholicUniversityofAmerica,WashingtonD.C.withaFulbright Fellowship.HisdoctorateinSurfacePhysicsfromUniversityofUlster, NorthernIreland,wasawardedin1972.Afterteachingatuniversitylevelat St.Patrick’sCollege,Maynooth(NationalUniversityofIreland)andatthe UniversityoftheWestIndies(Trinidad),from1978hewasaresearcherin photovoltaicmaterialswithinEuropeanCommunityprogrammesinIreland, Italy,andGermanybeforejoiningEcolePolytechniqueFe ´ de ´ rale,Lausanne, Switzerlandin1985.Intheareaof“materialsandelectrochemistryfor energy”heworkedonphotochemistryandinfuelcelltechnologyaswellas teachingandindustrialliaisonactivities.HewasthelaunchingOperating AgentfortheInternationalEnergyAgencyactivityonsolidoxidefuelcells, andhisinternationalactivitieshavebeenextensive,withEuropean CommunityandEuropeanScienceFoundationinvolvement,aswellas servingasassociateeditorforthe JournalofFuelCellScienceandTechnology (ASME).Inadditiontosome180scientificpublications,hehasorganized severalinternationalconferences,editedproceedingsandcontributedto standardpublishedhandbooksonphotoelectrochemistry,includingelectrochemicalphotovoltaics(DSC)andonfuelcelltechnology.
Augustin’sworkforElsevieronthefundamentalreference Practical HandbookofPhotovoltaics pavedthewayformanyresearchersandprofessionalsinthefieldofphotovoltaictechnologyandapplication,making thehandbookoneofthemostreferencedandsuccessfulphotovoltaic booksinourprogramanditiswithgreatsadnessandrespectthatwe wereunabletoworkwithAugustinonanyfurthereditionsofhiswork. WiththeblessingofAugustin’swifeColette,wewouldliketoacknowledgeAugustin’scontributiontothehandbook,andhisworkinthefield ofscienceandtechnologybynamingthisneweditionofthistitle McEvoy’sHandbookofPhotovoltaics,ThirdEdition.
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TomMarkvartandLuisCastañer
3 EfficienciesinTermsofEnergies61
4 EfficienciesUsingtheShockleySolarCellEquation62
5 GeneralCommentsonEfficiencies68 References70
PartI-2CrystallineSiliconSolarCells73
I-2-ACrystallineSilicon:ManufactureandProperties75 FrancescaFerrazza
1 Introduction75
2 CharacteristicsofSiliconWafersforUseinPhotovoltaicManufacturing75
3 FeedstockSilicon82
4 CrystalPreparationMethods83
5 ShapingandWafering89 References92
I-2-BHigh-EfficiencySiliconSolarCellConcepts95
MartinA.Green
1 Introduction95
2 High-EfficiencyLaboratoryCells96
3 CommercialAl-BSFScreen-PrintedCells110
4 CommercialLaser-ProcessedCells114
5 CommercialHeterojunctionCells118
6 CommercialRear-ContactedCells119
7 BifacialCells122
8 CommercialShifttoHighEfficiency122 9 Conclusions123 Acknowledgments124 References124
I-2-CLow-CostIndustrialTechnologiesforCrystalline SiliconSolarCells129
JozefSzlufcik,SivaSivoththaman,JohanF.Nijs,RobertP.Mertens andRogerVanOverstraeten
1 Introduction129 2 CellProcessing130 3 IndustrialSolarCellTechnologies144 4 CostofCommercialPhotovoltaicModules152
References154 FurtherReading158
I-2-DThinCrystallineandPolycrystallineSiliconSolarCells159
MichaelG.Mauk
1 IntroductionandOverview159 2 PreviousReviews162
