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COMPREHENSIVE RENEWABLE ENERGY

SECOND EDITION

COMPREHENSIVE RENEWABLE ENERGY SECOND EDITION EDITOR IN CHIEF

Trevor M. Letcher University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa; Stratton on the Fosse, Somerset, United Kingdom

VOLUME 1 Solar Photovoltaic Energy

VOLUME EDITORS Vasilis M. Fthenakis Columbia University, New York, NY, United States

Wilfried G.J.H.M. van Sark Utrecht University, Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, Utrecht, The Netherlands

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Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers may always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-0-12-819727-1

For information on all publications visit our website at http://store.elsevier.com

Publisher: Oliver Walter Acquisitions Editor: Ruth Rhodes Content Project Manager: Gemma Taft Associate Content Project Manager: Manisha K Designer: Miles Hitchen .

EDITOR BIOGRAPHIES Editor In Chief Trevor M. Letcheris Emeritus Professor at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. He was a Professor of chemistry with the University of the Witwatersrand, Rhodes University and Natal, in South Africa, and has published more than 300 papers on chemical thermodynamic topics and waste from landfill topics in peer-reviewed journals as well as 100 papers in popular science and education journals. He has been a member of the editorial board of Journal of Chemical Thermodynamics for the past 30 years. He has edited and written 29 books, of which 19 were published by Elsevier on topics ranging from future energy, climate change, storing energy, waste, wind energy, solar energy, managing global warming, and unraveling environmental disasters.

He was appointed an Editor-in-Chief of the Elsevier’s nine volume compendium entitled Comprehensive Renewable Energy in 2020.

He has served as the President of both the African Association of Pure and Applied Chemistry (AAPAC), and of the South African Institute of Chemistry. He was awarded the gold medal of the South African Chemical Institute (1999) and the gold medal of the South African Association for the Advancement of Science (2001) for his contributions to chemistry in South Africa. He has been awarded life membership of both the Royal Society of Chemistry (London) and the South African Institute of Chemistry.

Volume Editors Vasilis M. Fthenakis is the Founder and Director of the Center for Life Cycle Analysis and Adj. Professor of Earth and Environmental Engineering and of Electrical Engineering at Columbia University, and a distinguished Senior Scientist Emeritus at Brookhaven National Laboratory. He is the author of 400 publications, cited more than 12 500 times, including the ‘Grand Solar Plan’ in Scientific American and Energy Policy, showing the technical, geographical, and economic feasibility of the solar energy to satisfy the energy needs of the United States, and textbooks on photovoltaics. He is a member of the editorial boards of Progress in Energy, Energies, Progress in Photovoltaics, Energy Technology, and the Journal of Loss Prevention. He is also a Fellow of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE), a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE), a Fellow of the International Energy Foundation, a member of several energy and sustainability expert panels, and he established the International Energy Agency (IEA) Task 12 on PV Environmental Health and Safety.

Wilfried van Sark is full professor “Integration of Photovoltaics” at the Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development. He is a experimental physicist by training (MSc/PhD), and has over 35 year experience in the field of photovoltaics. He worked on various material systems such as crystalline and thin film silicon and III-V solar cells, both experimentally and theoretically. His current activities focus on employing spectrum conversion to increase solar cell conversion efficiency for next-generation photovoltaic energy converters such as luminescent solar concentrators as well as performance analysis of building-integrated and standard PV systems in the field. This in particular links to the integration of PV systems in smart grids in the built environment, in which Electrical Vehicles, demand response and self-consumption and self-sufficiency play a major role. He is the author of some 250 publications, cited more than 12,000 times, and various (text)books on Photovoltaics. He is associate editor of Solar Energy and Frontiers in Energy Research, and member of the editorial boards of Renewable Energy, Energies, and Materials. He is member of the International Solar Energy Society and senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) and is member of scientific committees of various EU and IEEE PV conferences. He presently is national representative in the International Energy Agency (IEA) PVPS Task 13 (PV Performance, Operation and Reliability of Photovoltaic Systems) and Task 16 (Solar Resource for High Penetration and Large Scale Applications).

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CONTRIBUTORS FOR ALL VOLUMES P. Abdeshahian Department of Biotechnology, Engineering School of Lorena−University of São Paulo, Lorena, São Paulo, Brazil

Athanasios Angeloudis School of Engineering, Institute for Infrastructure & Environment, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom

Abdul Samad Abdul-Rahim School of Business and Economics, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

A. Anthrakidis Solar-Institut Jülich, FH Aachen University of Applied Sciences, Jülich, Germany

Brian Agnew Department of Mechanical and Construction Engineering, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom

Elisa Antolín Instituto de Energía Solar, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

P. Agnolucci Imperial College London, London, UK H. Ahmed Solar Energy Applications Group, Department of Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland D. Aklil Pure Energy Center, Unst, Shetland Isles, UK S. Alexopoulos Solar-Institut Jülich, FH Aachen University of Applied Sciences, Jülich, Germany Knut Alfredsen Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway Matthew Allmark School of Engineering, Cardiff University, Wales, United Kingdom

F.A.F Antunes Department of Biotechnology, Engineering School of Lorena−University of São Paulo, Lorena, São Paulo, Brazil Halldór Ármannsson Fellsmúli, Reykjavík, Iceland Andreas Athienitis Concordia University, Montreal, QC, Canada Petros J. Axaopoulos Lab of Soft Energy Applications & Environmental Protection, University of West Attica, Athens, Greece Gudni Axelsson GRÓ Geothermal Training Programme, Reykjavík, Iceland Ioan Aşchilean Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Viorel Badescu Candida Oancea Institute, Polytechnic University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Filiberto Altobelli CREA—Research Centre for Agricultural Policies and Bioeconomy, Rome, Italy

Tor Haakon Bakken Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway

J. Alves University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia

T.R. Balbino Department of Biotechnology, Engineering School of Lorena−University of São Paulo, Lorena, São Paulo, Brazil

Sakib Bin Amin School of Business and Economics and Accreditation Project Team (APT), North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh Ifeanyi Michael Smarte Anekwe University of The Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

P. Banda Instituto de Sistema Fotovoltaicos de Concentración (ISFOC), Puertollano, Spain V. Martí Barclay School of Ocean Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, Wales, United Kingdom

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Contributors for All Volumes

G. Barone Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy

Despoina Boulogiorgou Soft Energy Applications and Environmental Protection Laboratory, University of West Attica, Athens, Greece

Tarso Leandro Bastos Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal do Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil

C. Boura Solar-Institut Jülich, FH Aachen University of Applied Sciences, Jülich, Germany

J.S. Bawa CEA, New Delhi, India

Michel Bourban Department of Politics and International Studies, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom

