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COMPREHENSIVERENEWABLE ENERGY

SECONDEDITION

COMPREHENSIVERENEWABLE ENERGY

SECONDEDITION

EDITORINCHIEF

TrevorM.Letcher

UniversityofKwaZulu-Natal,Durban,SouthAfrica; StrattonontheFosse,Somerset,UnitedKingdom

VOLUME1

SolarPhotovoltaicEnergy

VOLUMEEDITORS

VasilisM.Fthenakis

ColumbiaUniversity,NewYork,NY,UnitedStates

WilfriedG.J.H.M.vanSark

UtrechtUniversity,CopernicusInstituteofSustainableDevelopment,Utrecht,TheNetherlands

AMSTERDAM

Elsevier Radarweg29,POBox211,1000AEAmsterdam,Netherlands TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,CambridgeMA02139,UnitedStates

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EDITORBIOGRAPHIES

EditorInChief

TrevorM.LetcherisEmeritusProfessorattheUniversityofKwaZulu-Natal,SouthAfrica.Hewas aProfessorofchemistrywiththeUniversityoftheWitwatersrand,RhodesUniversityandNatal, inSouthAfrica,andhaspublishedmorethan300papersonchemicalthermodynamictopicsand wastefromlandfilltopicsinpeer-reviewedjournalsaswellas100papersinpopularscience andeducationjournals.Hehasbeenamemberoftheeditorialboardof JournalofChemical Thermodynamics forthepast30years.Hehaseditedandwritten29books,ofwhich19were publishedbyElsevierontopicsrangingfromfutureenergy,climatechange,storingenergy,waste, windenergy,solarenergy,managingglobalwarming,andunravelingenvironmentaldisasters. HewasappointedanEditor-in-ChiefoftheElsevier’sninevolumecompendiumentitled ComprehensiveRenewableEnergy in2020.

HehasservedasthePresidentofboththeAfricanAssociationofPureandAppliedChemistry (AAPAC),andoftheSouthAfricanInstituteofChemistry.HewasawardedthegoldmedaloftheSouthAfricanChemicalInstitute (1999)andthegoldmedaloftheSouthAfricanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience(2001)forhiscontributionsto chemistryinSouthAfrica.HehasbeenawardedlifemembershipofboththeRoyalSocietyofChemistry(London)andtheSouth AfricanInstituteofChemistry.

VolumeEditors

VasilisM.Fthenakis istheFounderandDirectoroftheCenterforLifeCycleAnalysisand Adj.ProfessorofEarthandEnvironmentalEn gineeringandofElectricalEngineeringat ColumbiaUniversity,andadistinguishedSeniorScientistEmeritusatBrookhavenNational Laboratory.Heistheauthorof400publications,citedmorethan12500times,including the ‘ GrandSolarPlan ’ inScienti fi cAmericanandEnergyPolicy,showingthetechnical, geographical,andeconomicfeasibilityofthesolarenergytosatisfytheenergyneedsofthe UnitedStates,andtextbooksonphotovoltaics.Heisamemberoftheeditorialboardsof ProgressinEnergy,Energies,ProgressinPhotovoltaics,EnergyTechnology ,andthe JournalofLoss Prevention .HeisalsoaFellowoftheAmericanInstituteofChemicalEngineers(AIChE),a FellowoftheInstituteofElectricalandElectronicEngineer s(IEEE),aFellowoftheInternationalEnergyFoundation,a memberofseveralenergyandsustainabilityexpertpanels,an dheestablishedtheInternationalEnergyAgency(IEA)Task 12onPVEnvironmentalHealthandSafety.

WilfriedvanSark isfullprofessor “IntegrationofPhotovoltaics” attheCopernicusInstituteof SustainableDevelopment.Heisaexperimentalphysicistbytraining(MSc/PhD),andhasover 35yearexperienceinthe fieldofphotovoltaics.Heworkedonvariousmaterialsystemssuchas crystallineandthin filmsiliconandIII-Vsolarcells,bothexperimentallyandtheoretically.His currentactivitiesfocusonemployingspectrumconversiontoincreasesolarcellconversionefficiency fornext-generationphotovoltaicenergyconverterssuchasluminescentsolarconcentratorsaswellas performanceanalysisofbuilding-integratedandstandardPVsystemsinthe field.Thisinparticular linkstotheintegrationofPVsystemsinsmartgridsinthebuiltenvironment,inwhichElectrical Vehicles,demandresponseandself-consumptionandself-sufficiencyplayamajorrole.Heisthe authorofsome250publications,citedmorethan12,000times,andvarious(text)booksonPhotovoltaics.Heisassociateeditorof SolarEnergyandFrontiersinEnergyResearch,andmemberoftheeditorialboardsofRenewableEnergy,Energies,andMaterials.Heis memberoftheInternationalSolarEnergySocietyandseniormemberoftheInstituteofElectricalandElectronicEngineers(IEEE)and ismemberofscientificcommitteesofvariousEUandIEEEPVconferences.HepresentlyisnationalrepresentativeintheInternational EnergyAgency(IEA)PVPSTask13(PVPerformance,OperationandReliabilityofPhotovoltaicSystems)andTask16(SolarResource forHighPenetrationandLargeScaleApplications).

CONTRIBUTORSFORALLVOLUMES

P.Abdeshahian

DepartmentofBiotechnology,EngineeringSchoolof Lorena UniversityofSãoPaulo,Lorena,SãoPaulo, Brazil

AbdulSamadAbdul-Rahim

SchoolofBusinessandEconomics,UniversitiPutra Malaysia,Serdang,Selangor,Malaysia

BrianAgnew

DepartmentofMechanicalandConstruction Engineering,NorthumbriaUniversity,Newcastleupon Tyne,UnitedKingdom

P.Agnolucci

ImperialCollegeLondon,London,UK

H.Ahmed

SolarEnergyApplicationsGroup,DepartmentofCivil, StructuralandEnvironmentalEngineering,Schoolof Engineering,TrinityCollegeDublin,Dublin,Ireland

D.Aklil

PureEnergyCenter,Unst,ShetlandIsles,UK

S.Alexopoulos

Solar-InstitutJülich,FHAachenUniversityofApplied Sciences,Jülich,Germany

KnutAlfredsen

DepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineering, NorwegianUniversityofScienceandTechnology, Trondheim,Norway

MatthewAllmark

SchoolofEngineering,CardiffUniversity,Wales,United Kingdom

FilibertoAltobelli

CREA ResearchCentreforAgriculturalPoliciesand Bioeconomy,Rome,Italy

J.Alves

UniversityofNewSouthWales,Sydney,NSW, Australia

SakibBinAmin

SchoolofBusinessandEconomicsandAccreditation ProjectTeam(APT),NorthSouthUniversity,Dhaka, Bangladesh

IfeanyiMichaelSmarteAnekwe UniversityofTheWitwatersrand,Johannesburg,South Africa

AthanasiosAngeloudis

SchoolofEngineering,InstituteforInfrastructure & Environment,UniversityofEdinburgh,Edinburgh, UnitedKingdom

A.Anthrakidis

Solar-InstitutJülich,FHAachenUniversityofApplied Sciences,Jülich,Germany

ElisaAntolín

InstitutodeEnergíaSolar,UniversidadPolitécnicade Madrid,Madrid,Spain

F.A.FAntunes

DepartmentofBiotechnology,EngineeringSchoolof Lorena UniversityofSãoPaulo,Lorena,SãoPaulo, Brazil

HalldórÁrmannsson Fellsmúli,Reykjavík,Iceland

AndreasAthienitis ConcordiaUniversity,Montreal,QC,Canada

PetrosJ.Axaopoulos

LabofSoftEnergyApplications & Environmental Protection,UniversityofWestAttica,Athens,Greece GudniAxelsson GRÓGeothermalTrainingProgramme,Reykjavík, Iceland

IoanAşchilean TechnicalUniversityofCluj-Napoca,Cluj-Napoca, Romania

ViorelBadescu

CandidaOanceaInstitute,PolytechnicUniversityof Bucharest,Bucharest,Romania

TorHaakonBakken NorwegianUniversityofScienceandTechnology (NTNU),Trondheim,Norway

T.R.Balbino DepartmentofBiotechnology,EngineeringSchoolof Lorena UniversityofSãoPaulo,Lorena,SãoPaulo, Brazil

P.Banda InstitutodeSistemaFotovoltaicosdeConcentración (ISFOC),Puertollano,Spain

V.MartíBarclay SchoolofOceanSciences,BangorUniversity,Bangor, Wales,UnitedKingdom

G.Barone

DepartmentofIndustrialEngineering,Universityof NaplesFedericoII,Naples,Italy

TarsoLeandroBastos

InstitutodeQuímica,UniversidadeFederaldoGoiás, Goiânia,GO,Brazil

J.S.Bawa

CEA,NewDelhi,India

BenjaminD.Baxter

ElectricalandComputerEngineering,Sustainabilityand RenewableEnergySystemsProgram,Universityof Wisconsin–Platteville,Platteville,WI,UnitedStates

SemaZ.Baykara

ChemicalEngineeringDepartment,YildizTechnical University,Istanbul,Turkey

V.G.Belessiotis

‘DEMOKRITOS’ NationalCenterforScientific Research,Athens,Greece

MichaelBelsnes

SINTEFEnergyResearch,Trondheim,Norway

JosephJ.Berry

NationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory,Golden,CO, UnitedStates

SubhesBhattacharyya

InstituteofEnergyandSustainableDevelopment,De MontfortUniversity,Leicester,UnitedKingdom

PawanKumarBhattarai

DepartmentofCivilEngineering,PulchowkCampus, InstituteofEngineering,TribhuwanUniversity,Kirtipur, Nepal

AmitC.Bhosale

DepartmentofHydroandRenewableEnergy,Indian InstituteofTechnologyRoorkee,Roorkee,Uttarakhand, India