3 Perspective163
4 SolarCellsMadebyWaferThinning167
5 SiliconLayerTransfer171
6 SolarCellsMadeinSiliconFilmsDepositedonLow-CostSubstrates179
7 FeaturesforOpticalEnhancementofThin-FilmCrystallineSilicon SolarCells197
8 ConclusionandOutlook205 References226 Thin-FilmSiliconSolarCellBibliography229
PartI-3ThinFilmTechnologies233
I-3-AThin-FilmSiliconSolarCells235
ArvindShah
1 Introduction235
2 HydrogenatedAmorphousSilicon(a-Si:H)Layers240
3 HydrogenatedMicrocrystallineSilicon(μc-Si:H)Layers251
4 FunctioningofThin-FilmSiliconSolarCellswithp i n andn i pStructures260
5 TandemandMultijunctionSolarCells278
6 ModuleProductionandPerformance285
7 Conclusions299 References300
I-3-BCdTeSolarCells309
AlessandroRomeo
1 Introduction309
2 MaterialPropertiesofCdTe311
3 TheCdTe/CdSSolarCellinSuperstrateConfiguration314
4 DifferentMethodsofCdTeFilmDeposition317
5 TransparentConductiveOxide323
I-4-BHigh-EfficiencyIII VMultijunctionSolarCells439
SimonP.Philipps,FrankDimrothandAndreasW.Bett
1 Introduction439
2 SpecialAspectsofIII VMultijunctionSolarCells441
3 III VSolarCells449
4 Conclusions463 Acknowledgments463 References463
I-4-CHigh-EfficiencyBack-ContactSiliconSolarCellsforOne-Sun andConcentratorApplications473
PierreJ.Verlinden
1 Introduction473
2 DifferentTypesofBackside-ContactSiliconSolarCells477
3 ModelingofBackside-ContactSolarCells481
4 PerimeterandEdgeRecombination485
5 ManufacturingProcessforBackside-ContactSolarCells486
6 StabilityofBackside-ContactCells486
7 Toward30%EfficiencySiliconCells489
8 HowtoImprovetheEfficiencyofBackside-ContactSolarCells?489
9 IBCCellsforOne-SunApplications494
10 Conclusions497 Acknowledgments497 References497
PartI-5Dye-SensitizedandOrganicSolarCells501
I-5-ADye-SensitizedPhotoelectrochemicalCells503
AndersHagfeldt,UteB.Cappel,GerritBoschloo,LichengSun, LarsKloo,HenrikPetterssonandElizabathA.Gibson
1 Introduction503
2 PhotoelectrochemicalCells506
3 Dye-SensitizedSolarCells519
4 FutureOutlook558 References560
I-5-BOrganicSolarCells567
ClareDyer-Smith,JennyNelsonandYongfangLi
1 Introduction567
II-1-ATheRoleofSolar-RadiationClimatologyintheDesignof PhotovoltaicSystems601 JohnPage
1 Introduction601
2 KeyFeaturesoftheRadiationClimatologyinVariousPartsoftheWorld603
3 QuantitativeProcessingofSolarRadiationforPhotovoltaicDesign631
4 TheStochasticGenerationofSolar-RadiationData636
5 ComputingtheSolarGeometry644
6 TheEstimationofHourlyGlobalandDiffuseHorizontalIrradiation654
7 TheEstimationoftheAll-SkyIrradiationonInclinedPlanesfrom HourlyTimeSeriesofHorizontalIrradiation659
8 Conclusion665 Acknowledgments666 References666 USDatamaybeFoundintheFollowingReferences668 Appendix:SolarEnergyDataforSelectedSites669
II-1-BEnergyYieldinPhotovoltaicSystems671
MariosTheristis,VenizelosVenizelou,GeorgeMakrides andGeorgeE.Georghiou
1 Introduction671
2 OutdoorPhotovoltaicPerformanceEvaluation672 3 EnergyYieldModeling683
4 PerformanceEvaluationofDifferentPhotovoltaicTechnologies UnderActualOperatingConditions685