Benjamin D. Baxter Electrical and Computer Engineering, Sustainability and Renewable Energy Systems Program, University of Wisconsin–Platteville, Platteville, WI, United States Sema Z. Baykara Chemical Engineering Department, Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey V.G. Belessiotis ‘DEMOKRITOS’ National Center for Scientific Research, Athens, Greece Michael Belsnes SINTEF Energy Research, Trondheim, Norway Joseph J. Berry National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, United States Subhes Bhattacharyya Institute of Energy and Sustainable Development, De Montfort University, Leicester, United Kingdom Pawan Kumar Bhattarai Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus, Institute of Engineering, Tribhuwan University, Kirtipur, Nepal Amit C. Bhosale Department of Hydro and Renewable Energy, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India Thomas Bohl Sir Joseph Swan Centre for Energy Research, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom Andrei Bolboacă Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Guido Bonati CREA—Research Centre for Agricultural Policies and Bioeconomy, Rome, Italy G. Boschloo Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden Audun Botterud Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, IL, United States

Tom Bradley Narec Distributed Energy, National Renewable Energy Centre, Charles Parsons Technology Centre, Blyth, United Kingdom Einar Broch Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway Oddbjørn Bruland Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway A. Buonomano Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy and Department of Building, Civil and Environmental Engineering – Concordia University, Montreal, QC, Canada Luisa F. Cabeza GREiA Research Group, Universitat de Lleida, Lleida, Spain P. Cabrera Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain Luisa Calleri Elettricità Futura, Rome, Italy R.A. Chico Caminos Hatechno GmbH, Halver, Germany Max Campbell Constantine, Falmouth, United Kingdom Luis Candanedo San Jose, CA, United States Y.G. Caouris Department of Mechanical Engineering & Aeronautics, University of Patras, Patras, Greece Rafael Capaz Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands and Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil

Contributors for All Volumes

U.B. Cappel Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden J.A. Carta Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain B. Cass Solar Energy Applications Group, Department of Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland M.J. Castro-Alonso Department of Biotechnology, Engineering School of Lorena−University of São Paulo, Lorena, São Paulo, Brazil Dumitru Cebrucean Department of Mechanical Machines, Equipment and Transportation, Politehnica University of Timisoara, Timisoara, Romania Ilke Celik Electrical and Computer Engineering, Sustainability and Renewable Energy Systems Program, University of Wisconsin–Platteville, Platteville, WI, United States S. Chandra Solar Energy Applications Group, Department of Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland James Chapman University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom P. Chen Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Dalian, China Yulong Chen School of Metallurgical Engineering, Anhui University of Technology, Ma’anshan, China Priscilla Yi Yun Cheonh Department of Chemical & Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Science, Curtin University Malaysia, Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia Suman Roy Choudhury Naval Materials Research Laboratory, DRDO, Ambernath, Maharashtra, India Dimitris G. Christakis Wind Energy Laboratory, Technological Educational Institute of Crete, Crete, Greece David Christie School of Ocean Sciences, Bangor University, Menai Bridge, United Kingdom

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Bartosz W. Chwieduk Institute of Heat Engineering, Faculty of Power and Aeronautical Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology, Warszawa, Poland Dorota A. Chwieduk Institute of Heat Engineering, Faculty of Power and Aeronautical Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology, Warszawa, Poland Declan Clausen City of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia Suani T. Coelho Energy Graduation Program, Institute of Energy and Environment and PhD Program on Bioenergy, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil and Research Group on Bioenergy, Institute of Energy and Environment, University of São Paulo (GBIO/IEE/USP), São Paulo, Brazil Flávio Colmati Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal do Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil G. Conibeer University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia João Costa Head of Sustainability, International Hydropower Association, London, United Kingdom J. Culina Fundy Ocean Research Centre for Energy (FORCE), Parrsboro, NS, Canada David M. Culley Improbable, London, United Kingdom Monica Dan National Institute for Research and Development of Isotopic and Molecular Technologies—INCDTIM, ClujNapoca, Romania Swati Das PK Sinha Centre for Bioenergy & Renewables, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India Martin David Instituto Tecnológico Buenos Aires, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cient´ıficas y Técnicas (CONICET), Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina; and Automatic Control Department, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Institut de Robòtica i Informàtica Industrial (CSIC-UPC), Barcelona, España

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Contributors for All Volumes

Brynhildur Davidsdottir University of Iceland, Environment and Natural Resources, Reykjavík, Iceland and GRÓ Geothermal Training Programme, Reykjavík, Iceland Morgane Declerck University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom Andrew L. Dicks Queensland Micro- and Nanotechnology Centre, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

Benjamin Erable School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom and Laboratoire de Génie Chimique, CNRS-Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France Javier Farago Escobar Environmental Science and Engineering, Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, United States

André L. Diniz Electrical Energy Research Center (CEPEL), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

M. Dolores Esteban ECOREL—Environment, Coast, and Ocean Research Laboratory, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

R. DiPippo Chancellor Professor Emeritus, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, Dartmouth, MA, United States

G. Faninger University of Klagenfurt, Klagenfurt, Austria and Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria

Michela De Dominicis National Oceanography Centre, Liverpool, United Kingdom Beatrice Dower MVGLA, Comrie, Perthshire, United Kingdom Giuliano Dragone Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Shangfeng Du School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom K.J. Dussán Department of Engineering, Physics and Mathematics, Institute of Chemistry, São Paulo State University-Unesp, Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil; São Paulo State University (Unesp), Bioenergy Research Institute (IPBEN), Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil; and Center for Monitoring and Research of the Quality of Fuels, Biofuels, Crude Oil, and Derivatives-Institute of Chemistry—EMPEQC, São Paulo State University (Unesp), Araraquara, Brazil Narcis M. Duteanu School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom and Faculty of Industrial Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, University “POLITEHNICA” Timisoara, Timisoara, Romania Nikolaos Efthymiou World Bank, Washington, DC, United States

Vladimir N. Fateev National Research Centre “Kurchatov Institute”, Moscow, Russia M.G.A. Felipe Department of Biotechnology, Engineering School of Lorena−University of São Paulo, Lorena, São Paulo, Brazil Raluca-Andreea Felseghi Stefan cel Mare, University of Suceava, Suceava, Romania and Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, ClujNapoca, Romania J. Feng Faculty Built Environment, UNSW, Sydney, Australia T.B. Ferriday Department of Engineering Sciences, University of Agder, Kristiansand, Norway Halit Eren Figen Chemical Engineering Department, Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey Rubens Maciel Filho Laboratory of Optimization, Design and Advanced Control, School of Chemical Engineering, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil Georgios A. Florides Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus Ólafur G. Flóvenz Iceland GeoSurvey (ÍSOR), Reykjavík, Iceland