ThomasBohl

SirJosephSwanCentreforEnergyResearch,Newcastle University,NewcastleuponTyne,UnitedKingdom

AndreiBolboacă

TechnicalUniversityofCluj-Napoca,Cluj-Napoca, Romania

GuidoBonati

CREA ResearchCentreforAgriculturalPoliciesand Bioeconomy,Rome,Italy

G.Boschloo

UppsalaUniversity,Uppsala,Sweden

AudunBotterud

ArgonneNationalLaboratory,Lemont,IL,UnitedStates

DespoinaBoulogiorgou

SoftEnergyApplicationsandEnvironmentalProtection Laboratory,UniversityofWestAttica,Athens,Greece

C.Boura

Solar-InstitutJülich,FHAachenUniversityofApplied Sciences,Jülich,Germany

MichelBourban

DepartmentofPoliticsandInternationalStudies, UniversityofWarwick,Coventry,UnitedKingdom

TomBradley

NarecDistributedEnergy,NationalRenewableEnergy Centre,CharlesParsonsTechnologyCentre,Blyth, UnitedKingdom

EinarBroch

NorwegianUniversityofScienceandTechnology, Trondheim,Norway

OddbjørnBruland DepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineering, NorwegianUniversityofScienceandTechnology, Trondheim,Norway

A.Buonomano

DepartmentofIndustrialEngineering,Universityof NaplesFedericoII,Naples,ItalyandDepartmentof Building,CivilandEnvironmentalEngineering –ConcordiaUniversity,Montreal,QC,Canada

LuisaF.Cabeza GREiAResearchGroup,UniversitatdeLleida,Lleida, Spain

P.Cabrera

DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,Universidadde LasPalmasdeGranCanaria,LasPalmasdeGran Canaria,Spain

LuisaCalleri ElettricitàFutura,Rome,Italy

R.A.ChicoCaminos HatechnoGmbH,Halver,Germany

MaxCampbell Constantine,Falmouth,UnitedKingdom

LuisCandanedo SanJose,CA,UnitedStates

Y.G.Caouris

DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering & Aeronautics, UniversityofPatras,Patras,Greece

RafaelCapaz

DepartmentofBiotechnology,DelftUniversityof Technology,Delft,TheNetherlandsandFacultyof MechanicalEngineering,UniversityofCampinas, Campinas,Brazil

U.B.Cappel

UppsalaUniversity,Uppsala,Sweden

J.A.Carta

DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,Universidadde LasPalmasdeGranCanaria,LasPalmasdeGran Canaria,Spain

B.Cass

SolarEnergyApplicationsGroup,DepartmentofCivil, StructuralandEnvironmentalEngineering,Schoolof Engineering,TrinityCollegeDublin,Dublin,Ireland

M.J.Castro-Alonso

DepartmentofBiotechnology,EngineeringSchoolof Lorena UniversityofSãoPaulo,Lorena,SãoPaulo, Brazil

DumitruCebrucean

DepartmentofMechanicalMachines,Equipmentand Transportation,PolitehnicaUniversityofTimisoara, Timisoara,Romania

IlkeCelik

ElectricalandComputerEngineering,Sustainabilityand RenewableEnergySystemsProgram,Universityof Wisconsin–Platteville,Platteville,WI,UnitedStates

S.Chandra

SolarEnergyApplicationsGroup,DepartmentofCivil, StructuralandEnvironmentalEngineering,Schoolof Engineering,TrinityCollegeDublin,Dublin,Ireland

JamesChapman

UniversityofAberdeen,Aberdeen,UnitedKingdom

P.Chen

DalianInstituteofChemicalPhysics,Dalian,China

YulongChen

SchoolofMetallurgicalEngineering,AnhuiUniversityof Technology,Ma’anshan,China

PriscillaYiYunCheonh

DepartmentofChemical & EnergyEngineering,Faculty ofEngineeringandScience,CurtinUniversityMalaysia, Miri,Sarawak,Malaysia

SumanRoyChoudhury

NavalMaterialsResearchLaboratory,DRDO, Ambernath,Maharashtra,India

DimitrisG.Christakis

WindEnergyLaboratory,TechnologicalEducational InstituteofCrete,Crete,Greece

DavidChristie SchoolofOceanSciences,BangorUniversity,Menai Bridge,UnitedKingdom

BartoszW.Chwieduk InstituteofHeatEngineering,FacultyofPowerand AeronauticalEngineering,WarsawUniversityof Technology,Warszawa,Poland

DorotaA.Chwieduk InstituteofHeatEngineering,FacultyofPowerand AeronauticalEngineering,WarsawUniversityof Technology,Warszawa,Poland

DeclanClausen CityofNewcastle,Newcastle,NSW,Australia

SuaniT.Coelho EnergyGraduationProgram,InstituteofEnergyand EnvironmentandPhDProgramonBioenergy,University ofSãoPaulo,SãoPaulo,BrazilandResearchGroupon Bioenergy,InstituteofEnergyandEnvironment, UniversityofSãoPaulo(GBIO/IEE/USP),SãoPaulo, Brazil

FlávioColmati InstitutodeQuímica,UniversidadeFederaldoGoiás, Goiânia,GO,Brazil

G.Conibeer UniversityofNewSouthWales,Sydney,NSW, Australia

JoãoCosta HeadofSustainability,InternationalHydropower Association,London,UnitedKingdom

J.Culina FundyOceanResearchCentreforEnergy(FORCE), Parrsboro,NS,Canada

DavidM.Culley Improbable,London,UnitedKingdom

MonicaDan NationalInstituteforResearchandDevelopmentof IsotopicandMolecularTechnologies INCDTIM,ClujNapoca,Romania

SwatiDas PKSinhaCentreforBioenergy & Renewables,Indian InstituteofTechnologyKharagpur,Kharagpur,India

MartinDavid InstitutoTecnológicoBuenosAires,CiudadAutónomade BuenosAires,Argentina;ConsejoNacionalde InvestigacionesCient´ ıficasyTécnicas(CONICET), CiudadAutónomadeBuenosAires,Argentina;and AutomaticControlDepartment,UniversitatPolitècnica deCatalunya,InstitutdeRobòticaiInformàtica Industrial(CSIC-UPC),Barcelona,España

BrynhildurDavidsdottir

UniversityofIceland,EnvironmentandNatural Resources,Reykjavík,IcelandandGRÓGeothermal TrainingProgramme,Reykjavík,Iceland

MorganeDeclerck

UniversityofAberdeen,Aberdeen,UnitedKingdom

AndrewL.Dicks

QueenslandMicro-andNanotechnologyCentre,Griffith University,Brisbane,QLD,Australia

AndréL.Diniz

ElectricalEnergyResearchCenter(CEPEL),Riode Janeiro,Brazil

R.DiPippo

ChancellorProfessorEmeritus,Universityof MassachusettsDartmouth,Dartmouth,MA,United States

MichelaDeDominicis

NationalOceanographyCentre,Liverpool,United Kingdom

BeatriceDower

MVGLA,Comrie,Perthshire,UnitedKingdom

GiulianoDragone

DepartmentofBiotechnologyandBiomedicine,Technical UniversityofDenmark,KongensLyngby,Denmark

ShangfengDu

SchoolofChemicalEngineering,Universityof Birmingham,Birmingham,UnitedKingdom

K.J.Dussán

DepartmentofEngineering,PhysicsandMathematics, InstituteofChemistry,SãoPauloStateUniversity-Unesp, Araraquara,SãoPaulo,Brazil;SãoPauloState University(Unesp),BioenergyResearchInstitute (IPBEN),Araraquara,SãoPaulo,Brazil;andCenterfor MonitoringandResearchoftheQualityofFuels, Biofuels,CrudeOil,andDerivatives-Instituteof Chemistry EMPEQC,SãoPauloStateUniversity (Unesp),Araraquara,Brazil

NarcisM.Duteanu

SchoolofEngineering,NewcastleUniversity,Newcastle uponTyne,UnitedKingdomandFacultyofIndustrial ChemistryandEnvironmentalEngineering,University “POLITEHNICA” Timisoara,Timisoara,Romania NikolaosEfthymiou WorldBank,Washington,DC,UnitedStates

H.-J.Egelhaaf KonarkaTechnologiesGmbH,Nürnberg,Germany

T.Ehara

MizuhoInformation & ResearchInstitute,Tokyo,Japan

BenjaminErable SchoolofEngineering,NewcastleUniversity,Newcastle uponTyne,UnitedKingdomandLaboratoiredeGénie Chimique,CNRS-UniversitédeToulouse,Toulouse, France

JavierFaragoEscobar EnvironmentalScienceandEngineering,HarvardJohn A.PaulsonSchoolofEngineeringandAppliedSciences, HarvardUniversity,Cambridge,MA,UnitedStates

M.DoloresEsteban ECOREL Environment,Coast,andOceanResearch Laboratory,UniversidadPolitécnicadeMadrid,Madrid, Spain

G.Faninger UniversityofKlagenfurt,Klagenfurt,AustriaandVienna UniversityofTechnology,Vienna,Austria

VladimirN.Fateev NationalResearchCentre “KurchatovInstitute” , Moscow,Russia

M.G.A.Felipe DepartmentofBiotechnology,EngineeringSchoolof Lorena UniversityofSãoPaulo,Lorena,SãoPaulo, Brazil

Raluca-AndreeaFelseghi StefancelMare,UniversityofSuceava,Suceava, RomaniaandTechnicalUniversityofCluj-Napoca,ClujNapoca,Romania

J.Feng FacultyBuiltEnvironment,UNSW,Sydney,Australia

T.B.Ferriday DepartmentofEngineeringSciences,Universityof Agder,Kristiansand,Norway

