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Additive Manufacturing for the Aerospace Industry

Additive Manufacturing for the Aerospace Industry Edited by

Francis Froes Light Metals Industry, Tacoma, WA, United States Advanced Materials Industries, Tacoma, WA, United States

Rodney Boyer RBTi Consulting, Bellevue, WA, United States School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, P.R. China

Elsevier Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN: 978-0-12-814062-8 For Information on all Elsevier publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Matthew Deans Acquisition Editor: Christina Gifford Editorial Project Manager: Andrae Akeh Production Project Manager: Kamesh Ramajogi Cover Designer: Matthew Limbert Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India

List of Contributors

Thomas K. Ales Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States Leonard J. Bond Center for Nondestructive Evaluation, Applied Sciences Complex II, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States; Department of Mechanical Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States; Department of Aerospace Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States Rodney Boyer School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, P.R. China; RBTi Consulting, Bellevue, WA, United States Sheng Cao Monash Centre for Additive Manufacturing (MCAM), Monash University, Notting Hill, VIC, Australia; School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, P.R. China Wei Chen AVIC Manufacturing Technology Institute, Beijing, P.R. China Zhuoer Chen Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia; Monash Centre for Additive Manufacturing (MCAM), Monash University, Notting Hill, VIC, Australia Sergei A. Chizhik Presidium of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Minsk, Republic of Belarus; A.V. Lykov Heat and Mass Transfer Institute of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Minsk, Republic of Belarus Peter C. Collins Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States Chris H.J. Davies Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia; Monash Centre for Additive Manufacturing (MCAM), Monash University, Notting Hill, VIC, Australia Agustin Diaz REM Surface Engineering, Brenham, TX, United States

xiv

List of Contributors

B. Dutta DM3D Technology, Auburn Hills, MI, United States Francis Froes Light Metals Industry, Tacoma, WA, United States; Advanced Materials Industries, Tacoma, WA, United States Lawrence Gasman SmarTech Markets Publishing Crozet, Virginia, United States Shishkovsky Igor Center for Design, Manufacturing and Materials, Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Moscow, Russia Orest Ivasishin G.V. Kurdyumov Institute for Metal Physics, Kyiv, Ukraine Qingbo Jia Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia; Monash Centre for Additive Manufacturing (MCAM), Monash University, Notting Hill, VIC, Australia Manish Kamal Arconic Inc., Arconic Fastening Systems, Carson, CA, United States Mikhail L. Kheifetz Presidium of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Minsk, Republic of Belarus; State Scientific and Production Association hhCenterii of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Minsk, Republic of Belarus Lucas W. Koester Center for Nondestructive Evaluation, Applied Sciences Complex II, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States Dmytro Kovalchuk JSC NVO Chervona Hvilya, Kyiv, Ukraine Anja Loesser EOS North America Inc Zhiqiang Li AVIC Manufacturing Technology Institute, Beijing, P.R. China Brain W. Martin Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States Kevin Minet EOS Finland Oy Thomas F. Murphy Hoeganaes Specialty Metal Powders LLC, Cinnaminson, NJ, United States Joel C. Najmon Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, United States Tsuyoshi Nakagawa JAXA Safety and Mission Assurance, Tokyo, Japan

List of Contributors

xv

M.B. Novikova All-Russia Institute of Light Alloys, JSC, Moscow, Russia Eric Ott General Electric Additive, West Chester, OH, United States I.S. Polkin All-Russia Institute of Light Alloys, JSC, Moscow, Russia Behrang Poorganji General Electric Additive, West Chester, OH, United States Sajjad Raeisi Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, United States Niko Raitanen EOS Finland Oy Jeremy H. Rao Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia; Monash Centre for Additive Manufacturing (MCAM), Monash University, Notting Hill, VIC, Australia Gregory Rizza Arconic Inc., Arconic Fastening Systems, Carson, CA, United States Matthew R. Rolchigo Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States Paul Rometsch Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia; Monash Centre for Additive Manufacturing (MCAM), Monash University, Notting Hill, VIC, Australia; Rio Tinto Arvida Research and Development Centre, Jonquière, QC, Canada Richard Russell NASA Engineering and Safety Center, Kennedy Space Center, FL, United States Ankit Saharan EOS North America Inc Hector Sandoval Lockheed Martin Missiles and Fire Control, Grand Prairie, TX, United States Christopher T. Schade Hoeganaes Specialty Metal Powders LLC, Cinnaminson, NJ, United States Mohsen Seifi ASTM International, Washington, DC, United States Nima Shamsaei National Center for Additive Manufacturing Excellence, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States

