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Exponential Inequalities

Exponential Inequalities Equality Law in Times of Crisis Edited by SH R EYA AT R EY AND S A N D R A F R E DM A N

Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.

It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries © The several contributors 2022 The moral rights of the authors have been asserted First Edition published in 2022 Impression: 1 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer Public sector information reproduced under Open Government Licence v3.0 (http://​www.natio​nala​rchi​ves.gov.uk/​doc/​open-​gov​ernm​ent-​lice​nce/​open-​gov​ernm​ent-​lice​nce.htm) Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Data available ISBN 978–​0–​19–​287299–​9 DOI: 10.1093/​oso/​9780192872999.001.0001 Printed and bound in the UK by TJ Books Limited Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in any third party website referenced in this work.

Foreword David B. Oppenheimer

When the Covid-​19 pandemic began, one frequently heard the phrase, ‘we’re all in this together’. We weren’t. The rich got richer and the poor got poorer (and sicker). Outside of medicine, the professional classes quickly adjusted to working from home (or a second home in the country), remaining relatively comfortable in a suddenly very unsafe world. But for the working class and the poor, and especially for working class and poor women and disadvantaged minority group members, at the intersection of low income/​wealth and disadvantaged status the pandemic was and remains brutal.

Professors Shreya Atrey and Sandra Fredman of Oxford, two of the leading theorists in the field of equality law (closely associated, respectively, with intersectionality and substantive equality), are to be commended for bringing us this diverse and discerning collection of authors, a mix of leading scholars and new voices from six continents. The essays in this excellent collection document how the pandemic exacerbated inequality exponentially around the globe, and how those who were already worse off to begin with sunk ever deeper into poverty and danger. For this alone the book is worth reading. But this is only the beginning.

The authors each take up the question of how equality law addresses the inequalities created and/​or accelerated by the pandemic. For all the differences in the substance, procedure, remedies, and theories of equality law across six continents, the answers merge; equality law had almost no application to the inequalities caused by the pandemic. It was rarely invoked. It was sometimes worse than useless, as it created the false impression that there were legal solutions extant when there were not. For this alone the book is worth reading. But this is still only the beginning.

The authors then ask in two dozen voices, as if a chorus, why equality law has failed us in these crises of inequality. Their answers overlap like harmonizing chords.

Equality law looks backward, not forward. It focuses on individual harm and individual rights limited by national borders. It privileges formal equality over substantive equality or equity. It ignores obligations of international law. It rarely keeps up with social change, leaving it reliant on categories that are incomplete. Thus, it generally fails to recognize poverty or migration status or geographical isolation as protected categories. It relies on litigation. It relies on judicial orders that are frequently disregarded. It relies on lawyers. It relies on bureaucrats. It relies on state funding. It relies on cases instead of policy. It relies on democratic participation. It expects those who are rendered voiceless to speak out. The standard of proof is too high. The remedies available are inadequate. It generally rejects the reality of intersectionality (except when White men complain of ‘reverse’ discrimination). For this alone the book is worth reading. But there’s more.

vi

Foreword

It is said that a crisis is a terrible thing to waste. In crises we look for new ideas, new solutions. We test the tools designed to address the crises, and prepare to fix them if required. We become more creative. We do our best work.

Read this book not just for the data documenting the pandemic’s inequalities, though that would be enough. Read this book not just for the description of how equality law has failed, though that would be enough. Read this book not just for the critique of equality law, though that would be enough. Read it for the authors’ proposals for reform. Read it for the compelling arguments to protect socio-​economic rights, to rethink discrimination law procedures and remedies, to recognize theories of substantive equality and equity, to apply feminist economics, to embrace intersectionality, to take seriously policies of redistribution, to re-​examine the meaning of ‘disadvantage’, to explore alternatives to the litigation model of dispute resolution, to demand oversight and accountability, to redefine proportionality, and to adopt positive duties.

And then do something.