HalitErenFigen ChemicalEngineeringDepartment,YildizTechnical University,Istanbul,Turkey

RubensMacielFilho LaboratoryofOptimization,DesignandAdvanced Control,SchoolofChemicalEngineering,Universityof Campinas,Campinas,Brazil

GeorgiosA.Florides CyprusUniversityofTechnology,Limassol,Cyprus ÓlafurG.Flóvenz IcelandGeoSurvey(ÍSOR),Reykjavík,Iceland

C.Forzano DepartmentofIndustrialEngineering,Universityof NaplesFedericoII,Naples,Italy

L.M.Fraas JXCrystals,Issaquah,WA,UnitedStates

RafaelCostaFreiria

SchoolofTechnology,UniversityofCampinas(FT/ Unicamp),SãoPaulo,BrazilandPublicPolicies Laboratory,SchoolofTechnology,Universityof Campinas(LAPPA/FT/Unicamp),SãoPaulo,Brazil

ThráinnFridriksson

SeniorGeoscientist,ReykjavikEnergy,Reykjavík,Iceland

V.M.Fthenakis

ColumbiaUniversity,NewYork,NY,UnitedStates

VasilisFthenakis

UtrechtUniversity,Utrecht,TheNetherlandsand ColumbiaUniversity,NewYork,NY,UnitedStates

MusandjiFuamba

ÉcolePolytechniquedeMontréal,Montréal,QC, Canada

SimonW.Funke

SimulaResearchLaboratory,Fornebu,Norway

MartaGandiglio

EnergyDepartment,PolitecnicodiTorino,Torino,Italy

K.Gao

FacultyBuiltEnvironment,UNSW,Sydney,Australia

S.Garshasbi

FacultyBuiltEnvironment,UNSW,Sydney,Australia

R.Gazey

PureEnergyCenter,Unst,ShetlandIsles,UK

SolomonB.Gebre

HafslundEco,Oslo,Norway

MakarandGhangrekar

DepartmentofCivilEngineering,IndianInstituteof TechnologyKharagpur,Kharagpur,IndiaandPKSinha

CentreforBioenergy & Renewables,IndianInstituteof TechnologyKharagpur,Kharagpur,IndiaandSchoolof Engineering,NewcastleUniversity,Newcastleupon Tyne,UnitedKingdom

AlessandroGiampieri

DepartmentofEngineering,DurhamUniversity, Durham,UnitedKingdom

M.Giannouli

UniversityofPatras,Patras,Greece

E.A.Gibson

UniversityofNottingham,Nottingham,UK

G.F.Giuzio

DepartmentofIndustrialEngineering,Universityof NaplesFedericoII,Naples,Italy

TorGjermundsen

Sweco,ArchitectureandEngineeringConsultancy, Trondheim,Norway

BrianJ.Glover

BærekraftigInvesteringAS,Oppegaard,Norway

S.W.Glunz

FraunhoferInstituteforSolarEnergySystems,Freiburg, Germany

J.C.Goldschmidt

FraunhoferInstituteforSolarEnergySystemsISE, Freiburg,Germany

SaraGolroodbari

CopernicusInstituteofSustainableDevelopment,Utrecht University,Utrecht,TheNetherlands

J.González

DepartmentofElectronicsandAutomaticsEngineering, UniversidaddeLasPalmasdeGranCanaria,Las PalmasdeGranCanaria,Spain

MarcelodeFreitasGonçalves

EmbraerS.A.,SãoJosédosCampos,Brazil

R.Gottschalg

FraunhoferCenterforSiliconPhotovoltaicsCSP,Halle (Saale),Germany

DanGrech Chelmsford,UnitedKingdom

M.A.Green

TheUniversityofNewSouthWales,Sydney,NSW, Australia

SergeyA.Grigoriev

NationalResearchCentre “KurchatovInstitute” , Moscow,Russia;NationalResearchUniversity “Moscow PowerEngineeringInstitute”,Moscow,Russia;and HySAInfrastructureCenterofCompetence,Facultyof Engineering,North-WestUniversity,Potchefstroom, SouthAfrica

C.A.Gueymard

SolarConsultingServices,Colebrook,NH,UnitedStates

EinarGunnlaugsson Independentconsultant,Reykjavík,Iceland EgillÁrniGuðnason IcelandGeoSurvey(ÍSOR),Reykjavík,Iceland

J.Göttsche

Solar-InstitutJülich,FHAachenUniversityofApplied Sciences,Jülich,Germany

A.Hagfeldt

UppsalaUniversity,Uppsala,Sweden

BymanHamududu

TheNorwegianWaterResourcesandEnergyDirectorate, Oslo,Norway

AliElHanandeh

SchoolofEngineeringandBuiltEnvironment,Griffith University,Nathan,QLD,Australia

BrookeHannon

CivilandEnvironmentalEngineering,Universityof Wisconsin–Platteville,Platteville,WI,UnitedStates

AtleHarby

SINTEFEnergyResearch,Trondheim,Norway

J.A.Hauch

KonarkaTechnologiesGmbH,Nürnberg,Germany

J.vanderHeide

imecvzw,Leuven,Belgium

DetlevHeinemann UniversityofOldenburg,Oldenburg,Germany

A.F.Hernandez-Perez

DepartmentofBiotechnology,EngineeringSchoolof Lorena UniversityofSãoPaulo,Lorena,SãoPaulo, Brazil

Gylfi PállHersir

IcelandGeoSurvey(ÍSOR),Reykjavík,Iceland

P.Hilger

SynhelionGermanyGmbH,BergischGladbach, Germany

L.C.Hirst

DepartmentofPhysicsandDepartmentofMaterials ScienceandMetallurgy,UniversityofCambridge, Cambridge,UnitedKingdom

B.Hoffschmidt

GermanAerospaceCenter,DLR,InstituteofSolar Research,Cologne,Germany

SeyedEhsanHosseini

DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,Combustionand SustainableEnergyLaboratory(ComSEL),Arkansas TechUniversity,Russellville,AR,UnitedStates

YulinHu

InstituteforChemicalsandFuelsfromAlternative Resources(ICFAR),DepartmentofChemicaland BiochemicalEngineering,WesternUniversity,London, ON,Canada

GanHuang

ImperialCollegeLondon,London,UnitedKingdom

N.Hughes

ImperialCollegeLondon,London,UK

F.VanHulle

XPWindConsultancy,Leuven,Belgium

DianaHusmann

Nexant,Madison,WI,UnitedStates

ZoëL.Hutchison

UniversityofStAndrews,SchoolofBiology,Scotland, UnitedKingdom;UniversityofRhodeIsland,Graduate SchoolofOceanography,Narragansett,RI,United States;andScottishAssociationforMarineScience, ScottishMarineInstitute,UniversityoftheHighlands andIslands,Scotland,UnitedKingdom

A.P.Ingle

DepartmentofBiotechnology,EngineeringSchoolof Lorena UniversityofSãoPaulo,Lorena,SãoPaulo, Brazil

IoanaIonel

DepartmentofMechanicalMachines,Equipmentand Transportation,PolitehnicaUniversityofTimisoara, Timisoara,Romania

J.T.S.Irvine UniversityofStAndrews,StAndrews,UK

YusufMakarfi Isa UniversityofTheWitwatersrand,Johannesburg,South Africa

PanizIzadi InstituteofEnvironmentalandSustainableChemistry, TechnischeUniversitätBraunschweig,Braunschweig, Germany

TomJacobsen SediConAs,Trondheim,Norway

PeterJamieson CenterforDoctoralTraininginWindandMarine EnergySystemsandStructures,UniversityofStrathclyde, Glasgow,UnitedKingdom

MadhawaJayathilake DepartmentofEngineeringSciences,Facultyof EngineeringandScience,UniversityofAgder,Grimstad, Norway

ToroddJensen NVE,NorwegianWaterResourcesandEnergy Directorate,Oslo,Norway

Y.Jestin Ki3PhotonicsTechnologiesInc.,Montreal,QC,Canada

ZhiyuJiang DepartmentofEngineeringSciences,Universityof Agder,Grimstad,Norway

EmmanuelJjunju SwecoNorgeAS,Oslo,Norway

F.M.Jofre

DepartmentofBiotechnology,EngineeringSchoolof Lorena UniversityofSãoPaulo,Lorena,SãoPaulo, Brazil

E.Johnson

PureEnergyCenter,Unst,ShetlandIsles,UK

BalrajJoshi NHPCLtd.,Faridabad,India

ArnulfJäger-Waldau EuropeanCommission,JointResearchCentre,Ispra, Italy

HenkF.Kaan

ECNEnergyResearchCentreoftheNetherlands,Petten, TheNetherlands

FoqoruddinAlKabir

SchoolofBusinessandEconomics,NorthSouth University,Dhaka,Bangladesh

CodyA.Kabus

ElectricalandComputerEngineering,Sustainabilityand RenewableEnergySystemsProgram,Universityof Wisconsin–Platteville,Platteville,WI,UnitedStates

AminaKadyrzhanova

SustainabilitySpecialist,InternationalHydropower Association,London,UnitedKingdom

JohnK.Kaldellis

LabofSoftEnergyApplicationsandEnvironmental ProtectionLaboratory,UniversityofWestAttica,Athens, Greece

SoterisA.Kalogirou

DepartmentofMechanicalEngineeringandMaterials SciencesandEngineering,CyprusUniversityof Technology,Limassol,Cyprus

HarryD.Kambezidis

AtmosphericResearchTeam,InstituteofEnvironmental ResearchandSustainableDevelopment,National ObservatoryofAthens,Athens,Greece

JibrailKansedo

DepartmentofChemical & EnergyEngineering,Faculty ofEngineeringandScience,CurtinUniversityMalaysia, Miri,Sarawak,Malaysia