H.-J. Egelhaaf Konarka Technologies GmbH, Nürnberg, Germany

C. Forzano Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy

T. Ehara Mizuho Information & Research Institute, Tokyo, Japan

L.M. Fraas JX Crystals, Issaquah, WA, United States

Contributors for All Volumes

Rafael Costa Freiria School of Technology, University of Campinas (FT/ Unicamp), São Paulo, Brazil and Public Policies Laboratory, School of Technology, University of Campinas (LAPPA/FT/Unicamp), São Paulo, Brazil Thráinn Fridriksson Senior Geoscientist, Reykjavik Energy, Reykjavík, Iceland V.M. Fthenakis Columbia University, New York, NY, United States Vasilis Fthenakis Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands and Columbia University, New York, NY, United States Musandji Fuamba École Polytechnique de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada Simon W. Funke Simula Research Laboratory, Fornebu, Norway Marta Gandiglio Energy Department, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy K. Gao Faculty Built Environment, UNSW, Sydney, Australia S. Garshasbi Faculty Built Environment, UNSW, Sydney, Australia R. Gazey Pure Energy Center, Unst, Shetland Isles, UK Solomon B. Gebre Hafslund Eco, Oslo, Norway Makarand Ghangrekar Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India and PK Sinha Centre for Bioenergy & Renewables, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India and School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom

Brian J. Glover Bærekraftig Investering AS, Oppegaard, Norway S.W. Glunz Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems, Freiburg, Germany J.C. Goldschmidt Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE, Freiburg, Germany Sara Golroodbari Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands J. González Department of Electronics and Automatics Engineering, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain Marcelo de Freitas Gonçalves Embraer S.A., São José dos Campos, Brazil R. Gottschalg Fraunhofer Center for Silicon Photovoltaics CSP, Halle (Saale), Germany Dan Grech Chelmsford, United Kingdom M.A. Green The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia Sergey A. Grigoriev National Research Centre “Kurchatov Institute”, Moscow, Russia; National Research University “Moscow Power Engineering Institute”, Moscow, Russia; and HySA Infrastructure Center of Competence, Faculty of Engineering, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa C.A. Gueymard Solar Consulting Services, Colebrook, NH, United States

Alessandro Giampieri Department of Engineering, Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom

Einar Gunnlaugsson Independent consultant, Reykjavík, Iceland

M. Giannouli University of Patras, Patras, Greece

Egill Árni Guðnason Iceland GeoSurvey (ÍSOR), Reykjavík, Iceland

E.A. Gibson University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

J. Göttsche Solar-Institut Jülich, FH Aachen University of Applied Sciences, Jülich, Germany

G.F. Giuzio Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy Tor Gjermundsen Sweco, Architecture and Engineering Consultancy, Trondheim, Norway

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A. Hagfeldt Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden Byman Hamududu The Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate, Oslo, Norway

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Contributors for All Volumes

Ali El Hanandeh School of Engineering and Built Environment, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia Brooke Hannon Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Wisconsin–Platteville, Platteville, WI, United States Atle Harby SINTEF Energy Research, Trondheim, Norway J.A. Hauch Konarka Technologies GmbH, Nürnberg, Germany J. van der Heide imec vzw, Leuven, Belgium Detlev Heinemann University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany A.F. Hernandez-Perez Department of Biotechnology, Engineering School of Lorena−University of São Paulo, Lorena, São Paulo, Brazil Gylfi Páll Hersir Iceland GeoSurvey (ÍSOR), Reykjavík, Iceland P. Hilger Synhelion Germany GmbH, Bergisch Gladbach, Germany L.C. Hirst Department of Physics and Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom B. Hoffschmidt German Aerospace Center, DLR, Institute of Solar Research, Cologne, Germany Seyed Ehsan Hosseini Department of Mechanical Engineering, Combustion and Sustainable Energy Laboratory (ComSEL), Arkansas Tech University, Russellville, AR, United States Yulin Hu Institute for Chemicals and Fuels from Alternative Resources (ICFAR), Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Western University, London, ON, Canada Gan Huang Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom N. Hughes Imperial College London, London, UK F. Van Hulle XP Wind Consultancy, Leuven, Belgium Diana Husmann Nexant, Madison, WI, United States

Zoë L. Hutchison University of St Andrews, School of Biology, Scotland, United Kingdom; University of Rhode Island, Graduate School of Oceanography, Narragansett, RI, United States; and Scottish Association for Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute, University of the Highlands and Islands, Scotland, United Kingdom A.P. Ingle Department of Biotechnology, Engineering School of Lorena−University of São Paulo, Lorena, São Paulo, Brazil Ioana Ionel Department of Mechanical Machines, Equipment and Transportation, Politehnica University of Timisoara, Timisoara, Romania J.T.S. Irvine University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK Yusuf Makarfi Isa University of The Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa Paniz Izadi Institute of Environmental and Sustainable Chemistry, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany Tom Jacobsen SediCon As, Trondheim, Norway Peter Jamieson Center for Doctoral Training in Wind and Marine Energy Systems and Structures, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom Madhawa Jayathilake Department of Engineering Sciences, Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Agder, Grimstad, Norway Torodd Jensen NVE, Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate, Oslo, Norway Y. Jestin Ki3 Photonics Technologies Inc., Montreal, QC, Canada Zhiyu Jiang Department of Engineering Sciences, University of Agder, Grimstad, Norway Emmanuel Jjunju Sweco Norge AS, Oslo, Norway F.M. Jofre Department of Biotechnology, Engineering School of Lorena−University of São Paulo, Lorena, São Paulo, Brazil

Contributors for All Volumes

E. Johnson Pure Energy Center, Unst, Shetland Isles, UK Balraj Joshi NHPC Ltd., Faridabad, India Arnulf Jäger-Waldau European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Ispra, Italy Henk F. Kaan ECN Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands, Petten, The Netherlands

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T. Karlessi National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece S.N. Karlsdottir Department of Industrial Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland and Gerosion Ltd., Reykjavík, Iceland Dimitris Al Katsaprakakis Wind Energy Laboratory, Technological Educational Institute of Crete, Crete, Greece

Foqoruddin Al Kabir School of Business and Economics, North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh

O. Kaufhold German Aerospace Center, DLR, Cologne, Germany

Cody A. Kabus Electrical and Computer Engineering, Sustainability and Renewable Energy Systems Program, University of Wisconsin–Platteville, Platteville, WI, United States

C.A. Kaufmann Competence Centre Photovoltaics (PVcomB), Helmholtz Zentrum für Materialien und Energie GmbH, Berlin, Germany

Amina Kadyrzhanova Sustainability Specialist, International Hydropower Association, London, United Kingdom

Kosmas Kavadias Lab of Soft Energy Applications & Environmental Protection, Mechanical Engineering Department, University of West Attica, Athens, Greece