David B. Oppenheimer Berkeley August 2022

Acknowledgements The contributors of this book and our research assistants—​Chelsea Wallis and Mihika Poddar—​have been an excellent team to work with. It is their intellectual energy and commitment to equality law that has sustained this project during an otherwise difficult time with the pandemic.

The research for this book has been made possible by the British Academy/​ Leverhulme Small Research Grant and the Society of Legal Scholars Annual Seminar Fund. The Department for Continuing Education at Oxford has supported this research, not least by supporting the team led by Christy Callaway-​Gale at the Oxford Human Rights Hub in producing the Exponential Inequalities podcast series, which serves as an excellent companion to this book. Our editors at the Oxford University Press—​Alex Flach and Paulina dos Santos Major—​have provided input at crucial junctures.

Our sincere thanks to all.

SA & SF Oxford, June 2022

Contents List of Contributors List of Abbreviations 1. Introduction: Exponential Inequalities: What Can Equality Law Do? Shreya Atrey and Sandra Fredman

xi xix 1

PA RT I U N D E R S TA N D I N G E X P O N E N T IA L I N E QUA L I T I E S 2. Protecting Workers’ Equal Rights during Crisis and Recovery: Constitutional Approaches in 193 Countries Aleta Sprague, Amy Raub, and Jody Heymann

19

3. Addressing Intersecting Inequalities through Alternative Economic Strategies Diane Elson and Marion Sharples

43

4. Social Security, Exponential Inequalities, and Covid-​19: How Welfare Reform in the UK Left Larger Families Exposed to the Scarring Effects of the Pandemic Aaron Reeves, Kate Andersen, Mary Reader, and Rosalie Warnock 5. The Proportionality of an Economic Crisis Meghan Campbell 6. Intersecting Crises and Exponential Inequalities: The View from Hong Kong Kelley Loper

61 79

97

PA RT I I A D D R E S SI N G E X P O N E N T IA L I N E Q UA L I T I E S SE C T IO N A : C OM PA R AT I V E A N D I N T E R NAT IO NA L L AW 7. New Directions Needed: Exponential Inequalities and the Limits of Equality Law Colm O’Cinneide

123

8. More than an Afterthought? Equality Law in Ireland during the Pandemic Mark Bell

145

x

Contents

9. A Public Policy Approach to Inequality Jessica Clarke

161

10. Responding to Exponential Inequalities in Australia: Beyond the Limits of Equality and Discrimination Law 183 Beth Gaze 11. The Interaction of Laws Enabling Gender Equality with Other Legal Regimes: Limiting Progress in Times of Crisis Helena Alviar García

200

12. Equal Access to Vaccines: Exposing the Limits of International Human Rights Law? Catherine O’Regan

213

SE C T IO N B : V U L N E R A B L E G R OU P S 13. A Life Course Approach to Addressing Exponential Inequalities: Age, Gender, and Covid-​19 Alysia Blackham

233

14. Disability in Times of Emergency: Exponential Inequality and the Role of Reasonable Accommodation Duties Anna Lawson and Lisa Waddington

255

15. Remote Working, Working from Home, and EU Sex Discrimination Law Jule Mulder

276

16. Covid-​19 and Exponential Reproductive Rights-​related Inequalities in Brazil Marta Machado and Taís Penteado

295

17. A Life of Contradictions: Group Inequality and Socio-​economic Rights in the Indian Constitution Aparna Chandra

311

18. An Equality-​sensitive Approach to Delivering Socio-​economic Rights during Crises: A Focus on Kenya Victoria Miyandazi

335

19. The Role of Equality Law in Expanding Access to Social Goods and Services in South Africa: Lessons after the Pandemic Catherine Albertyn

353

Index

373

List of Contributors Catherine Albertyn is the National Research Foundation (NRF) South African Research Chair in Equality, Law, and Social Justice and a professor of law at the School of Law University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa. Her research focuses on the meaning and interpretation of equality in the South African Constitution, law, and jurisprudence, as well as the role of the law, rights, and courts in enabling, advancing, or preventing the achievement of substantive equality in South Africa. Catherine is an attorney of the High Court of South Africa, a member of the Academy of Science of South Africa (ASSaf), and an editor of the South African Journal on Human Rights and the Oxford Human Rights Hub Law Journal. She has previously served as a Commissioner of the Commission for Gender Equality and the South African Law Reform Commission.