MeltemKaraismailoglu

ChemicalEngineeringDepartment,YildizTechnical University,Istanbul,TurkeyandDepartmentofEnergy ScienceandTechnology,Turkish-GermanUniversity, Istanbul,Turkey

MadjidKarimirad

CivilEngineering,SchoolofNaturalandBuilt Environment,Queen'sUniversityBelfast(QUB), NorthernIreland,UnitedKingdom

PravinKarki

GlobalLead,Hydropower & Dams,WorldBankGroup, Washington,DC,UnitedStates

T.Karlessi

NationalandKapodistrianUniversityofAthens,Athens, Greece

S.N.Karlsdottir

DepartmentofIndustrialEngineering,Mechanical EngineeringandComputerScience,Universityof Iceland,Reykjavík,IcelandandGerosionLtd.,Reykjavík, Iceland

DimitrisAlKatsaprakakis

WindEnergyLaboratory,TechnologicalEducational InstituteofCrete,Crete,Greece

O.Kaufhold

GermanAerospaceCenter,DLR,Cologne,Germany

C.A.Kaufmann

CompetenceCentrePhotovoltaics(PVcomB),Helmholtz ZentrumfürMaterialienundEnergieGmbH,Berlin, Germany

KosmasKavadias

LabofSoftEnergyApplications & Environmental Protection,MechanicalEngineeringDepartment, UniversityofWestAttica,Athens,Greece

LawrenceL.Kazmerski

RenewableandSustainableEnergyInstitute(RASEI), UniversityofColoradoBoulder,Boulder,CO,United States

FarhanKhan

SchoolofBusinessandEconomics,NorthSouth University,Dhaka,Bangladesh

LindiweKhotseng UniversityofTheWesternCape,CapeTown,South Africa

AlainKilajian

SeniorSustainabilitySpecialist,International HydropowerAssociation,London,UnitedKingdom

ÅnundKillingtveit

NorwegianUniversityofScienceandTechnology (NTNU),Trondheim,Norway

WillianJunKimura InstituteofEnergyandEnvironment,UniversityofSão Paulo(IEE/USP),SãoPaulo,Brazil

LenaKitzing

DTU,TechnicalUniversityofDenmark,Denmark

L.Kloo

KTH RoyalInstituteofTechnology,Stockholm,Sweden

EwaKlugmann-Radziemska FacultyofChemistry,GdanskUniversityofTechnology, Gdansk,Poland

ToreKnutsen

RainpowerHoldingAS,Lillestrøm,Norway

HagenKoch

PotsdamInstituteforClimateImpactResearch(PIK), Potsdam,Germany

F.R.Kogler

KonarkaTechnologiesGmbH,Nürnberg,Germany

D.Kolokotsa

TechnicalUniversityofCrete,Crete,Greece

K.Komoto

MizuhoInformation & ResearchInstitute,Tokyo,Japan

E.Kondili

TechnologicalEducationInstituteofPiraeus,Athens, Greece

Emilia Μ.Kondili

OptimisationofProductionSystemsLaboratory, MechanicalEngineeringDepartment,UniversityofWest Attica,Athens,Greece

MagnusKorpås

NorwegianUniversityofScienceandTechnology, Trondheim,Norway

StephanC.Kramer

DepartmentofEarthScience & Engineering,Imperial CollegeLondon,London,UnitedKingdom

H.Kristjánsdóttir

UniversityofAkureyri,Akureyri,Iceland

ArunKumar

DepartmentofHydroandRenewableEnergy,Indian InstituteofTechnologyRoorkee,Roorkee,India

PiyushKumar

CIPET:CSTSAurangabad,Aurangabad,India

L.A.Lamont

MottMacDonaldLimited,Glasgow,UnitedKingdom

G.A.Landis

NASAGlennResearchCenter,Cleveland,OH,United States

AndreaLanzini

EnergyDepartment,PolitecnicodiTorino,Torino,Italy

JohnSieYonLau

DepartmentofChemical & EnergyEngineering,Faculty ofEngineeringandScience,CurtinUniversityMalaysia, Miri,Sarawak,Malaysia

MihaelaD.Lazar

NationalInstituteforResearchandDevelopmentof IsotopicandMolecularTechnologies INCDTIM,ClujNapoca,Romania

E.Leccisi CenterforLifeCycleAnalysis,ColumbiaUniversity, NewYork,NY,UnitedStates

G.Leftheriotis

EnergyandEnvironmentLab,PhysicsDepartment, UniversityofPatras,Rion,Greece

T.Leo FuelCellEnergyInc.,Danbury,CT,USA

TrevorM.Letcher UniversityofKwaZulu-Natal,Durban,SouthAfricaand LaurelHouse,FosseWay,StrattonontheFosse,United Kingdom

MattLewis UniversityofBangor,Bangor,UnitedKingdom

JoséJoaquínLinaresLeón

InstitutodeQuímica,UniversidadedeBrasília,Brasília, DF,Brazil

DaLi

DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,Loughborough University,Loughborough,UnitedKingdom

HaimingLi

SchoolofMetallurgicalEngineering,AnhuiUniversityof Technology,Ma’anshan,China

JiaxinLi

SchoolofMetallurgicalEngineering,AnhuiUniversityof Technology,Ma’anshan,China

YangLi

SchoolofChemicalEngineering,Universityof Birmingham,Birmingham,UnitedKingdom

YongLi InstituteofrefrigerationandCryogenicsEngineering, SchoolofMechanicalEngineering,ShanghaiJiaoTong University,Shanghai,China

LilianLieber

MarineLaboratory,TheBrydenCentre,Schoolof ChemistryandChemicalEngineering,Queen's UniversityBelfast,NorthernIreland,UnitedKingdom

StefanLiersch

PotsdamInstituteforClimateImpactResearch(PIK), Potsdam,Germany

JanieLing-Chin

DepartmentofEngineering,DurhamUniversity, Durham,UnitedKingdom

FernandoM.deAmorimLino InstitutodeQuímica,UniversidadedeBrasília,Brasília, DF,Brazil

HongmingLong

SchoolofMetallurgicalEngineering,AnhuiUniversityof Technology,Ma’anshan,China

ElkeLorenz

FraunhoferInstituteforSolarEnergySystemsISE, Freiburg,Germany

AtseLouwen

InstituteforRenewableEnergy,EuracResearch,Bolzano, Italy

HangyongLu

SchoolofEngineeringandBuiltEnvironment,Griffith University,Nathan,QLD,Australia

KatherineMaryLuketina

WaikatoRegionalCouncil,Hamilton,NewZealand

JohnW.Lund

OregonInstituteofTechnology,KlamathFalls,OR, UnitedStates

FlavioLupia

CREA ResearchCentreforAgriculturalPoliciesand Bioeconomy,Rome,Italy

AntonioLuque InstitutodeEnergíaSolar,UniversidadPolitécnicade Madrid,Madrid,Spain

José-SantosLópez-Gutiérrez

ECOREL Environment,Coast,andOceanResearch Laboratory,UniversidadPolitécnicadeMadrid,Madrid, Spain

JimingMa

StakeKeyLaboratoryofHydroscienceandEngineering, TsinghuaUniversity,Beijing,China

LucasMackie

DepartmentofEarthScience & Engineering,Imperial CollegeLondon,London,UnitedKingdom

DanielMaga

FraunhoferInstituteforEnvironmental,Safety,and EnergyTechnologyUMSICHT,Oberhausen,Germany

GraemeG.Maidment SchoolofEngineering,LondonSouthBankUniversity, London,UnitedKingdom

MohamedMamlouk NewcastleUniversity,SchoolofEngineering,Merz Court,NewcastleuponTyne,UnitedKingdom

Á.Margeirsson

Unnarholtehf.,Garðabæ,Iceland.

ChiaraMarieni

GéosciencesEnvironnementToulouse,CNRS,Toulouse, France

ChristosN.Markides ImperialCollegeLondon,London,UnitedKingdom

M.Martinez InstitutodeSistemaFotovoltaicosdeConcentración (ISFOC),Puertollano,Spain

EliasMartinez-Hernandez BiomassConversionDivision,MexicanInstituteof Petroleum,MexicoCity,Mexico

S.E.Martiniano DepartmentofBiotechnology,EngineeringSchoolof Lorena UniversityofSãoPaulo,Lorena,SãoPaulo, Brazil

AntonioMartí InstitutodeEnergíaSolar,UniversidadPolitécnicade Madrid,Madrid,Spain

SanetteMarx DST/NRFResearchChairinBiofuels,Centreof ExcellenceinCarbon-basedFuels,North-WestUniversity (PotchefstroomCampus),Potchefstroom,SouthAfrica

AllanMason-Jones SchoolofEngineering,CardiffUniversity,Wales,United Kingdom

GaëtanMasson BecquerelInstitute,Brussels,Belgium

S.Mathew UniversityofBruneiDarussalam,Gadong,Brunei Darussalam

GuillermoMatute InstrumentaciónyComponentesS.A.,Zaragoza,Spain

S.J.McCormack SolarEnergyApplicationsGroup,DepartmentofCivil, StructuralandEnvironmentalEngineering,Schoolof Engineering,TrinityCollegeDublin,Dublin,Ireland

MikeMcWilliams McWilliamsEnergy,Tenterden,UnitedKingdom

WyattMetzger CaliforniaTechnologyCenter,FirstSolarInc.,Santa Clara,CA,UnitedStates

P.H.Middleton DepartmentofEngineeringSciences,Universityof Agder,Kristiansand,Norway

E.Mier-Alba DepartmentofBiotechnology,EngineeringSchoolof Lorena UniversityofSãoPaulo,Lorena,SãoPaulo, Brazil

MariaMihet

NationalInstituteforResearchandDevelopmentof IsotopicandMolecularTechnologies INCDTIM,ClujNapoca,Romania