John K. Kaldellis Lab of Soft Energy Applications and Environmental Protection Laboratory, University of West Attica, Athens, Greece Soteris A. Kalogirou Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Sciences and Engineering, Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus Harry D. Kambezidis Atmospheric Research Team, Institute of Environmental Research and Sustainable Development, National Observatory of Athens, Athens, Greece Jibrail Kansedo Department of Chemical & Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Science, Curtin University Malaysia, Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia Meltem Karaismailoglu Chemical Engineering Department, Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey and Department of Energy Science and Technology, Turkish-German University, Istanbul, Turkey Madjid Karimirad Civil Engineering, School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen's University Belfast (QUB), Northern Ireland, United Kingdom Pravin Karki Global Lead, Hydropower & Dams, World Bank Group, Washington, DC, United States

Lawrence L. Kazmerski Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute (RASEI), University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States Farhan Khan School of Business and Economics, North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh Lindiwe Khotseng University of The Western Cape, Cape Town, South Africa Alain Kilajian Senior Sustainability Specialist, International Hydropower Association, London, United Kingdom Ånund Killingtveit Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway Willian Jun Kimura Institute of Energy and Environment, University of São Paulo (IEE/USP), São Paulo, Brazil Lena Kitzing DTU, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark L. Kloo KTH—Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden Ewa Klugmann-Radziemska Faculty of Chemistry, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland

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Contributors for All Volumes

Tore Knutsen Rainpower Holding AS, Lillestrøm, Norway Hagen Koch Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK), Potsdam, Germany F.R. Kogler Konarka Technologies GmbH, Nürnberg, Germany D. Kolokotsa Technical University of Crete, Crete, Greece

E. Leccisi Center for Life Cycle Analysis, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States G. Leftheriotis Energy and Environment Lab, Physics Department, University of Patras, Rion, Greece T. Leo FuelCell Energy Inc., Danbury, CT, USA

K. Komoto Mizuho Information & Research Institute, Tokyo, Japan

Trevor M. Letcher University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa and Laurel House, Fosse Way, Stratton on the Fosse, United Kingdom

E. Kondili Technological Education Institute of Piraeus, Athens, Greece

Matt Lewis University of Bangor, Bangor, United Kingdom

Emilia Μ. Kondili Optimisation of Production Systems Laboratory, Mechanical Engineering Department, University of West Attica, Athens, Greece Magnus Korpås Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway Stephan C. Kramer Department of Earth Science & Engineering, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom

José Joaquín Linares León Instituto de Química, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brazil Da Li Department of Chemical Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom Haiming Li School of Metallurgical Engineering, Anhui University of Technology, Ma’anshan, China

H. Kristjánsdóttir University of Akureyri, Akureyri, Iceland

Jiaxin Li School of Metallurgical Engineering, Anhui University of Technology, Ma’anshan, China

Arun Kumar Department of Hydro and Renewable Energy, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India

Yang Li School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom

Piyush Kumar CIPET: CSTS Aurangabad, Aurangabad, India

Yong Li Institute of refrigeration and Cryogenics Engineering, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China

L.A. Lamont Mott MacDonald Limited, Glasgow, United Kingdom G.A. Landis NASA Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, OH, United States Andrea Lanzini Energy Department, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy John Sie Yon Lau Department of Chemical & Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Science, Curtin University Malaysia, Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia Mihaela D. Lazar National Institute for Research and Development of Isotopic and Molecular Technologies—INCDTIM, ClujNapoca, Romania

Lilian Lieber Marine Laboratory, The Bryden Centre, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Queen's University Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom Stefan Liersch Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK), Potsdam, Germany Janie Ling-Chin Department of Engineering, Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom Fernando M. de Amorim Lino Instituto de Química, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brazil

Contributors for All Volumes

Hongming Long School of Metallurgical Engineering, Anhui University of Technology, Ma’anshan, China Elke Lorenz Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE, Freiburg, Germany Atse Louwen Institute for Renewable Energy, Eurac Research, Bolzano, Italy Hangyong Lu School of Engineering and Built Environment, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia Katherine Mary Luketina Waikato Regional Council, Hamilton, New Zealand John W. Lund Oregon Institute of Technology, Klamath Falls, OR, United States Flavio Lupia CREA—Research Centre for Agricultural Policies and Bioeconomy, Rome, Italy Antonio Luque Instituto de Energía Solar, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain José-Santos López-Gutiérrez ECOREL—Environment, Coast, and Ocean Research Laboratory, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain Jiming Ma Stake Key Laboratory of Hydroscience and Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China Lucas Mackie Department of Earth Science & Engineering, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom Daniel Maga Fraunhofer Institute for Environmental, Safety, and Energy Technology UMSICHT, Oberhausen, Germany Graeme G. Maidment School of Engineering, London South Bank University, London, United Kingdom Mohamed Mamlouk Newcastle University, School of Engineering, Merz Court, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom Á. Margeirsson Unnarholt ehf., Garðabæ, Iceland.

Chiara Marieni Géosciences Environnement Toulouse, CNRS, Toulouse, France

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Christos N. Markides Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom M. Martinez Instituto de Sistema Fotovoltaicos de Concentración (ISFOC), Puertollano, Spain Elias Martinez-Hernandez Biomass Conversion Division, Mexican Institute of Petroleum, Mexico City, Mexico S.E. Martiniano Department of Biotechnology, Engineering School of Lorena−University of São Paulo, Lorena, São Paulo, Brazil Antonio Martí Instituto de Energía Solar, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain Sanette Marx DST/NRF Research Chair in Biofuels, Centre of Excellence in Carbon-based Fuels, North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus), Potchefstroom, South Africa Allan Mason-Jones School of Engineering, Cardiff University, Wales, United Kingdom Gaëtan Masson Becquerel Institute, Brussels, Belgium S. Mathew University of Brunei Darussalam, Gadong, Brunei Darussalam Guillermo Matute Instrumentación y Componentes S.A., Zaragoza, Spain S.J. McCormack Solar Energy Applications Group, Department of Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland Mike McWilliams McWilliams Energy, Tenterden, United Kingdom Wyatt Metzger California Technology Center, First Solar Inc., Santa Clara, CA, United States P.H. Middleton Department of Engineering Sciences, University of Agder, Kristiansand, Norway E. Mier-Alba Department of Biotechnology, Engineering School of Lorena−University of São Paulo, Lorena, São Paulo, Brazil

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Contributors for All Volumes