5 ApplicationofEnergyYieldModels697
6 Summary705 References706
II-1-CReviewofSystemDesignandSizingTools715
SantiagoSilvestre
1 Introduction715
2 Stand-AlonePhotovoltaicSystemsSizing716
3 Grid-ConnectedPhotovoltaicSystems722
4 PhotovoltaicSystemDesignandSizingTools726 References732
II-1-DASurveyontheApplicationofArtificialIntelligence TechniquesforPhotovoltaicSystems735
AdelMellitandSoterisA.Kalogirou
1 Introduction735
2 ArtificialIntelligenceTechniques736
3 ApplicationsofArtificialIntelligenceTechniquesforModeling,Control, Sizing,Prediction,andFaultDetectionandDiagnosisofPhotovoltaic Systems737
4 Conclusions758 References759
References788 II-2-BBatteriesinPVSystems789 DavidSpiers
II-3-CInstallationGuidelines:Electrical891
AnastasiosKyritsis,NickPapanikolaou,ChristosChristodoulou, IoannisGonosandStathisTselepis
1 Introduction891
2 CodesandRegulations892
3 DirectCurrentRatings(ArrayVoltageandCurrentMaxima)892
4 DeviceRatingsandComponentSelection896
5 ArrayFaultProtection897 6 EarthingArrangements905
ProtectionAgainstLightingandOvervoltageEffects907
II-3-DSmartGridandEnergyStorage915 MeysamQadrdan,NickJenkinsandJianzhongWu
1 SmartGrid915
2 SmarterDistributionNetworks917
3 IntegrationofPhotovoltaicWithElectricalEnergySupply918
4 TransportofElectricalPower921 5 NetMetering921
6 EnergyStorage922 References927
EduardoF.Fernández,FlorenciaAlmonacid,PedroM.Rodrigo andPedroJ.Pérez-Higueras
1 Introduction931
2 MainFeaturesofTypicalConcentratorModules933
3 ConcentratorPhotovoltaicModulePerformance952
4 ConcentratorPhotovoltaicSystems964
5 PerformanceAssessmentofConcentratorPhotovoltaicSystems967
6 EstimationoftheEnergyYieldofaConcentratorPhotovoltaicPlant970
7 ElectricalMismatchesinConcentratorPhotovoltaicPlants974
8 Summary977 References979
II-4-BOperationofSolarCellsinaSpaceEnvironment987
SheilaBaileyandRyneRaffaelle
1 Introduction987 2 SpaceMissionsandTheirEnvironments988 3 SpaceSolarCells995 4 SmallPowerSystems998 5 LargePowerSystems1001 References1002
II-4-CCalibration,Testing,andMonitoringofSpaceSolarCells1005
EmilioFernandezLisbona
1 Introduction1005
2 CalibrationofSolarCells1006
3 TestingofSpaceSolarCellsandArrays1010
4 MonitoringofSpaceSolarCellsandArrays1020 Acknowledgments1029 References1029 Part-II-5CaseStudies1035
II-5-AArchitecturalIntegrationofSolarCells1037
AndreasSavvides
1 Introduction1037
2 PhotovoltaicTechnologiesandLightAbsorbingMaterials1039
3 Building-IntegratedPhotovoltaicAgainstBuildingAddedPhotovoltaic1042
4 BuildingIntegrationofPhotovoltaicCells1043
5 Constructability CostsandSavings1047
6 AestheticsinPhotovoltaicTechnology1048
7 BuiltExamples1057
8 FutureTrends1070 References1071 FurtherReading1071
II-5-BUtility-ScaleSolarPower1073
PhilipR.Wolfe
1 WhatIsUtility-ScaleSolar?1073
2 DesignIssuesforUtility-ScaleSolar1076
3 Utility-ScalePhotovoltaicProjectDevelopment1083
4 RegulatoryIssuesforSolarParks1088
5 MarketGrowthandPotential1090 Acknowledgments1093 References1093
II-5-CSolar-PoweredProducts1095
PhilipR.Wolfe