DavidMilborrow Consultant,EastSussex,UnitedKingdom

RaeanneG.Miller

AquateraLtd.,OldAcademyBusinessCentre,Scotland, UnitedKingdomandTheBrydenCentre,Universityof theHighlandsandIslands,Inverness,UnitedKingdom

PierreMillet

UniversitéParis-Saclay,InstitutdeChimieMoléculaire etdesMatériauxd'Orsay,Orsay,France

CatherineMitchell UniversityofExeter,UK,DTU,TechnicalUniversityof Denmark,Denmark

V.Molkov

HydrogenSafetyEngineeringandResearchCentre (HySAFER),UlsterUniversity,Newtownabbey, NorthernIreland,UnitedKingdom

MagdaMoner-Girona EuropeanCommission,JointResearchCentre(JRC), Ispra,Italy

JuanMoreno-Cruz SchoolofEnvironment,EnterpriseandDevelopment, UniversityofWaterloo,Waterloo,ON,Canada

LaurenceMorgan

CenterforDoctoralTraininginWindandMarine EnergySystemsandStructures,UniversityofStrathclyde, Glasgow,UnitedKingdom

MaheshMorjaria

TerabaseEnergy,Scottsdale,AZ,UnitedStates

CeriE.Morris UniversityoftheWestofEngland,Bristol,United Kingdom

PoulErikMorthorst DTU,TechnicalUniversityofDenmark,Denmark

DavidMoser

InstituteforRenewableEnergy,EuracResearch,Bolzano, Italy

IngridLopesMotta

LaboratoryofOptimization,DesignandAdvanced Control,SchoolofChemicalEngineering,Universityof Campinas,Campinas,Brazil

RoryO’HaraMurray MarineScienceScotland,Aberdeen,UnitedKingdom

SolangeI.Mussatto DepartmentofBiotechnologyandBiomedicine,Technical UniversityofDenmark,KongensLyngby,Denmark

MonikaFreunekMüller LighthouseScienceConsultingandTechnologiesInc., NewBrunswick,Canada

D.Nash UniversityofStrathclyde,Glasgow,UK

VicenteNegro ECOREL Environment,Coast,andOceanResearch Laboratory,UniversidadPolitécnicadeMadrid,Madrid, Spain

SimonP.Neill SchoolofOceanSciences,BangorUniversity,Menai Bridge,UnitedKingdom

GregoryF.Nemet UniversityofWisconsin –Madison,Madison,WI,United States

KokSiewNg DepartmentofEngineeringScience,Universityof Oxford,Oxford,UnitedKingdom

LinmeiNie FoundationCSDIWaterTech,Oslo,Norway

BrianNorton MaREICentre,TechnologicalUniversityDublin,Dublin, Ireland

CarlosOcampo-Martinez AutomaticControlDepartment,UniversitatPolitècnica deCatalunya,InstitutdeRobòticaiInformàtica Industrial(CSIC-UPC),Barcelona,España

JóhannÖrlygsson SchoolofBusinessandScience,UniversityofAkureyri, Akureyri,Iceland

V.Ortisi PureEnergyCenter,Unst,ShetlandIsles,UK FinnbogiÓskarsson SeniorGeochemist,IcelandGeosurvey,Reykjavík, Iceland

PatriciaOsseweijer DepartmentofBiotechnology,DelftUniversityof Technology,Delft,TheNetherlands

EmilyM.Ott ElectricalandComputerEngineering,Sustainabilityand RenewableEnergySystemsProgram,Universityof Wisconsin–Platteville,Platteville,WI,UnitedStates

B.O’Connor

Solar-InstitutJülich,FHAachenUniversityofApplied Sciences,Jülich,Germany

TimO’Doherty

SchoolofEngineering,CardiffUniversity,Wales,United Kingdom

Diego-CésarAlarcónPadilla

CentrodeInvestigacionesEnergeticasMedioambientales yTecnologicas(CIEMAT),Madrid,Spain

A.Palombo

DepartmentofIndustrialEngineering,Universityof NaplesFedericoII,Naples,Italy

KrishnaKantaPanthi

NorwegianUniversityofScienceandTechnology, Trondheim,Norway

E.Papanicolaou

‘DEMOKRITOS’ NationalCenterforScientific Research,Athens,Greece

N.Pearsall

NorthumbriaUniversity,NewcastleuponTyne,United Kingdom

JanPedersen

DaniloPerecin

InstituteofEnergyandEnvironment,UniversityofSão Paulo(IEE/USP),SãoPaulo,BrazilandCentrefor EnvironmentalPolicy,ImperialCollegeLondon,London, UnitedKingdom

H.Pettersson

SwereaIVFAB,Mölndal,Sweden

G.S.Philip

KCAET,Malapuram,Kerala,India

R.R.Philippini

DepartmentofBiotechnology,EngineeringSchoolof Lorena UniversityofSãoPaulo,Lorena,SãoPaulo, Brazil

MatthewD.Piggott

DepartmentofEarthScience & Engineering,Imperial CollegeLondon,London,UnitedKingdom

S.Pillai

TheUniversityofNewSouthWales,Sydney,NSW, Australia

JohnPosada

DepartmentofBiotechnology,DelftUniversityof Technology,Delft,TheNetherlands

TavisPotts

ChairinSustainableDevelopment,Schoolof Geosciences,UniversityofAberdeen,Aberdeen,Scotland

A.Pouliezos

Industrial,EnergyandEnvironmentalSystems Laboratory,SchoolofProductionandManagement Engineering,TechnicalUniversityofCrete,Chania, Greece

C.A.Prado

DepartmentofBiotechnology,EngineeringSchoolof Lorena UniversityofSãoPaulo,Lorena,SãoPaulo, Brazil

R.Preu FraunhoferInstituteforSolarEnergySystems,Freiburg, Germany

GiuseppePulighe CREA ResearchCentreforAgriculturalPoliciesand Bioeconomy,Rome,Italy

A.Pyrgou CivilAviationAuthority,Cyprus

JuanI.Pérez-Díaz UniversidadPolitécnicadeMadrid,Madrid,Spain ÍñigoRamiro

InstitutodeEnergíaSolar,UniversidadPolitécnicade Madrid,Madrid,SpainandCENIMAT/I3N, DepartamentodeCiênciadosMateriais,Faculdadede CiênciaseTecnologia,FCT,UniversidadeNovade Lisboa,Caparica,Portugal

R.Ramya DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,IndianInstituteof TechnologyMadras,Chennai,TamilNadu,India

G.Ranzi DepartmentCivilEngineering,UniversityofSydney, Sydney,Australia

C.Rau IATechGmbH,Cologne,Germany

M.Raugei OxfordBrookesUniversity,Oxford,UnitedKingdom

FernandoRei InternationalEnvironmentalLaw,CatholicUniversityof Santos,Santos,BrazilandEnvironmentalLaw, ArmandoAlvaresPenteadoFoundation(FAAP),São Paulo,Brazil

TjerkH.Reijenga BEAR-iD,Gouda,TheNetherlandsandBEAR-iD, Shanghai,People'sRepublicofChina

AngèleH.M.E.Reinders EindhovenUniversityofTechnology,Eindhoven,The NetherlandsandUniversityofTwente,Enschede,The Netherlands

C.Rendón

ProjektträgerJülich(PtJ)-ForschungszentrumJülich GmbH,Jülich,Germany

R.Rengaswamy

DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,IndianInstituteof TechnologyMadras,Chennai,TamilNadu,India

R.Reyes-Guzman

DepartmentofBiotechnology,EngineeringSchoolof Lorena UniversityofSãoPaulo,Lorena,SãoPaulo, Brazil

D.R.Ribeaux

DepartmentofBiotechnology,EngineeringSchoolof Lorena UniversityofSãoPaulo,Lorena,SãoPaulo, Brazil

KatharineRicke

ScrippsInstitutionofOceanographyandSchoolofGlobal PolicyandStrategy,UniversityofCalifornia,SanDiego, CA,UnitedStates

BrysonRobertson CivilandConstructionEngineering,OregonState University,Corvallis,OR,UnitedStates

T.M.Rocha

DepartmentofBiotechnology,EngineeringSchoolof Lorena UniversityofSãoPaulo,Lorena,SãoPaulo, Brazil

AnthonyPaulRoskilly

DepartmentofEngineering,DurhamUniversity, Durham,UnitedKingdom

EfstratiosRounis

Laval,QC,Canada

SomnathBaidyaRoy

CentreforAtmosphericSciences,IndianInstituteof TechnologyDelhi,NewDelhi,India

SumitRoy DepartmentofEngineering,DurhamUniversity, Durham,UnitedKingdom

O.delaRubia

InstitutodeSistemaFotovoltaicosdeConcentración (ISFOC),Puertollano,Spain

F.Rubio

InstitutodeSistemaFotovoltaicosdeConcentración (ISFOC),Puertollano,Spain

SoumanRudra

DepartmentofEngineeringSciences,Facultyof EngineeringandScience,UniversityofAgder,Grimstad, Norway

LadislausRybach InstituteofGeophysicsETHZurich,Zurich,Switzerland

Maria-SimonaRăboaca NationalResearchandDevelopmentInstitutefor CryogenicandIsotopicTechnologies ICSI,Valcea, Romania

KristjánSaemundsson IcelandGeoSurvey(ÍSOR),Reykjavík,Iceland

Samet Şahin DepartmentofBioengineering,Bilecik ŞeyhEdebali University,Bilecik,Turkey

R.P.Saini DepartmentofHydroandRenewableEnergy,Indian InstituteofTechnologyRoorkee,Roorkee,Uttarakhand, India

S.Sanchez-Muñoz DepartmentofBiotechnology,EngineeringSchoolof Lorena UniversityofSãoPaulo,Lorena,SãoPaulo, Brazil

DurgaPrasadSangroula DepartmentofCivilEngineering,PulchowkCampus, InstituteofEngineering,TribhuwanUniversity,Kirtipur, Nepal