Maria Mihet National Institute for Research and Development of Isotopic and Molecular Technologies—INCDTIM, ClujNapoca, Romania David Milborrow Consultant, East Sussex, United Kingdom Raeanne G. Miller Aquatera Ltd., Old Academy Business Centre, Scotland, United Kingdom and The Bryden Centre, University of the Highlands and Islands, Inverness, United Kingdom Pierre Millet Université Paris-Saclay, Institut de Chimie Moléculaire et des Matériaux d'Orsay, Orsay, France Catherine Mitchell University of Exeter, UK, DTU, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark V. Molkov Hydrogen Safety Engineering and Research Centre (HySAFER), Ulster University, Newtownabbey, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom Magda Moner-Girona European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Ispra, Italy Juan Moreno-Cruz School of Environment, Enterprise and Development, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada Laurence Morgan Center for Doctoral Training in Wind and Marine Energy Systems and Structures, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom Mahesh Morjaria Terabase Energy, Scottsdale, AZ, United States Ceri E. Morris University of the West of England, Bristol, United Kingdom Poul Erik Morthorst DTU, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark David Moser Institute for Renewable Energy, Eurac Research, Bolzano, Italy Ingrid Lopes Motta Laboratory of Optimization, Design and Advanced Control, School of Chemical Engineering, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil Rory O’Hara Murray Marine Science Scotland, Aberdeen, United Kingdom

Solange I. Mussatto Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Monika Freunek Müller Lighthouse Science Consulting and Technologies Inc., New Brunswick, Canada D. Nash University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK Vicente Negro ECOREL—Environment, Coast, and Ocean Research Laboratory, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain Simon P. Neill School of Ocean Sciences, Bangor University, Menai Bridge, United Kingdom Gregory F. Nemet University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States Kok Siew Ng Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom Linmei Nie Foundation CSDI WaterTech, Oslo, Norway Brian Norton MaREI Centre, Technological University Dublin, Dublin, Ireland Carlos Ocampo-Martinez Automatic Control Department, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Institut de Robòtica i Informàtica Industrial (CSIC-UPC), Barcelona, España Jóhann Örlygsson School of Business and Science, University of Akureyri, Akureyri, Iceland V. Ortisi Pure Energy Center, Unst, Shetland Isles, UK Finnbogi Óskarsson Senior Geochemist, Iceland Geosurvey, Reykjavík, Iceland Patricia Osseweijer Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands Emily M. Ott Electrical and Computer Engineering, Sustainability and Renewable Energy Systems Program, University of Wisconsin–Platteville, Platteville, WI, United States

Contributors for All Volumes

B. O’Connor Solar-Institut Jülich, FH Aachen University of Applied Sciences, Jülich, Germany Tim O’Doherty School of Engineering, Cardiff University, Wales, United Kingdom Diego-César Alarcón Padilla Centro de Investigaciones Energeticas Medioambientales y Tecnologicas (CIEMAT), Madrid, Spain

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A. Pouliezos Industrial, Energy and Environmental Systems Laboratory, School of Production and Management Engineering, Technical University of Crete, Chania, Greece C.A. Prado Department of Biotechnology, Engineering School of Lorena−University of São Paulo, Lorena, São Paulo, Brazil

A. Palombo Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy

R. Preu Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems, Freiburg, Germany

Krishna Kanta Panthi Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway

Giuseppe Pulighe CREA—Research Centre for Agricultural Policies and Bioeconomy, Rome, Italy

E. Papanicolaou ‘DEMOKRITOS’ National Center for Scientific Research, Athens, Greece

A. Pyrgou Civil Aviation Authority, Cyprus

N. Pearsall Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom Jan Pedersen Danilo Perecin Institute of Energy and Environment, University of São Paulo (IEE/USP), São Paulo, Brazil and Centre for Environmental Policy, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom H. Pettersson Swerea IVF AB, Mölndal, Sweden G.S. Philip KCAET, Malapuram, Kerala, India

Juan I. Pérez-Díaz Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain Íñigo Ramiro Instituto de Energía Solar, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain and CENIMAT/I3N, Departamento de Ciência dos Materiais, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, FCT, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal R. Ramya Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India G. Ranzi Department Civil Engineering, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia

R.R. Philippini Department of Biotechnology, Engineering School of Lorena−University of São Paulo, Lorena, São Paulo, Brazil

C. Rau IATech GmbH, Cologne, Germany

Matthew D. Piggott Department of Earth Science & Engineering, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom

Fernando Rei International Environmental Law, Catholic University of Santos, Santos, Brazil and Environmental Law, Armando Alvares Penteado Foundation (FAAP), São Paulo, Brazil

S. Pillai The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia John Posada Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands Tavis Potts Chair in Sustainable Development, School of Geosciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland

M. Raugei Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United Kingdom

Tjerk H. Reijenga BEAR-iD, Gouda, The Netherlands and BEAR-iD, Shanghai, People's Republic of China Angèle H.M.E. Reinders Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands and University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands

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C. Rendón Projektträger Jülich (PtJ) - Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Jülich, Germany R. Rengaswamy Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India R. Reyes-Guzman Department of Biotechnology, Engineering School of Lorena−University of São Paulo, Lorena, São Paulo, Brazil D.R. Ribeaux Department of Biotechnology, Engineering School of Lorena−University of São Paulo, Lorena, São Paulo, Brazil Katharine Ricke Scripps Institution of Oceanography and School of Global Policy and Strategy, University of California, San Diego, CA, United States Bryson Robertson Civil and Construction Engineering, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States T.M. Rocha Department of Biotechnology, Engineering School of Lorena−University of São Paulo, Lorena, São Paulo, Brazil Anthony Paul Roskilly Department of Engineering, Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom Efstratios Rounis Laval, QC, Canada Somnath Baidya Roy Centre for Atmospheric Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India Sumit Roy Department of Engineering, Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom O. de la Rubia Instituto de Sistema Fotovoltaicos de Concentración (ISFOC), Puertollano, Spain F. Rubio Instituto de Sistema Fotovoltaicos de Concentración (ISFOC), Puertollano, Spain Souman Rudra Department of Engineering Sciences, Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Agder, Grimstad, Norway Ladislaus Rybach Institute of Geophysics ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

Maria-Simona Răboaca National Research and Development Institute for Cryogenic and Isotopic Technologies—ICSI, Valcea, Romania Kristján Saemundsson Iceland GeoSurvey (ÍSOR), Reykjavík, Iceland Samet Şahin Department of Bioengineering, Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Bilecik, Turkey R.P. Saini Department of Hydro and Renewable Energy, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India S. Sanchez-Muñoz Department of Biotechnology, Engineering School of Lorena−University of São Paulo, Lorena, São Paulo, Brazil Durga Prasad Sangroula Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus, Institute of Engineering, Tribhuwan University, Kirtipur, Nepal M. Santamouris Faculty Built Environment, UNSW, Sydney, Australia J.C. Santos Department of Biotechnology, Engineering School of Lorena−University of São Paulo, Lorena, São Paulo, Brazil Wilfried G.J.H.M. van Sark Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands and Columbia University, New York, NY, United States Shreeniwas Sathe Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India J. Sattler Solar-Institut Jülich, FH Aachen University of Applied Sciences, Jülich, Germany M. Sauerborn Solar-Institut Jülich, FH Aachen University of Applied Sciences, Jülich, Germany T.W. Schmidt University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia N. Schofield University of Manchester, Manchester, UK R.E.I. Schropp Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands

Contributors for All Volumes

Pedro Rodrigo Scorza GOL Airlines, São Paulo, Brazil Beth Scott University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom Keith Scott School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom Sean Michael Scully School of Business and Science, University of Akureyri, Akureyri, Iceland and School of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Akureyri, Akureyri, Iceland Joaquim Seabra Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil S.P. Sen NHPC Ltd., Faridabad, India Hari Shankar Shrestha Hydro Tunneling and Research Pvt. Ltd., Kathmandu, Nepal Bergur Sigfússon Carbfix, Reykjavík, Iceland Magnús Á. Sigurgeirsson IIceland GeoSurvey (ISOR), Reykjavík, Iceland D.D.V. Da Silva Department of Biochemistry and Organic Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, São Paulo State University-Unesp, Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil S.S. Da Silva Department of Biotechnology, Engineering School of Lorena−University of São Paulo, Lorena, São Paulo, Brazil Andrea C. Simonelli Department of Political Science, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States L. Sims Konarka Technologies GmbH, Nürnberg, Germany and Universität Augsburg, Augsburg, Germany Andrew Smallbone Department of Engineering, Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom Sandra Ó. Snæbjörnsdóttir Carbfix, Reykjavík, Iceland Ali Ünal Şorman Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey

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J.P. De Souza Department of Engineering, Physics and Mathematics, Institute of Chemistry, São Paulo State University-Unesp, Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil Lais Galileu Speranza GreenColab—Associação Oceano Verde, Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, Faro, Portugal and Universidade Estadual de São Paulo Júlio de Mesquita Filho (UNESP), Campus de Rio Claro, Rio Claro, SP, Brazil Narasimalu Srikanth Energy Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore G.S. Stavrakakis School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Technical University of Crete, Chania, Greece Edward Steane Greater Sydney Commission, Sydney, NSW, Australia and Oxford Urbanists Magazine, Oxford, United Kingdom R. Steim Konarka Technologies GmbH, Nürnberg, Germany Benedikt Steingrímsson Iceland GeoSurvey (ÍSOR), Reykjavík, Iceland Kjell Erik Stensby NVE, Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate, Oslo, Norway L. Sun KTH—Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden and Dalian University of Technology (DUT), Dalian, China S.R. Suseendiran Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India D.T. Swift-Hook Kingston University, London, UK and World Renewable Energy Network, Brighton, UK A. Synnefa Faculty Built Environment, UNSW, Sydney, Australia Sandor Szabo European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Ispra, Italy Kristján Sæmundsson IIceland GeoSurvey (ISOR), Reykjavík, Iceland Jens N. Sørensen DTU Wind Energy, Section of Aero- and Fluid Dynamics, Lyngby, Denmark

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Yie Hua Tan Department of Chemical & Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Science, Curtin University Malaysia, Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia Yufei Tang Department of Computer and Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, United States Peter J. Tavner Department of Engineering, Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom M.J.Y. Tayebjee University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia Richard M. Taylor RMT Renewables Consulting Ltd, London, United Kingdom A. Tesfai University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK Haakon Thaulow NIVA, Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Oslo, Norway Francesca Tilli Gestore dei Servizi Energetici (GSE), Rome, Italy Aniko N. Toth Ana-Geo Ltd., Miskolc, Hungary Panagiotis Triantafyllou Lab of Soft Energy Applications and Environmental Protection Laboratory, University of West Attica, Athens, Greece Yiannis Tripanagnostopoulos University of Patras, Patras, Greece L. Tsakalakos L3Harris Technologies, Plano, TX, United States Georgios T. Tzanes Lab of Soft Energy Applications & Environmental Protection, University of West Attica, Athens, Greece Eftihia Tzen Centre for Renewable Energy Sources and Saving (CRES), Pikermi, Greece Oğuz Türkyılmaz Industrial Engineer, Chairman of Energy Commission of Chamber of Mechanical Engineers, Ankara, Turkey

G. Ulpiani Department Civil Engineering, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia T. Unold Dept. Structure and Dynamics of Energy Materials, Helmholtz Zentrum für Materialien und Energie GmbH, Berlin, Germany Esa K Vakkilainen LUT University, Lappeenranta, Finland Daniel A. Vallero Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States Roelf J. Venter DST/NRF Research Chair in Biofuels, Centre of Excellence in Carbon-based Fuels, North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus), Potchefstroom, South Africa Lennard Visser Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands P. van der Vleuten Free Energy Consulting, Eindhoven, The Netherlands Martin Voigt Insitute of Earth Sciences, University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland Ivo Wallimann-Helmer University of Fribourg Environmental Sciences and Humanities Institute, Fribourg, Switzerland Kai Wang Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China Ruzhu Wang Institute of refrigeration and Cryogenics Engineering, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China Sophie L Ward School of Ocean Sciences, Bangor University, Menai Bridge, United Kingdom Kiflom B. Wasihun Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway Rufei Wei Institute for Chemicals and Fuels from Alternative Resources (ICFAR), Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Western University, London, ON, Canada and School of Metallurgical Engineering, Anhui University of Technology, Ma’anshan, China

Contributors for All Volumes

Luuk van der Wielen Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands and Bernal Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland Benjamin J. Williamson Environmental Research Institute, North Highland College, University of the Highlands and Islands, Thurso, United Kingdom Tiree Withers Bangor University, School of Ocean Sciences, Menai Bridge, Anglesey, United Kingdom T. Wizelius Judith Wolf National Oceanography Centre, Liverpool, United Kingdom David Wood Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada Geng Xia National Wind Technology Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden, CO, United States Gang Xiong California Technology Center, First Solar Inc., Santa Clara, CA, United States Chunbao Charles Xu Institute for Chemicals and Fuels from Alternative Resources (ICFAR), Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Western University, London, ON, Canada and School of Metallurgical Engineering, Anhui University of Technology, Ma’anshan, China M. Yamaguchi Toyota Technological Institute, Nagoya, Japan Yichang Yan School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom P. Yianoulis Energy and Environment Lab, Physics Department, University of Patras, Rion, Greece Eileen Hao Yu Department of Chemical Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom and School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom

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Geun Young Yun Department of Architectural Engineering of Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, South Korea Jose M. Yusta Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain Dimitrios P. Zafirakis Lab of Soft Energy Applications and Environmental Protection, Department of Mechanical Engineers, University of West Attica, Athens, Greece Salomon Salumu Zahera École Polytechnique de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada and Institut National du Bâtiment et des Travaux-Publics (INBTP), Kinshasa, People's Democratic Republic of Congo Arianna Zampollo University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom Donatella Zappalá Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands Guillermo Zaragoza Centro de Investigaciones Energeticas Medioambientales y Tecnologicas (CIEMAT), Madrid, Spain Mulugeta B. Zelelew Multiconsult Norway, Oslo, Norway M. Zeman Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands Fei Zhang National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, United States Baiyang Zhao Institute of refrigeration and Cryogenics Engineering, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China Hua Zhao Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, United States Liming Zhou Department of Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences, University at Albany, State University of New York, Albany, NY, United States Kai Zhu National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, United States