1 TheGenesisofSolar-PoweredProducts1095
2 Stand-AloneConsumerProducts1097
3 SolarProductsforGridConnection1108
4 Non-ConsumerProducts1111
5 DesigningPhotovoltaicforProducts1112
6 SolarProductsoftheFuture1114 Acknowledgments1115
PartIIITesting,Monitoring,andCalibration1117
III-1-ACharacterizationandDiagnosisofSiliconWafers,Ingots, andSolarCells1119
AndrésCuevas,DanielMacdonaldandRonaldA.Sinton
1 Introduction1119
2 FactorsAffectingCarrierRecombination1120
3 MeasurementoftheMinorityCarrierLifetime1123
4 RelationshipBetweenRecombinationParametersandDevice Characteristics1138
5 ApplicationstoProcessMonitoringandControlofSiliconSolarCells1140
6 Conclusions1150 References1150
III-1-BStandards,Calibration,andTestingofPVModulesand SolarCells1155
JohnNikoletatosandGeorgiosHalambalakis
1 PhotovoltaicPerformanceMeasurements1155
2 DiagnosticMeasurements1167
VasilisM.Fthenakis 1 Introduction1195
2 OverviewofHazardsinPVManufacture1196
3 CrystallineSilicon(c-Si)SolarCellsandPhotovoltaicModules1196
4 AmorphousSilicon(a-Si)andTandema-Si/Nanocrystalline SiPhotovoltaicModules1199
5 CadmiumTelluride(CdTe)PhotovoltaicModules1203
6 CopperIndium(Gallium)Diselenide(CIGS)PhotovoltaicModules1204
7 GalliumArsenide(GaAs)High-EfficiencySolarCells1205
8 OperationofPhotovoltaicModules1207
PhotovoltaicModuleDecommissioning1208
Conclusion1209
AppendixA:Constants,PhysicalQuantities,andConversionFactors1215
AppendixB:ListofPrincipalSymbols1217
AppendixC:AbbreviationsandAcronyms1225
AppendixD:GlobalPhotovoltaicMarkets1231
AppendixE:UsefulWebsitesandJournals1237
AppendixF:InternationalStandardsWithRelevancetoPhotovoltaics1241
AppendixG:BooksAboutSolarCells,PhotovoltaicSystems,andApplications1249 Index 1253
LISTOFCONTRIBUTORS
FlorenciaAlmonacid
UniversityofJae ´ n,CentreforAdvancedStudiesinEnergyandEnvironment(CEAEMA), Jae ´ n,Spain
VyacheslavM.Andreev
loffePhysico-TechnicalInstitute,St.Petersburg,Russia
SheilaBailey
NASAGlennResearchCenter,BrookPark,OH,UnitedStates
AndreasW.Bett
FraunhoferInstituteforSolarEnergySystemsISE,Freiburg,Germany
GerritBoschloo
UppsalaUniversity,Uppsala,Sweden
UteB.Cappel
UppsalaUniversity,Uppsala,Sweden
LuisCastan ˜ er UniversidadPolitecnicadeCatalunya,Barcelona,Spain
ChristosChristodoulou
HellenicElectricityDistributionNetworkOperatorS.A.(HEDNO),Athens,Greece
BruceCross
GB-SolLtd.,Pontypridd,UnitedKingdom;EnergyEnvironmentalTechnicalServices Ltd.,Cardiff,UnitedKingdom
Andre ´ sCuevas
TheAustralianNationalUniversity,Canberra,ACT,Australia
FrankDimroth
FraunhoferInstituteforSolarEnergySystemsISE,Freiburg,Germany
ClareDyer-Smith
ImperialCollegeLondon,London,UnitedKingdom
EduardoF.Ferna ´ ndez
UniversityofJae ´ n,CentreforAdvancedStudiesinEnergyandEnvironment(CEAEMA), Jae ´ n,Spain
EmilioFernandezLisbona
ESA-Estec,Noordwijk,TheNetherlands
FrancescaFerrazza
EurosolareS.p.A,Nettuno,Italy
VasilisM.Fthenakis
ColumbiaUniversity,NewYork,NY,UnitedStates
GeorgeE.Georghiou
PVTechnologyLaboratory,UniversityofCyprus,Nicosia,Cyprus
ElizabathA.Gibson