xvi

List of Contributors

S.V. Skvortsova Moscow Aviation Institute (National Research University), Moscow, Russia Hossein Taheri Center for Nondestructive Evaluation, Applied Sciences Complex II, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States; Department of Mechanical Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States Andres Tovar Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, United States G.A. Turichin St. Petersburg State Maritime Technical University, St. Petersburg, Russia Petr A. Vityaz Presidium of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Minsk, Republic of Belarus; Joint Institute of Mechanical Engineering of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Minsk, Republic of Belarus Jess Waller NASA-Johnson Space Center White Sands Test Facility, Las Cruces, NM, United States Douglas Wells NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, AL, United States James C. Withers ATS-MER, LLC, Tucson, AZ, United States Xinhua Wu Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia; Monash Centre for Additive Manufacturing (MCAM), Monash University, Notting Hill, VIC, Australia Kun V. Yang Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia; Monash Centre for Additive Manufacturing (MCAM), Monash University, Notting Hill, VIC, Australia; CSIRO Manufacturing, Clayton, VIC, Australia

Introduction to aerospace materials requirements and the role of additive manufacturing

1

Francis Froes1, Rodney Boyer2,3 and B. Dutta4 1 Advanced Materials Industries, Tacoma, WA, United States, 2School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, P.R. China, 3RBTi Consulting, Bellevue, WA, United States, 4DM3D Technology, Auburn Hills, MI, United States

1.1

Aerospace materials and their requirements

Aerospace materials are frequently metal alloys, although they also include polymeric based materials, that have either been developed for, or have come to prominence through, their use for aerospace purposes. Aerospace uses often require exceptional performance, strength or heat resistance, even at the cost of considerable expense in their fabrication or conventional machining. Others are chosen for their long-term reliability in this safety-conscious field, particularly for their resistance to fatigue loading. The field of materials engineering is an important one within aerospace engineering. Its practice is defined by the international standards bodies that maintain standards for the materials and processes involved, such as ASTM, AMS or company specifications (Table 1.1 shows specifications for additive manufacturing [AM]). Generally, not a lot of information is contained in company specs, but with the controls required, a company spec will be mandatory due to the complexity of the process, where the customer will want to know a lot more details than will ever get into a public spec due to protection of proprietary information. A further requirement is observer observation of fabrication of acceptable quality, including microstructures (Fig. 1.1).

1.2

Additive manufacturing

In publications over the past few years [1 5], the cost of fabricating various titanium precursors and mill products has been discussed (very recently the price of TiO2 has risen to $2.00 per pound and TiCl4 to $0.55 per pound) and it has been pointed out that the cost of extraction is a small fraction of the total cost of a component fabricated by the cast and wrought (ingot metallurgy) approach. To reach a final component, the mill products must be machined, often with very high buy-to-fly ratios Additive Manufacturing for the Aerospace Industry. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814062-8.00001-7 © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

2

Additive Manufacturing for the Aerospace Industry

Table 1.1 Specifications released and in-work for additive manufacturing (AM) components Specification no.

Specification title

Status

AMS 4998 AMS 4999

Titanium alloy powder, Ti 6Al 4V Titanium alloy laser deposited products, Ti 6Al 4V, annealed Additive manufacture of aerospace parts from Ni-base superalloy 625 via laser powder bed process Ni base 625 superalloy powder for use in laser powder bed manufacturing of aerospace parts Process requirements for production of powder feedstock for use in laser powder bed additive manufacturing of aerospace parts Laser powder bed fusion process Titanium alloy preforms from high deposition rate additive manufacturing on substrate Ti 6Al 4V stress relieved Quality management systems— requirements for aviation, space, and defense organizations

Released—1977 Released—2002

AMS 7000

AMS 7001

AMS 7002

AMS 7003 AMS 7004

AS9100

In work

In work

In work

In work In work

Issued 1997, Current Rev. D, 2016

The AS (Aerospace Standards) are utilized for details with regard to quality management systems. They do not cover specific material requirements such as properties, inspection, etc.