Kate Andersen is Research Associate at the University of York. Her research explores the intended and unintended consequences of new social security policies. Kate is especially interested in investigating how government justifications for welfare reforms compare with the everyday lives of people in receipt of social security benefits. Her research also particularly focuses on how welfare reforms impact women. She has published an article titled ‘Universal Credit, Gender and Unpaid Childcare: Mothers’ Accounts of the New Welfare Conditionality Regime’ in Critical Social Policy (2020).

Shreya Atrey is an Associate Professor in International Human Rights Law at the Faculty of Law, University of Oxford, and is based at the Bonavero Institute of Human Rights. Her research is on discrimination law, feminist theory, poverty, and disability law. Her monograph, Intersectional Discrimination (OUP 2019), which won the runners-​up Peter Birks Book Prize in 2020, presents an account of intersectionality theory in comparative discrimination law. Shreya is the Editor of the Human Rights Law Review. She is an associate member of the Oxford Human Rights Hub and an Official Fellow of Kellogg College.

Mark Bell is Regius Professor of Laws and a Fellow of Trinity College Dublin, the University of Dublin. He was Head of the School of Law (2018–​2021). Prior to his appointment at Trinity, he was a professor at the School of Law, University of Leicester, where he was also Head of the School of Law (2011–​2014). Mark has published regularly on Anti-​ discrimination Law and Employment Law, particularly in relation to EU law. He is co-​ editor of International and European Labour Law: A Commentary (Nomos 2018). Mark is co-​Director of the Disability Rights Working Group of the Berkeley Center on Comparative Equality and Anti-​Discrimination Law. He is a member of the Board of Directors of the Irish Centre for European Law and the Editorial Board of the International Journal of Discrimination and the Law. He has conducted research for the European Commission and the International Labour Organization, as well as non-​governmental organizations.

xii

List of Contributors

Alysia Blackham is an Associate Professor at Melbourne Law School, the University of Melbourne. Her research focuses on the intersection of employment law, equality law, and public law, using empirical evidence to cast new light on legal problems. Funded by the Australian Research Council as part of the Discovery Early Career Researcher scheme, in 2017 Alysia commenced the project DE170100228 ‘Addressing Age Discrimination in Employment’. The project explored the ways in which age discrimination law is enforced in Australia and the UK, and the barriers to effectively addressing age discrimination at work. A monograph based on that research, Reforming Age Discrimination Law: Beyond Individual Enforcement was published by OUP in 2022. Alysia has published extensively across leading journals and in legal and interdisciplinary forums. Her first monograph, Extending Working Life for Older Workers: Age Discrimination Law, Policy and Practice (Hart Publishing 2016), won second prize in the UK Society of Legal Scholars’ Peter Birks Prizes for Outstanding Legal Scholarship in 2017. Alysia has worked as an academic in Australia, Sweden, and the UK, including as the Turpin-​Lipstein Fellow and College Lecturer in Law and Director of Studies at Clare College, Cambridge and an Affiliated Lecturer at the Faculty of Law at the University of Cambridge.