UniversityofNottingham,Nottingham,UnitedKingdom
IoannisGonos
NationalTechnicalUniversityofAthens,Athens,Greece
MartinA.Green
UniversityofNewSouthWales,Sydney,NSW,Australia
AndersHagfeldt
UppsalaUniversity,Uppsala,Sweden
GeorgiosHalambalakis
CentreforRenewableEnergySourcesandSaving(C.R.E.S.),Pikermi,Greece
NickJenkins
CardiffUniversity,Cardiff,UnitedKingdom
SoterisA.Kalogirou
CyprusUniversityofTechnology,Limassol,Cyprus
LarsKloo
KTH—RoyalInstituteofTechnology,Stockholm,Sweden
AnastasiosKyritsis
CentreforRenewableEnergySourcesandSaving(C.R.E.S.),Pikermi,Greece
PeterT.Landsberg
UniversityofSouthampton,Southampton,UnitedKingdom
YongfangLi
ChineseAcademyofSciences,Beijing,China
DanielMacdonald
TheAustralianNationalUniversity,Canberra,ACT,Australia
GeorgeMakrides
PVTechnologyLaboratory,UniversityofCyprus,Nicosia,Cyprus
TomMarkvart
UniversityofSouthampton,Southampton,UnitedKingdom
MichaelG.Mauk
DrexelUniversity,Philadelphia,PA,UnitedStates
AdelMellit
JijelUniversity,Jijel,Algeria
RobertP.Mertens
InteruniversityMicroelectronicsCentre,Leuven,Belgium
JennyNelson
ImperialCollegeLondon,London,UnitedKingdom
JohanF.Nijs
InteruniversityMicroelectronicsCentre,Leuven,Belgium
JohnNikoletatos
CentreforRenewableEnergySourcesandSaving(C.R.E.S.),Pikermi,Greece
JohnPage
UniversityofSheffield,Sheffield,UnitedKingdom
NickPapanikolaou
DemocritusUniversityofThrace,Komotini,Greece
PedroJ.Pe ´ rez-Higueras
UniversityofJae ´ n,CentreforAdvancedStudiesinEnergyandEnvironment(CEAEMA), Jae ´ n,Spain
HenrikPettersson
SwereaIVFAB,Molndal,Sweden
SimonP.Philipps
FraunhoferInstituteforSolarEnergySystemsISE,Freiburg,Germany
MeysamQadrdan
CardiffUniversity,Cardiff,UnitedKingdom
RyneRaffaelle
NationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory(NREL),Golden,CO,UnitedStates
UweRau
UniversitatStuttgart,Stuttgart,Germany
PedroM.Rodrigo
UniversidadPanamericana,Aguascalientes,Me ´ xico
AlessandroRomeo UniversityofVerona,Verona,Italy
J.NeilRoss
UniversityofSouthampton,Southampton,UnitedKingdom
AndreasSavvides
UniversityofCyprus,Nicosia,Cyprus
Hans-WernerSchock
Universita ¨ tStuttgart,Stuttgart,Germany
ArvindShah
InstituteofMicrotechnology(IMT),Neucha ˆ tel,Switzerland
SantiagoSilvestre
UniversidadPolitecnicadeCatalunya,Barcelona,Spain
RonaldA.Sinton
SintonInstruments,Boulder,CO,UnitedStates
SivaSivoththaman
InteruniversityMicroelectronicsCentre,Leuven,Belgium
DavidSpiers
NapsSystems,Abingdon,UnitedKingdom
LichengSun
DalianUniversityofTechnology(DUT),Dalian,China;KTH—RoyalInstituteof Technology,Stockholm,Sweden
JozefSzlufcik
InteruniversityMicroelectronicsCentre,Leuven,Belgium
MariosTheristis
PVTechnologyLaboratory,UniversityofCyprus,Nicosia,Cyprus
JimThornycroft
IndependentRenewableEnergyConsultant,Oxfordshire,UnitedKingdom
StathisTselepis
CentreforRenewableEnergySourcesandSaving(C.R.E.S.),Pikermi,Greece
RogerVanOverstraeten
InteruniversityMicroelectronicsCentre,Leuven,Belgium
VenizelosVenizelou
PVTechnologyLaboratory,UniversityofCyprus,Nicosia,Cyprus
PierreJ.Verlinden
TrinaSolar,China