(which can reach as high as 40:1). The generally accepted cost of machining a component is that it doubles the cost of the component. The feedstock for AM can be a wire or a powder. Using powder, there are two basic approaches to AM: powder bed fusion (PBF) and direct energy deposition (DED), Figs. 1.1 and 1.2. The PBF

Figure 1.1 Schematic showing powder bed fusion technology.

Introduction to aerospace materials requirements and the role of additive manufacturing

Laser beam

3

Final focus optics

Nozzle shielding gas To powder feeder

Feedback sensor 1 Workholding fixture

Feedback sensor 2 Solid free form shape by direct deposition Substract or die preform

Figure 1.2 Schematic showing DMD technology. DMD, Direct metal deposition.

technique allows the fabrication of complex features, hollow cooling passages, high precision parts, and single metal builds. The DED approach allows large build envelopes, high deposition rates, multiple materials, and addition of material to existing components. Mechanical properties are at least at ingot metallurgy levels (including fracture toughness). Examples of AM manufactured parts and parts which could be AM fabricated in an advanced engine are shown in Fig. 1.3.

1.3

Additive manufacturing fabrication of various types of materials

The AM technique has been applied to metals, ceramics, and polymeric materials (Figs. 1.3 1.5) After the AM build, ceramic parts are porous and, if desired, can be infiltrated or fired in a postprocess step. This method is used for fine art ceramics. The primary advantages for 3-D printing, especially binder jetting (binder jetting is an AM process in which a liquid binding agent is selectively deposited to join powder particles. Layers of material are then bonded to form an object, for example by hot isostatic pressing) are low cost, high speed, scalability, ease of building parts in

4

Additive Manufacturing for the Aerospace Industry

Figure 1.3 (A) Examples of metallic parts fabricated by additive manufacturing. (B) The propulsion system for the F-35 lightening, which contains a substantial number of components that can be fabricated by additive manufacturing.

multiple materials, and versatility for use with ceramic materials. Originally evolved from systems that used thermoplastics, the binder jetting method has been modified to accept ceramic slurries or ceramic powders in wax or liquid binder carriers. Material jetting has significant challenges, including getting materials to flow through nozzles at reasonable speeds without clogging. Work is ongoing to improve the rheology of material systems for ceramic materials, such as alumina and zirconia. This method promises good surface finishes and high tolerances for parts that can be printed and then fired to high density. PBF originated with selective laser

Introduction to aerospace materials requirements and the role of additive manufacturing

5

Figure 1.4 Examples of ceramic parts fabricated by the additive manufacturing technique.

Figure 1.5 Examples of polymeric materials fabricated by additive manufacturing.

sintering (SLS). SLS uses a powder bed layer in a build box, similar to the binder jet method, but it is placed in a system that brings the powder to an elevated temperature and then exposes select areas to a laser beam. This causes localized sintering of the ceramic powder. The part has sufficient strength for handling, but requires a conventional postprocess firing to achieve full density. All PBF methods share certain characteristics, including one or more thermal sources for inducing

6

Additive Manufacturing for the Aerospace Industry

fusion or sintering between particles, a method for prescribing fusion in a region of each layer, and mechanisms for adding and smoothing powder layers. Electron beam melting has become a popular approach to PBF as it is fast, efficient, and can provide fully dense parts. The downside for ceramics is that the powder bed needs to be electrically conductive. Directed energy deposition is also a technique that is better suited to metals. Polymerization is used for polymers that can be loaded with ceramic powders.

Polymeric parts range from epoxy-based, ABS (acrylonitrile butadene styrene a lightweight thermoplastic polymer resin of the polyester family), wax, polystyrene, ceramic, and nylon. All the systems follow the principles of building layer by layer, but vary in how the materials are applied (e.g., as a fine powder, liquid polymer, or molten plastic) and how they are cured (e.g., by melting with a laser or activating UV resin with a laser). The material most commonly used in nonimplantable medical applications is nylon 12.

1.4

Contents of this book

In this book an attempt was made to contact all the major AM fabricators and aerospace user (airframes, engines, and missile) world-wide to fully cover all the significant activity in the AM in aerospace field. Not all the organizations contacted expressed an interest in participating in this book. However it is considered that enough information has been gathered to give the reader a comprehensive view of the field. One rumor which was dispelled is that the USAF is very negative on AM, they are not. Read the 40 articles which follow this introduction to get a broad view of the use of AM in aerospace applications.