M.Santamouris FacultyBuiltEnvironment,UNSW,Sydney,Australia

J.C.Santos DepartmentofBiotechnology,EngineeringSchoolof Lorena UniversityofSãoPaulo,Lorena,SãoPaulo, Brazil

WilfriedG.J.H.M.vanSark UtrechtUniversity,Utrecht,TheNetherlandsand ColumbiaUniversity,NewYork,NY,UnitedStates

ShreeniwasSathe DepartmentofCivilEngineering,IndianInstituteof TechnologyKharagpur,Kharagpur,India

J.Sattler

Solar-InstitutJülich,FHAachenUniversityofApplied Sciences,Jülich,Germany

M.Sauerborn Solar-InstitutJülich,FHAachenUniversityofApplied Sciences,Jülich,Germany

T.W.Schmidt UniversityofNewSouthWales,Sydney,NSW, Australia

N.Scho field UniversityofManchester,Manchester,UK

R.E.I.Schropp UtrechtUniversity,Utrecht,TheNetherlands

PedroRodrigoScorza GOLAirlines,SãoPaulo,Brazil

BethScott UniversityofAberdeen,Aberdeen,UnitedKingdom

KeithScott SchoolofEngineering,NewcastleUniversity,Newcastle uponTyne,UnitedKingdom

SeanMichaelScully SchoolofBusinessandScience,UniversityofAkureyri, Akureyri,IcelandandSchoolofHumanitiesandSocial Sciences,UniversityofAkureyri,Akureyri,Iceland

JoaquimSeabra FacultyofMechanicalEngineering,Universityof Campinas,Campinas,Brazil

S.P.Sen NHPCLtd.,Faridabad,India

HariShankarShrestha HydroTunnelingandResearchPvt.Ltd.,Kathmandu, Nepal

BergurSigfússon Carbfix,Reykjavík,Iceland

MagnúsÁ.Sigurgeirsson IIcelandGeoSurvey(ISOR),Reykjavík,Iceland

D.D.V.DaSilva DepartmentofBiochemistryandOrganicChemistry, InstituteofChemistry,SãoPauloStateUniversity-Unesp, Araraquara,SãoPaulo,Brazil

S.S.DaSilva DepartmentofBiotechnology,EngineeringSchoolof Lorena UniversityofSãoPaulo,Lorena,SãoPaulo, Brazil

AndreaC.Simonelli DepartmentofPoliticalScience,Virginia CommonwealthUniversity,Richmond,VA,United States

L.Sims

KonarkaTechnologiesGmbH,Nürnberg,Germanyand UniversitätAugsburg,Augsburg,Germany

AndrewSmallbone DepartmentofEngineering,DurhamUniversity, Durham,UnitedKingdom

SandraÓ.Snæbjörnsdóttir Carbfix,Reykjavík,Iceland

AliÜnal Şorman MiddleEastTechnicalUniversity,Ankara,Turkey

J.P.DeSouza DepartmentofEngineering,PhysicsandMathematics, InstituteofChemistry,SãoPauloStateUniversity-Unesp, Araraquara,SãoPaulo,Brazil

LaisGalileuSperanza GreenColab AssociaçãoOceanoVerde,Universidadedo Algarve,CampusdeGambelas,Faro,Portugaland UniversidadeEstadualdeSãoPauloJúliodeMesquita Filho(UNESP),CampusdeRioClaro,RioClaro,SP, Brazil

NarasimaluSrikanth EnergyResearchInstitute,NanyangTechnological University,Singapore,Singapore

G.S.Stavrakakis SchoolofElectricalandComputerEngineering, TechnicalUniversityofCrete,Chania,Greece

EdwardSteane GreaterSydneyCommission,Sydney,NSW,Australia andOxfordUrbanistsMagazine,Oxford,United Kingdom

R.Steim KonarkaTechnologiesGmbH,Nürnberg,Germany

BenediktSteingrímsson IcelandGeoSurvey(ÍSOR),Reykjavík,Iceland

KjellErikStensby NVE,NorwegianWaterResourcesandEnergy Directorate,Oslo,Norway

L.Sun

KTH RoyalInstituteofTechnology,Stockholm,Sweden andDalianUniversityofTechnology(DUT),Dalian, China

S.R.Suseendiran DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,IndianInstituteof TechnologyMadras,Chennai,TamilNadu,India

D.T.Swift-Hook KingstonUniversity,London,UKandWorldRenewable EnergyNetwork,Brighton,UK

A.Synnefa FacultyBuiltEnvironment,UNSW,Sydney,Australia

SandorSzabo EuropeanCommission,JointResearchCentre(JRC), Ispra,Italy

KristjánSæmundsson IIcelandGeoSurvey(ISOR),Reykjavík,Iceland

JensN.Sørensen DTUWindEnergy,SectionofAero-andFluid Dynamics,Lyngby,Denmark

YieHuaTan

DepartmentofChemical & EnergyEngineering,Faculty ofEngineeringandScience,CurtinUniversityMalaysia, Miri,Sarawak,Malaysia

YufeiTang

DepartmentofComputerandElectricalEngineeringand ComputerScience,FloridaAtlanticUniversity,Boca Raton,FL,UnitedStates

PeterJ.Tavner DepartmentofEngineering,DurhamUniversity, Durham,UnitedKingdom

M.J.Y.Tayebjee UniversityofNewSouthWales,Sydney,NSW, Australia

RichardM.Taylor

RMTRenewablesConsultingLtd,London,United Kingdom

A.Tesfai

UniversityofStAndrews,StAndrews,UK

HaakonThaulow

NIVA,NorwegianInstituteforWaterResearch,Oslo, Norway

FrancescaTilli

GestoredeiServiziEnergetici(GSE),Rome,Italy

AnikoN.Toth

Ana-GeoLtd.,Miskolc,Hungary

PanagiotisTriantafyllou

LabofSoftEnergyApplicationsandEnvironmental ProtectionLaboratory,UniversityofWestAttica,Athens, Greece

YiannisTripanagnostopoulos UniversityofPatras,Patras,Greece

L.Tsakalakos

L3HarrisTechnologies,Plano,TX,UnitedStates

GeorgiosT.Tzanes

LabofSoftEnergyApplications & Environmental Protection,UniversityofWestAttica,Athens,Greece

EftihiaTzen

CentreforRenewableEnergySourcesandSaving (CRES),Pikermi,Greece

OğuzTürkyılmaz

IndustrialEngineer,ChairmanofEnergyCommissionof ChamberofMechanicalEngineers,Ankara,Turkey

G.Ulpiani

DepartmentCivilEngineering,UniversityofSydney, Sydney,Australia

T.Unold

Dept.StructureandDynamicsofEnergyMaterials, HelmholtzZentrumfürMaterialienundEnergieGmbH, Berlin,Germany

EsaKVakkilainen LUTUniversity,Lappeenranta,Finland

DanielA.Vallero DepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineering, DukeUniversity,Durham,NC,UnitedStates

RoelfJ.Venter

DST/NRFResearchChairinBiofuels,Centreof ExcellenceinCarbon-basedFuels,North-WestUniversity (PotchefstroomCampus),Potchefstroom,SouthAfrica

LennardVisser

CopernicusInstituteofSustainableDevelopment,Utrecht University,Utrecht,theNetherlands

P.vanderVleuten FreeEnergyConsulting,Eindhoven,TheNetherlands

MartinVoigt

InsituteofEarthSciences,UniversityofIceland, Reykjavík,Iceland

IvoWallimann-Helmer UniversityofFribourgEnvironmentalSciencesand HumanitiesInstitute,Fribourg,Switzerland

KaiWang ZhejiangUniversity,Hangzhou,China

RuzhuWang

InstituteofrefrigerationandCryogenicsEngineering, SchoolofMechanicalEngineering,ShanghaiJiaoTong University,Shanghai,China

SophieLWard

SchoolofOceanSciences,BangorUniversity,Menai Bridge,UnitedKingdom

KiflomB.Wasihun NorwegianUniversityofScienceandTechnology, Trondheim,Norway

RufeiWei

InstituteforChemicalsandFuelsfromAlternative Resources(ICFAR),DepartmentofChemicaland BiochemicalEngineering,WesternUniversity,London, ON,CanadaandSchoolofMetallurgicalEngineering, AnhuiUniversityofTechnology,Ma’anshan,China

LuukvanderWielen

DepartmentofBiotechnology,DelftUniversityof Technology,Delft,TheNetherlandsandBernalInstitute, UniversityofLimerick,Limerick,Ireland

BenjaminJ.Williamson

EnvironmentalResearchInstitute,NorthHighland College,UniversityoftheHighlandsandIslands, Thurso,UnitedKingdom

TireeWithers

BangorUniversity,SchoolofOceanSciences,Menai Bridge,Anglesey,UnitedKingdom

T.Wizelius

JudithWolf

NationalOceanographyCentre,Liverpool,United Kingdom

DavidWood

DepartmentofMechanicalandManufacturing Engineering,UniversityofCalgary,Calgary,AB, Canada

GengXia

NationalWindTechnologyCenter,NationalRenewable EnergyLaboratory(NREL),Golden,CO,UnitedStates

GangXiong

CaliforniaTechnologyCenter,FirstSolarInc.,Santa Clara,CA,UnitedStates

ChunbaoCharlesXu

InstituteforChemicalsandFuelsfromAlternative Resources(ICFAR),DepartmentofChemicaland BiochemicalEngineering,WesternUniversity,London, ON,CanadaandSchoolofMetallurgicalEngineering, AnhuiUniversityofTechnology,Ma’anshan,China