PhilipR.Wolfe
WolfeWareLimited,Oxfordshire,UnitedKingdom
JianzhongWu
CardiffUniversity,Cardiff,UnitedKingdom
BIOGRAPHY
ProfessorSoterisA.Kalogirou obtainedhisPhDandDScfromthe UniversityofGlamorgan,UK.Formorethan30years,hehasbeen activelyinvolvedinresearchofsolarenergyandinflatplateandconcentratingcollectors,solarwaterheating,solarsteamgeneratingsystems, desalination,photovoltaics,andabsorptioncoolinginparticular.Hehas manybooksandbookcontributionsandhaspublishedlargenumberof papersininternationalscientificjournalsandrefereedconferenceproceedings.HeisEditor-in-ChiefofRenewableEnergyandDeputy Editor-in-ChiefofEnergy,aswellasEditorialBoardMemberofanother 11journals.HeistheauthorofthebookSolarEnergyEngineering: ProcessesandSystemsandThermalSolarDesalination,bothpublishedby AcademicPressofElsevier.HehasbeenamemberofWorldRenewable EnergyNetwork(WREN),AmericanSocietyofHeatingRefrigeration andAir-conditioningEngineers(ASHRAE),InstituteofRefrigeration (IoR),andInternationalSolarEnergySociety(ISES).
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PREFACETOTHETHIRDEDITION
Photovoltaics(PV)makeuseofthemainresourceavailableonourplanet, solarradiation,toproduceelectricalenergydirectly,silently,withno movingparts.Additionally,theyarelightandhavealonglife.PVbreak onelimitaftertheotherandthetotalinstalledcapacityattheendof 2015was227GWwithmorethan50GWinstalledjustin2015,breakingthethresholdof200GWforthefirsttime.Despitethisgrowthonly about1.3%oftheworld’selectricityisproducedbyPV.Accordingtothe latestIEAreport23countrieshaveatleast1GWofcumulativePV capacitybytheendof2015and7countriesinstalledatleast1GWin 2015.Thisgrowthisexpectedtocontinueintheyearstocome.
Undertakingthetaskofrevisinganeweditionofasuccessfulbookis abigchallenge,bothwithrespectoftheeffortrequiredandalsotoassure thatthefinalqualityofthebookwillremainatthehighestpossiblestandard.ThechallengebecameevenhigherwhenIwasinformedthatthe previouseditor,AugustinJ.McEvoy,averywell-knownscientistinthe field,unfortunatelypassedawaylastJanuary.Asasignofappreciationof hisresearchcontributionsinthefieldbutalsotheeditorialeffortofthe secondeditionwedecidedtochangethetitleofthebooktobearhis name.AsEditorofthethirdEdition,IwouldliketothankalsotheeditorsofthefirsteditionTomMarkvartandLuisCastaner.
Concerningthemodificationsmade,somechaptersoftheprevious editionwererevisedcompletely,veryfewareremovedasareobsoleteand someothersweremodifiedslightly.Thelastcategoryincludeschapters forwhichtheoriginalauthorsdidnotwanttorevisethemforvarious reasonsandnewqualifiedauthorstoundertakethistaskwerenotidentifiedornoneaccepted.Allthesechaptersconstituteabout30%ofthe book.Inallofthemanoteisaddedatthebeginningsoastobeclear thatthechapterisbasicallyadoptedfromthepreviouseditionwithsmall modifications.
Finally,Iwouldliketothankallcontributorsfortheirwillingnessto workonthisinterestingprojectandtheefforttheyputtoproduceapiece ofworkthatconstitutesthecurrentcompilationoftheknowledgerelated toPVscienceandtechnology.