References [1] B. Dutta, F.H.(Sam) Froes, Additive manufacturing of titanium alloys, Adv. Mater. Proc.

(2014) 18 23.

[2] B. Dutta, F.H.(Sam) Froes, Chapter 24: the additive manufacturing of titanium alloys, in: M. Qian, F.H. (Sam) Froes (Eds.), Titanium Powder Metallurgy, ButterworthHeinemann, 2015.

[3] F.H.(Sam) Froes, B. Dutta, The additive manufacturing of titanium alloys, in: Proceedings of the World Conference on Titanium, San Diego, CA, 2015.

[4] B. Dutta, F.H. Froes, Additive manufacturer of titanium alloys, in: A. Badiru (Ed.), Additive Manufacturing Handbook: Product Development for the Defense Industry, 2016.

[5] B. Dutta, F.H. Froes, Book Additive Manufacturing of Titanium Alloys, Elsevier Publishing, Amsterdam, 2016.

Review of additive manufacturing technologies and applications in the aerospace industry

2

Joel C. Najmon, Sajjad Raeisi and Andres Tovar Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, United States

2.1

Aerospace requirements and opportunities for additive manufacturing

Additive manufacturing (AM) is being established as a fabrication technology that brings revenue to the aerospace industry throughout its supply chain and repair operations [1]. For the last 10 years, the aerospace industry has been one of the top sectors leading the AM market (Figs. 2.1 and 2.2). Today, 18.2% of the revenue in the AM industry is received from the aerospace industry. The aerospace sector is also the fastest growing sector, showing an annual increase of 1.6% in 2016, followed by motor vehicles with a growth of 1.0%. The revenues from the AM are estimated at $2.7 billion in 2016 (growth of 12.9% with respect to 2015) and are expected to surpass $100 billion within the next two decades, mostly in the aerospace industry [3].

The market for AM parts in aerospace can be divided into metallic and nonmetallic (mostly polymer) components, which are generally related to critical and noncritical aircraft parts, respectively. Boeing and Bell Helicopter started using polymer AM parts for nonstructural components in the mid-1990s. In March 2015, Boeing fabricated more than 200 unique parts for 10 different aircraft using AM technologies. By that time, more than 20,000 nonmetallic AM parts were installed in airplanes [1]. Today, Boeing has installed tens of thousands of AM parts on 16 commercial and military aircraft [4]. In 2017, Boeing started using at least four AM titanium-alloy parts to produce its 787 Dreamliner aircraft with near-future plans to manufacture almost 1000 parts via AM to save $2 3 million per airplane [5].

Airbus is also a main player in AM. It has installed AM metal brackets and bleed pipes on the Airbus A320neo and the A350 XWB test aircraft [6]. It also has a multiyear cooperative research agreement with Arconic to produce large-scale AM airframe components (1 m in length) [7]. NASA, the European Space Agency, and SpaceX are exploring the use of AM igniters, injectors, and combustion chambers on their rocket engines. Honeywell Aerospace, Lockheed Martin, and Northrop Grumman are also important users of AM. The unique design requirements from Additive Manufacturing for the Aerospace Industry. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814062-8.00002-9 © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

8

Additive Manufacturing for the Aerospace Industry

Figure 2.1 Additive manufacturing market share by industry in 2016.

Source: Wohlers, A., Wohlers Report 2016. 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing State of the Industry. Annual Worldwide Progress Report. 2016: Associates Wohlers. Wohlers Report 2016. Wohlers Associates, Inc. [2].

Figure 2.2 Additive manufacturing market share by industry in 2017.

Source: Wohlers, A., Wohlers Report 2017. 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing State of the Industry. Annual Worldwide Progress Report. 2017: Associates Wohlers. Wohlers Report 2017. Wohlers Associates, Inc. [4].

the aerospace industry and capabilities of AM technologies are discussed in this section.

2.1.1 Design requirements The aerospace industry is constantly demanding lightweight aircraft components with a high strength-to-weight ratio to improve fuel efficiency, reduce emissions, and respond to safety and reliability requirements [8]. To this end, aerospace designers strive to minimize the amount of material used in every component,

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