Meghan Campbell is a Reader in International Human Rights Law at the University of Birmingham and Deputy-​Director of the Oxford Human Rights Hub. Her scholarship centres on the right to equality and has examined equality in relation to intersectionality, the Sustainable Development Goals, socio-​economic rights, climate change, poverty, and the limitation of rights. Her monograph Women, Poverty, Equality: The Role of CEDAW (Hart Publishing 2018) offers an interpretation of equality and non-​discrimination in UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women to ameliorate women’s poverty. She is the co-​editor of Human Rights and Equality in Education (Policy 2018) and Feminist Frontiers: Climate Justice and Gender Equality (Edward Elgar Publishing 2023). In her role as the Deputy Director of the Oxford Human Rights Hub, she has worked in collaboration with the World Health Organization and the UN Office of the High Commissioner of Human Rights to produce the documentary A Right to a Better World, exploring how the Sustainable Development Goals and human rights can be harnessed to achieve sexual and reproductive health. She is the co-​founder of the University of Oxford Human Rights Hub Journal, which has been cited by numerous apex courts.

Aparna Chandra is an Associate Professor of Law at the National Law School of India University, Bengaluru. She teaches and researches on constitutional law, human rights, gender and the law, and judicial process reform. She has previously worked at the National Judicial Academy, Bhopal, National Law University, Delhi, and as a Tutor at the Yale Law School, USA. Jessica Clarke is a Professor of Law at Vanderbilt Law School. She writes on anti-​ discrimination law, with a focus on sex, gender, and sexuality. Her work has appeared in law journals including the Columbia Law Review, Harvard Law Review, NYU Law Review and Yale Law Journal, as well as other outlets including the New England Journal of Medicine, Los Angeles Times, and Harvard Business Review. She has twice received the Dukeminier Award for the best legal scholarship on sexual orientation and gender identity.

List of Contributors

xiii

Professor Clarke graduated from Yale Law School and clerked for Shira Scheindlin of the US District Court for the Southern District of New York and Rosemary Pooler of the US Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit. Before entering the academy, she was a litigation associate at Covington & Burling in New York. From 2011 to 2018, she taught at the University of Minnesota Law School, where she received the Stanley V. Kinyon award for teacher of the year. In the fall of 2016, she was the Walter V. Schaefer Visiting Professor at the University of Chicago Law School and, in the fall of 2022, she was a visiting professor at Harvard Law School.

Diane Elson is Emeritus Professor of Sociology at the University of Essex, UK and a former Chair of the UK Women’s Budget Group (2010–​2016). She chaired the Commission on a Gender Equal Economy set up by the Women’s Budget Group (2019–​2020). She has been a member of the UN Committee for Development Policy (2013–​2021), adviser to UN Women and Vice President of the International Association for Feminist Economics (2004–​ 2006). She was awarded the 2016 Leontief Prize for Advancing the Frontiers of Economic Thought by the Global Development and Environment Institute at Tufts University. She has published widely on gender equality, human rights, and economic justice. Her recent publications include: (with R Balakrishnan and J Heintz) Rethinking Economics for Social Justice: The Radical Potential of Human Rights (Routledge 2016); ‘Financing for Gender Equality: How to Budget in Compliance with Human Rights Standards’ in N Burn and Z Kahn (eds), Financing for Gender Equality: Realizing Women’s Rights through Gender Responsive Budgeting (Palgrave Macmillan 2017); ‘Securing the Social and Economic Rights of Women in Economic Policy Making’ in N Reilly (ed), Human Rights of Women (Springer 2018).

Sandra Fredman is Professor of the Laws of the British Commonwealth and the USA at the University of Oxford, and a professorial fellow at Pembroke College. She was elected a Fellow of the British Academy in 2005 and became a QC (honoris causa) in 2012. She has written and published widely on anti-​discrimination law, human rights law, and labour law, including numerous peer-​reviewed articles. She has authored four monographs: Comparative Human Rights (OUP 2018); Human Rights Transformed (OUP 2008); Discrimination Law (3rd edn, OUP 2022); and Women and the Law (OUP 1997), as well as two co-​authored books: The State as Employer (Mansell 1988) with Gillian Morris, and Labour Law and Industrial Relations in Great Britain (2nd edn, Kluwer 1992) with Bob Hepple. She has also edited several books: Human Rights and Equality in Education (Policy Press 2018) with Meghan Campbell and Helen Taylor; Discrimination and Human Rights: The Case of Racism (OUP 2001); and Age as an Equality Issue (Hart Publishing 2003) with Sarah Spencer. She was awarded a three-​year Leverhulme Major Research Fellowship in 2004 to further her research into socio-​economic rights and substantive equality. She is South African and holds degrees from the University of Witwatersrand and the University of Oxford. She has acted as an expert adviser on equality law and labour legislation in the EU, Northern Ireland, the UK, India, South Africa, Canada, Malaysia, and the UN. She is also a barrister practising at Old Square Chambers. She founded the Oxford Human Rights Hub in 2012, of which she is the Director.