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Qian Zi Department of Mechanical and Construction Engineering, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom Azeem Oluwaseyi Zubair School of Business and Economics, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

James Van Zwieten Department of Civil, Environmental and Geomatics Engineering, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, United States

PREFACE A decade has passed since the publication of the first edition of Comprehensive Renewable Energy. During this time, the field of renewable energy has witnessed significant developments in all its branches and these include: photovoltaic solar energy, wind energy, solar thermal energy, fuel cells and hydrogen technology, hydropower, geothermal energy and ocean energy. The chapters from the first edition have been updated and many new chapters have been included. The first edition had 154 chapters; this edition, “Comprehensive Renewable Energy 2nd edition”, contains 195 chapters in 9 volumes, including a new volume on environmental and social issues linked to the deployment of renewable forms of energy. Of the many books and multivolume reference works devoted to renewable energy, this compendium must rate as the most comprehensive and up-to-date compilation available.

The new edition comes at a time when the ravages of climate change are being felt in all corners of the world, with flooding, fires, melting of ice sheets and melting glaciers. As a result, the demand for renewable energy has increased over the past 10 years since the first edition of our compendium. This new set of volumes is a timeous reminder that more must be done to replace fossil fuel and it must be done fast. Our compendium is a showcase of what is being done world-wide and should give a lead to what can be done in the future.

We have assembled over 200 world class scientists, engineers, policy-makers, industrialists, environmentalists from many countries to author and co-author the chapters and produce this definitive set of the latest developments in renewable energy. The nine volumes contain colour charts, illustrations, and photographs of real projects and research results from around the world, together with many thousands of references from research journals, books and recent internet websites. The result is an authoritative overview which provides the reader with reliable background information and a citation resource for further investigation.

Each chapter has been painstakingly reviewed and checked for consistent high quality.

One of the great advantages of this compendium is that each chapter has been written by a world expert in his or her chosen field and the reader is given the latest information and views of each topic. Another great advantage is that the compendium contains information on all renewable fields of endeavour and allows the reader to compare the different renewable energy technologies. Research, development and implementation of renewable energy are spread across a number of different disciplines and subject areas and having all of these in one compendium allows for a synergistic interaction between chapters which could lead to new developments and technologies. Finally, for the reader wanting to study further, there are a large number of references included in each chapter, making for easy access to further information.

Carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere have increased since the 1880s, from 0.025% to 0.042% as measure at Mauna Loa in Hawaii. These percentages might seem small but the increase of 60% over 140 years is having a major effect on our climate.

Carbon dioxide is not the major greenhouse gas; it is however, the trigger that causes a relatively small rise in temperature which in turn causes an increase in the evaporation of water from the oceans. It is this extra water vapour in the air that is the main driver of global warming. The main contributor to increased CO2 in the atmosphere is the burning of fossil fuels. It is for this reason that renewable energy must soon replace fossil fuel and it is the major raison d'etre for our new set of 9 volumes.

The only renewable energy source we have available on Earth is radiation from the sun; there is no other. Exploitation is done directly by collecting solar energy using photovoltaic cells or concentrated solar energy and also by wind, biomass, hydropower, wave energy, all of which have been created by solar radiation.

Each volume has a dedicated editor (or editors) and it is to them that special thanks must be given for their unstinting and hard work in organizing and preparing the chapters. The names of the volume editors, together with highlights from each volume, are given below.

VOLUME 1: Photovoltaic Solar Energy Professor Vasilis Fthenakis, Director, Center for Life Cycle Analysis, Adj. Professor, Earth and Environmental Engineering, Columbia University, New York USA. and Professor Wilfred GJHM van Sark, Copernicus Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.

This volume, the largest in the compendium, provides a concise overview of the developments in photovoltaic (PV) solar energy and includes discussions and reports on the latest technology available. It has taken nearly 60 years for the PV industry to develop into a 100 billion dollar business, and it will probably take less than ten years to reach a trillion dollar level. This is much needed for the transition to a society based on renewable energy sources.

In order to illustrate the recent interest in photovoltaic solar energy, we note that since the publication of Volume 1 the cumulative installed capacity increased by a factor of 10¬–740 GWp by the end of 2020, while the cost decreased by a factor of about 6, which shows that the historical experience curve has continued to this day. This was due to an enormous growth in production capacity predominantly in China as well as new innovations in silicon technology, which is detailed in the updated chapter by Stephan Glunz and Ralf Preu. In the past decade, a new kid on the block showed up: thin film solar cells based on the perovskite crystal structure. A new chapter on perovskites has been added authored by Fei Zhang, Joseph Berry, and Kai Zhu, which also discusses a potential tandem cell structure that may surpass the 30% efficiency limit based on combining perovskites with

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silicon technology. In the application field, a new system design has surfaced by deploying solar modules on water bodies, both inland and off-shore. With the enormous potential, the so-called floatovoltaics may be the surprise of the next decade. There are new chapters on Utility Friendly PVs, Perovskites and Floating PVs. Finally, the increasing penetration rate of photovoltaics systems in the electricity grid may cause (local) congestion in the grid, which will be exacerbated by the increasing number of wind turbines. This leads to new options to promote self-consumption especially at the residential grid level. These are described in a new chapter by Gaëtan Masson, Francesca Tilli, and Luisa Calleri.

Local grid integration will also require better spatial resolution forecasting which is demonstrated by Lennard Visser in the updated chapter on solar forecasting.

Finally, a guide to the reader is provided to facilitate retrieval of the information.

VOLUME 2: Wind Energy Professor (Ioannis) John K. Kaldellis. Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, University of West Attica, Vice Rector of Research of UNIWA and Associate Editor of Renewable Energy Journal, Head of Lab of Soft Energy Applications and Environmental Protection (SEALAB), Athens, Greece.

This volume provides an overview of the state of the art in the field of wind energy technology and wind farm deployment with seventeen (17) updated chapters from the 1st edition and four (4) entirely new ones. Moreover, stemming from their classical content, four (4) chapters have remained as were in the 1st edition.

Owing to the stunning upscaling in wind turbine sizes and the continuous improvements that have taken place in wind turbine technology over the last decade, wind energy generation has noted a tremendous increase from barely 350 TWhe in 2010 to more than 1600 TWhe in 2020, covering nowadays more than 6% of the global electricity demand. Another noteworthy feature is that offshore wind power is no more a developing energy technology but it stands out as a well-established one that is continuously increasing its share in the global energy mix. The specific subjects are underlined throughout this volume, giving special emphasis on the technological evolution of both onshore and offshore sectors.