M.Yamaguchi

ToyotaTechnologicalInstitute,Nagoya,Japan

YichangYan

SchoolofChemicalEngineering,Universityof Birmingham,Birmingham,UnitedKingdom

P.Yianoulis

EnergyandEnvironmentLab,PhysicsDepartment, UniversityofPatras,Rion,Greece

EileenHaoYu

DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,Loughborough University,Loughborough,UnitedKingdomandSchool ofEngineering,NewcastleUniversity,Newcastleupon Tyne,UnitedKingdom

GeunYoungYun DepartmentofArchitecturalEngineeringofKyungHee University,Yongin-si,SouthKorea

JoseM.Yusta DepartmentofElectricalEngineering,Universityof Zaragoza,Zaragoza,Spain

DimitriosP.Zafirakis LabofSoftEnergyApplicationsandEnvironmental Protection,DepartmentofMechanicalEngineers, UniversityofWestAttica,Athens,Greece

SalomonSalumuZahera ÉcolePolytechniquedeMontréal,Montréal,QC, CanadaandInstitutNationalduBâtimentetdes Travaux-Publics(INBTP),Kinshasa,People'sDemocratic RepublicofCongo

AriannaZampollo UniversityofAberdeen,Aberdeen,UnitedKingdom

DonatellaZappalá FacultyofAerospaceEngineering,DelftUniversityof Technology,Delft,TheNetherlands

GuillermoZaragoza CentrodeInvestigacionesEnergeticasMedioambientales yTecnologicas(CIEMAT),Madrid,Spain

MulugetaB.Zelelew MulticonsultNorway,Oslo,Norway

M.Zeman DelftUniversityofTechnology,Delft,TheNetherlands

FeiZhang NationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory,Golden,CO, UnitedStates

BaiyangZhao InstituteofrefrigerationandCryogenicsEngineering, SchoolofMechanicalEngineering,ShanghaiJiaoTong University,Shanghai,China

HuaZhao DepartmentofChemistryandBiochemistry,University ofNorthernColorado,Greeley,CO,UnitedStates

LimingZhou

DepartmentofAtmosphericandEnvironmentalSciences, UniversityatAlbany,StateUniversityofNewYork, Albany,NY,UnitedStates

KaiZhu NationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory,Golden,CO, UnitedStates

QianZi

DepartmentofMechanicalandConstruction Engineering,NorthumbriaUniversity,Newcastleupon Tyne,UnitedKingdom

AzeemOluwaseyiZubair

SchoolofBusinessandEconomics,UniversitiPutra Malaysia,Serdang,Selangor,Malaysia

JamesVanZwieten DepartmentofCivil,EnvironmentalandGeomatics Engineering,FloridaAtlanticUniversity,BocaRaton, FL,UnitedStates

PREFACE

Adecadehaspassedsincethepublicationofthe firsteditionof ComprehensiveRenewableEnergy.Duringthistime,the fieldof renewableenergyhaswitnessedsignificantdevelopmentsinallitsbranchesandtheseinclude:photovoltaicsolarenergy,wind energy,solarthermalenergy,fuelcellsandhydrogentechnology,hydropower,geothermalenergyandoceanenergy.Thechapters fromthe firsteditionhavebeenupdatedandmanynewchaptershavebeenincluded.The firsteditionhad154chapters; thisedition, “ComprehensiveRenewableEnergy 2nd edition”,contains195chaptersin9volumes,includinganewvolumeon environmentalandsocialissueslinkedtothedeploymentofrenewableformsofenergy.Ofthemanybooksandmultivolume referenceworksdevotedtorenewableenergy,thiscompendiummustrateasthemostcomprehensiveandup-to-datecompilation available.

Theneweditioncomesatatimewhentheravagesofclimatechangearebeingfeltinallcornersoftheworld,with flooding, fires,meltingoficesheetsandmeltingglaciers.Asaresult,thedemandforrenewableenergyhasincreasedoverthepast10years sincethe firsteditionofourcompendium.Thisnewsetofvolumesisatimeousreminderthatmoremustbedonetoreplacefossil fuelanditmustbedonefast.Ourcompendiumisashowcaseofwhatisbeingdoneworld-wideandshouldgivealeadtowhat canbedoneinthefuture.

Wehaveassembledover200worldclassscientists,engineers,policy-makers,industrialists,environmentalistsfrommany countriestoauthorandco-authorthechaptersandproducethisde finitivesetofthelatestdevelopmentsinrenewableenergy.The ninevolumescontaincolourcharts,illustrations,andphotographsofrealprojectsandresearchresultsfromaroundtheworld, togetherwithmanythousandsofreferencesfromresearchjournals,booksandrecentinternetwebsites.Theresultisanauthoritativeoverviewwhichprovidesthereaderwithreliablebackgroundinformationandacitationresourceforfurtherinvestigation. Eachchapterhasbeenpainstakinglyreviewedandcheckedforconsistenthighquality.

Oneofthegreatadvantagesofthiscompendiumisthateachchapterhasbeenwrittenbyaworldexpertinhisorherchosen fieldandthereaderisgiventhelatestinformationandviewsofeachtopic.Anothergreatadvantageisthatthecompendium containsinformationonallrenewable fieldsofendeavourandallowsthereadertocomparethedifferentrenewableenergy technologies.Research,developmentandimplementationofrenewableenergyarespreadacrossanumberofdifferentdisciplines andsubjectareasandhavingalloftheseinonecompendiumallowsforasynergisticinteractionbetweenchapterswhichcould leadtonewdevelopmentsandtechnologies.Finally,forthereaderwantingtostudyfurther,therearealargenumberofreferences includedineachchapter,makingforeasyaccesstofurtherinformation.

Carbondioxidelevelsintheatmospherehaveincreasedsincethe1880s,from0.025%to0.042%asmeasureatMaunaLoain Hawaii.Thesepercentagesmightseemsmallbuttheincreaseof60%over140yearsishavingamajoreffectonourclimate. Carbondioxideisnotthemajorgreenhousegas;itishowever,thetriggerthatcausesarelativelysmallriseintemperaturewhichin turncausesanincreaseintheevaporationofwaterfromtheoceans.Itisthisextrawatervapourintheairthatisthemaindriverof globalwarming.ThemaincontributortoincreasedCO2 intheatmosphereistheburningoffossilfuels.Itisforthisreasonthat renewableenergymustsoonreplacefossilfuelanditisthemajorraisond'etreforournewsetof9volumes.

TheonlyrenewableenergysourcewehaveavailableonEarthisradiationfromthesun;thereisnoother.Exploitationisdone directlybycollectingsolarenergyusingphotovoltaiccellsorconcentratedsolarenergyandalsobywind,biomass,hydropower, waveenergy,allofwhichhavebeencreatedbysolarradiation.

Eachvolumehasadedicatededitor(oreditors)anditistothemthatspecialthanksmustbegivenfortheirunstintingandhard workinorganizingandpreparingthechapters.Thenamesofthevolumeeditors,togetherwithhighlightsfromeachvolume,are givenbelow.

VOLUME1:PhotovoltaicSolarEnergy

ProfessorVasilisFthenakis,Director,CenterforLifeCycleAnalysis,Adj.Professor,EarthandEnvironmentalEngineering, ColumbiaUniversity,NewYorkUSA.andProfessorWilfredGJHMvanSark,CopernicusInstitute,UtrechtUniversity,Utrecht,The Netherlands.

Thisvolume,thelargestinthecompendium,providesaconciseoverviewofthedevelopmentsinphotovoltaic(PV)solar energyandincludesdiscussionsandreportsonthelatesttechnologyavailable.Ithastakennearly60yearsforthePVindustryto developintoa100billiondollarbusiness,anditwillprobablytakelessthantenyearstoreachatrilliondollarlevel.Thisismuch neededforthetransitiontoasocietybasedonrenewableenergysources.

Inordertoillustratetherecentinterestinphotovoltaicsolarenergy,wenotethatsincethepublicationofVolume1the cumulativeinstalledcapacityincreasedbyafactorof10¬–740GWpbytheendof2020,whilethecostdecreasedbyafactorof about6,whichshowsthatthehistoricalexperiencecurvehascontinuedtothisday.Thiswasduetoanenormousgrowthin productioncapacitypredominantlyinChinaaswellasnewinnovationsinsilicontechnology,whichisdetailedintheupdated chapterbyStephanGlunzandRalfPreu.Inthepastdecade,anewkidontheblockshowedup:thin filmsolarcellsbasedonthe perovskitecrystalstructure.AnewchapteronperovskiteshasbeenaddedauthoredbyFeiZhang,JosephBerry,andKaiZhu,which alsodiscussesapotentialtandemcellstructurethatmaysurpassthe30%efficiencylimitbasedoncombiningperovskiteswith

silicontechnology.Intheapplication field,anewsystemdesignhassurfacedbydeployingsolarmodulesonwaterbodies,both inlandandoff-shore.Withtheenormouspotential,theso-called floatovoltaicsmaybethesurpriseofthenextdecade.Thereare newchaptersonUtilityFriendlyPVs,PerovskitesandFloatingPVs.

Finally,theincreasingpenetrationrateofphotovoltaicssystemsintheelectricitygridmaycause(local)congestioninthegrid, whichwillbeexacerbatedbytheincreasingnumberofwindturbines.Thisleadstonewoptionstopromoteself-consumption especiallyattheresidentialgridlevel.ThesearedescribedinanewchapterbyGaëtanMasson,FrancescaTilli,andLuisaCalleri. LocalgridintegrationwillalsorequirebetterspatialresolutionforecastingwhichisdemonstratedbyLennardVisserintheupdated chapteronsolarforecasting.

Finally,aguidetothereaderisprovidedtofacilitateretrievaloftheinformation.

VOLUME2:WindEnergy

Professor(Ioannis)JohnK.Kaldellis.Dept.ofMechanicalEngineering,UniversityofWestAttica,ViceRectorofResearchof UNIWAandAssociateEditorof RenewableEnergyJournal,HeadofLabofSoftEnergyApplicationsandEnvironmentalProtection (SEALAB),Athens,Greece.