A new chapter has been included on the reliability and maintenance of wind turbines, along with the maintenance strategies that affect the operation and maintenance planning and also their corresponding costs. Another new chapter looks at the parameters that should be examined during the financial evaluation of any wind power investment. Based on a thoroughly conceptualized analytical model, this chapter analyses cost-benefits, risk involvement, lifecycle wind energy production costs and gives an all-inclusive perspective on the financial evaluation process.

A third new chapter investigates the social acceptance of wind energy applications, focusing on the mechanisms that govern the public opinion and the reliable assessment of impacts, mitigation measures and future trends. The chapter concludes that, in order to have the desired results, early changes may need to be made in wind parks planning in order to satisfy all stakeholders involved.

Yet another new chapter describes and reviews small-scale wind turbines in terms of their components, costs, applications, opportunities for technology innovation and current and future directions for research and development.

VOLUME 3: Solar Thermal Systems: Components and Applications Professor Soteris A. Kalogirou Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Dept of Mechanical Engineering, University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus.

The chapters from the 1st edition have been updated and new chapters include a chapter on Urban Heat Island and Advanced Mitigating Technology, one on Solar PV and Heating and Cooling Functions and a chapter on Photovoltaic/Thermal Solar Collectors which includes innovative applications.

VOLUME 4: Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Technology Professor Keith Scott, Electrochemical Engineering Science, Chemical Engineering, Newcastle University, NE1 7RU, United Kingdom.

Many of the chapters from the 1st edition have been updated and 12 new chapters have been included. These include chapters on future perspective on hydrogen and fuel cells; hybrid energy systems for power of sustainable buildings; phosphoric acid fuel cells; alkaline electrolysers; techno-economic analysis of hydrogen electrolysis systems; alkaline anion exchange membranes; water electrolysers – future/current perspectives in electrolysers for hydrogen production.

Preface to the 9 Volumes

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VOLUME 5: Biomass and Biofuel Production Professor Tony Roskilly, Director, Sir Joseph Swan Centre for Energy Research, Stephenson Building Newcastle University, Newcastle, NE1 7RU, United Kingdom and Janie Ling-Chin Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom.

Few of the chapters from the 1st edition have been updated but most of the chapters in this volume are new topics.

The volume is divided into four sections: Global, Regional or National perspectives; Feedstocks and/or Production Processes; Use or Applications; and Life Cycle Assessment.

In the first section, there are chapters on: existing bioenergy policies worldwide covering production, power generation, biomethane, biogas, liquid biofuels, and solid biomass; opportunities for growing bioenergy crops in Europe; a review of biofuel production in a number of countries with a focus on costs, biofuel consumption, labour force, regulatory quality and financial development; and a review of biogas in Asia, investigating the socioeconomic impacts, the current socioeconomic and institutional barriers.

The second section, Feedstocks and/or Production Processes, includes chapters on: the basic characteristics of biogas and a methodology for estimating biogas production; a review on ethanol production from renewable feedstocks; a review on vegetal biomasses, including ethanol of the first and second generation, xylitol, biopolymers, biosurfactants, organic acids and other feedstocks; two reviews on hydrothermal liquefaction; a chapter on the role of solvents in enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose and hemicellulose, sugar fermentation, and transesterification of triglycerides; a chapter on the production pathways of biogas and ethanol from biomass and algae; and a chapter on bio-electrochemical systems.

In the final section on Life Cycle Assessment, there is a chapter on LCA as a tool for assessing the environmental impacts of biofuel production; and a chapter on meta-analysis of LCA literature on woody biomass production.

VOLUME 6: Hydro Power Professor Ånund Killingtveit, Emeritus Professor, Dept of Civil Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.

Hydropower is a mature technology, developed and used in over 130 years. It is by far the largest source of renewable electricity, currently supplying 4400 TWh/year, or 17% of the world electricity consumption. The electricity generation from hydropower is more than that of all other renewables combined, about three times that of wind and five times that of solar power.

Hydropower is “fuelled” by water moving in the water cycle. The water cycle is powered by solar energy and will continue as long as the sun shines, making hydropower a 100% renewable energy source.

Hydropower is among the most efficient renewable electrical energy technologies, with a typical efficiency of 90% or better, “water-to-wire”. Hydropower produces some of the lowest cost electricity of any generation technology. The LCOE of large-scale hydro projects at excellent sites can be as low as USD 0.02/kWh, while typical costs are in the range of USD 0.03–0.05/kWh where untapped economic resources remain.

In addition to providing energy, hydropower has technical characteristics that enable it to provide many other services to make power systems operation more reliable. Hydropower offers many very important services to the power grid, helping to maintain system stability and security of supply by providing frequency regulation, voltage support, contingency reserves, load following and black start service. It has an increasingly important role providing grid-scale energy storage and power balancing services for intermittent renewables like wind and solar. To store and save excess generation from wind and solar during periods of high supply and low demand, pumped storage hydropower (PSH) is the best option. PSH currently dominates grid storage capacity, with 96% of the world total of 176 GW installed capacity. The flexibility and storage capabilities of reservoir plants and pumped storage hydropower facilities are unmatched by any other technology.

Hydropower offers significant potential for carbon emissions reductions, since GHG emissions are generally low, usually less than 1–2% of that from coal power plants. Hydropower has the highest energy payback ratio (EPR) of all electricity generation technologies, with EPR up to 267 for run-of-river plants and 205 for storage plants.

Globally, there is still a large potential for further hydropower development, since only 28% of technical and 46% of economic potential is yet utilized. Remaining potential is largest in Asia, South America and Africa, but significant undeveloped potentials can also be found in Europa and North America. A realistic scenario is to double the annual generation from 4400 TWh (2020) to over 9000 TWh. In a recent report from the International Energy Agency (IEA) it is stated that “Reaching net-zero emissions by 2050 worldwide calls for a huge increase in hydropower ambitions”.

Environmental and social impacts will need to be carefully managed. The use of new sustainability guidelines and tools for analysis should help making hydropower sustainable also in the future. Climate change can be a challenge to hydropower in some regions of the world, but also lead to increasing production in other regions. In total, global hydropower generation will probably increase. Since the future climate and hydrology will change, it is increasingly important to integrate climate change impacts in the planning process for the future hydropower system.

A few of the chapters from the 1st edition have been updated but most of the chapters in Volume 6 are new. The issues mentioned above have been expanded in the 20 chapters of this volume and there are also chapters on hydropower resources and potential, underground hydropower plants, pumped storage, sediment issues and small hydro plants. The deployment of hydropower in the Nepal, China, Norway, India, Africa and Turkey is discussed with a chapter devoted to each country and region.