Thisvolumeprovidesanoverviewofthestateoftheartinthe fieldofwindenergytechnologyandwindfarmdeploymentwith seventeen(17)updatedchaptersfromthe1st editionandfour(4)entirelynewones.Moreover,stemmingfromtheirclassical content,four(4)chaptershaveremainedaswereinthe1st edition.

Owingtothestunningupscalinginwindturbinesizesandthecontinuousimprovementsthathavetakenplaceinwindturbine technologyoverthelastdecade,windenergygenerationhasnotedatremendousincreasefrombarely350TWhein2010tomore than1600TWhe in2020,coveringnowadaysmorethan6%oftheglobalelectricitydemand.Anothernoteworthyfeatureisthat offshorewindpowerisnomoreadevelopingenergytechnologybutitstandsoutasawell-establishedonethatiscontinuously increasingitsshareintheglobalenergymix.Thespeci ficsubjectsareunderlinedthroughoutthisvolume,givingspecialemphasis onthetechnologicalevolutionofbothonshoreandoffshoresectors.

Anewchapterhasbeenincludedonthereliabilityandmaintenanceofwindturbines,alongwiththemaintenancestrategies thataffecttheoperationandmaintenanceplanningandalsotheircorrespondingcosts.Anothernewchapterlooksatthe parametersthatshouldbeexaminedduringthe financialevaluationofanywindpowerinvestment.Basedonathoroughly conceptualizedanalyticalmodel,thischapteranalysescost-benefits,riskinvolvement,lifecyclewindenergyproductioncostsand givesanall-inclusiveperspectiveonthe financialevaluationprocess.

Athirdnewchapterinvestigatesthesocialacceptanceofwindenergyapplications,focusingonthemechanismsthatgovern thepublicopinionandthereliableassessmentofimpacts,mitigationmeasuresandfuturetrends.Thechapterconcludesthat,in ordertohavethedesiredresults,earlychangesmayneedtobemadeinwindparksplanninginordertosatisfyallstakeholders involved.

Yetanothernewchapterdescribesandreviewssmall-scalewindturbinesintermsoftheircomponents,costs,applications, opportunitiesfortechnologyinnovationandcurrentandfuturedirectionsforresearchanddevelopment.

VOLUME3:SolarThermalSystems:ComponentsandApplications

ProfessorSoterisA.KalogirouProfessorofMechanicalEngineering,DeptofMechanicalEngineering,UniversityofTechnology, Limassol,Cyprus.

Thechaptersfromthe1st editionhavebeenupdatedandnewchaptersincludeachapteronUrbanHeatIslandandAdvanced MitigatingTechnology,oneonSolarPVandHeatingandCoolingFunctionsandachapteronPhotovoltaic/ThermalSolar Collectorswhichincludesinnovativeapplications.

VOLUME4:FuelCellsandHydrogenTechnology

ProfessorKeithScott,ElectrochemicalEngineeringScience,ChemicalEngineering,NewcastleUniversity,NE17RU,United Kingdom.

Manyofthechaptersfromthe1st editionhavebeenupdatedand12newchaptershavebeenincluded.Theseincludechapters onfutureperspectiveonhydrogenandfuelcells;hybridenergysystemsforpowerofsustainablebuildings;phosphoricacidfuel cells;alkalineelectrolysers;techno-economicanalysisofhydrogenelectrolysissystems;alkalineanionexchangemembranes;water electrolysers – future/currentperspectivesinelectrolysersforhydrogenproduction.

VOLUME5:BiomassandBiofuelProduction

ProfessorTonyRoskilly,Director,SirJosephSwanCentreforEnergyResearch,StephensonBuildingNewcastleUniversity, Newcastle,NE17RU,UnitedKingdomandJanieLing-ChinDurhamUniversity,Durham,UnitedKingdom.

Fewofthechaptersfromthe1st editionhavebeenupdatedbutmostofthechaptersinthisvolumearenewtopics. Thevolumeisdividedintofoursections:Global,RegionalorNationalperspectives;Feedstocksand/orProductionProcesses; UseorApplications;andLifeCycleAssessment.

Inthe firstsection,therearechapterson:existingbioenergypoliciesworldwidecoveringproduction,powergeneration, biomethane,biogas,liquidbiofuels,andsolidbiomass;opportunitiesforgrowingbioenergycropsinEurope;areviewofbiofuel productioninanumberofcountrieswithafocusoncosts,biofuelconsumption,labourforce,regulatoryqualityand financial development;andareviewofbiogasinAsia,investigatingthesocioeconomicimpacts,thecurrentsocioeconomicandinstitutional barriers.

Thesecondsection,Feedstocksand/orProductionProcesses,includeschapterson:thebasiccharacteristicsofbiogasanda methodologyforestimatingbiogasproduction;areviewonethanolproductionfromrenewablefeedstocks;areviewonvegetal biomasses,includingethanolofthe firstandsecondgeneration,xylitol,biopolymers,biosurfactants,organicacidsandother feedstocks;tworeviewsonhydrothermalliquefaction;achapterontheroleofsolventsinenzymatichydrolysisofcelluloseand hemicellulose,sugarfermentation,andtransesterificationoftriglycerides;achapterontheproductionpathwaysofbiogasand ethanolfrombiomassandalgae;andachapteronbio-electrochemicalsystems.

Inthe finalsectiononLifeCycleAssessment,thereisachapteronLCAasatoolforassessingtheenvironmentalimpactsof biofuelproduction;andachapteronmeta-analysisofLCAliteratureonwoodybiomassproduction.

VOLUME6:HydroPower

ProfessorÅnundKillingtveit,EmeritusProfessor,DeptofCivilEngineering,NorwegianUniversityofScienceandTechnology, Trondheim,Norway.

Hydropowerisamaturetechnology,developedandusedinover130years.Itisbyfarthelargestsourceofrenewable electricity,currentlysupplying4400TWh/year,or17%oftheworldelectricityconsumption.Theelectricitygenerationfrom hydropowerismorethanthatofallotherrenewablescombined,aboutthreetimesthatofwindand fivetimesthatofsolarpower. Hydropoweris “fuelled” bywatermovinginthewatercycle.Thewatercycleispoweredbysolarenergyandwillcontinueaslong asthesunshines,makinghydropowera100%renewableenergysource.

Hydropowerisamongthemostefficientrenewableelectricalenergytechnologies,withatypicalefficiencyof90%orbetter, “water-to-wire”.Hydropowerproducessomeofthelowestcostelectricityofanygenerationtechnology.TheLCOEoflarge-scale hydroprojectsatexcellentsitescanbeaslowasUSD0.02/kWh,whiletypicalcostsareintherangeofUSD0.03–0.05/kWhwhere untappedeconomicresourcesremain.

Inadditiontoprovidingenergy,hydropowerhastechnicalcharacteristicsthatenableittoprovidemanyotherservicestomake powersystemsoperationmorereliable.Hydropoweroffersmanyveryimportantservicestothepowergrid,helpingtomaintain systemstabilityandsecurityofsupplybyprovidingfrequencyregulation,voltagesupport,contingencyreserves,loadfollowing andblackstartservice.Ithasanincreasinglyimportantroleprovidinggrid-scaleenergystorageandpowerbalancingservicesfor intermittentrenewableslikewindandsolar.Tostoreandsaveexcessgenerationfromwindandsolarduringperiodsofhigh supplyandlowdemand,pumpedstoragehydropower(PSH)isthebestoption.PSHcurrentlydominatesgridstoragecapacity, with96%oftheworldtotalof176GWinstalledcapacity.The flexibilityandstoragecapabilitiesofreservoirplantsandpumped storagehydropowerfacilitiesareunmatchedbyanyothertechnology.

Hydropowerofferssignificantpotentialforcarbonemissionsreductions,sinceGHGemissionsaregenerallylow,usuallyless than1–2%ofthatfromcoalpowerplants.Hydropowerhasthehighestenergypaybackratio(EPR)ofallelectricitygeneration technologies,withEPRupto267forrun-of-riverplantsand205forstorageplants.

Globally,thereisstillalargepotentialforfurtherhydropowerdevelopment,sinceonly28%oftechnicaland46%ofeconomic potentialisyetutilized.RemainingpotentialislargestinAsia,SouthAmericaandAfrica,butsignificantundevelopedpotentials canalsobefoundinEuropaandNorthAmerica.Arealisticscenarioistodoubletheannualgenerationfrom4400TWh(2020)to over9000TWh.InarecentreportfromtheInternationalEnergyAgency(IEA)itisstatedthat “Reachingnet-zeroemissionsby 2050worldwidecallsforahugeincreaseinhydropowerambitions” Environmentalandsocialimpactswillneedtobecarefullymanaged.Theuseofnewsustainabilityguidelinesandtoolsfor analysisshouldhelpmakinghydropowersustainablealsointhefuture.Climatechangecanbeachallengetohydropowerinsome regionsoftheworld,butalsoleadtoincreasingproductioninotherregions.Intotal,globalhydropowergenerationwillprobably increase.Sincethefutureclimateandhydrologywillchange,itisincreasinglyimportanttointegrateclimatechangeimpactsinthe planningprocessforthefuturehydropowersystem.

Afewofthechaptersfromthe1steditionhavebeenupdatedbutmostofthechaptersinVolume6arenew.Theissues mentionedabovehavebeenexpandedinthe20chaptersofthisvolumeandtherearealsochaptersonhydropowerresourcesand potential,undergroundhydropowerplants,pumpedstorage,sedimentissuesandsmallhydroplants.Thedeploymentof hydropowerintheNepal,China,Norway,India,AfricaandTurkeyisdiscussedwithachapterdevotedtoeachcountryandregion.

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