xiv

List of Contributors

Helena Alviar García holds an SJD from Harvard Law School, an LLM from the same institution, and is a lawyer from Universidad de Los Andes in Bogotá, Colombia. She is a professor at Sciences Po Law School. She served as Dean of Los Andes Law School and held tenure as full professor (profesora titular). An expert in law and development, property, feminist approaches to law, and transitional justice, she has been invited to participate in global networks regarding these issues. She is the author of books, book chapters, academic papers, and essays, including Legal Experiments for Development in Latin America (Routledge 2021); ‘La Lucha por el Género en la Transición’ in Isabel Cristina Jaramillo (ed), Género en Transción (Springer 2020); and ‘Neoliberalism as a Form of Authoritarian Constitutionalism’ in (co-​edited with Günter Frankenberg) Authoritarian Constitutionalism: Comparative Analysis and Critique (Edward Elgar Publishing 2019).

Beth Gaze is a Professor at the Melbourne Law School in the University of Melbourne, Australia. She has taught and researched in anti-​discrimination law for many years, and is co-​author with Associate Professor Belinda Smith of Equality and Discrimination Law in Australia: An Introduction (Cambridge University Press 2017). Beth has been a member of several state and federal tribunals, and has been a consultant to both state and federal governments. She has conducted empirical research funded by the Australian Research Council into subjects including enforcement in anti-​discrimination law, the experience of participants in social security appeals tribunals, and adverse action claims under the Australian Fair Work Act. She is currently conducting research into the implementation of Victoria’s Gender Equality Act 2020, causation in discrimination law, and enforcement and compliance in discrimination law.

Jody Heymann is Founding Director of the WORLD Policy Analysis Center and Distinguished Professor at the UCLA Luskin School of Public Affairs, Fielding School of Public Health, and Geffen School of Medicine. Heymann has authored and edited over 500 publications analysing laws, public policies, and constitutional rights worldwide, including Advancing Equality and eighteen other books. Among these are Making Equal Rights Real (Cambridge University Press 2012), Children’s Chances (Harvard University Press 2013), Raising the Global Floor (Stanford University Press 2009), Disability and Equity at Work (Oxford University Press 2014), Profit at the Bottom of the Ladder (Harvard Business Press 2010), and Forgotten Families (Oxford University Press 2006). Heymann has worked with leaders in North American, European, African, and Latin American governments, as well as a wide range of intergovernmental organizations including the World Health Organization, the International Labour Organization, the World Economic Forum, UNICEF, and UNESCO. She has received numerous honours, including election to the National Institute of Medicine in 2013 and the Canadian Academy of Health Sciences in 2012. Heymann’s research findings have been featured in thousands of articles in the national and international media.

Anna Lawson is a Professor of Law and Joint Director of the Centre for Disability Studies at the University of Leeds. She is a Fellow of the Academy of Social Science and an honorary Master of the Bench at the Middle Temple Inns of Court. Her research focuses on disability equality and human rights, with a focus on issues of discrimination, accessibility, access to justice and public space.

List of Contributors

xv

Kelley Loper is an Associate Professor and Director of the Master of Laws in Human Rights Programme in the Faculty of Law at the University of Hong Kong. She is also Co-​Editor-​in-​ Chief of the Asia-​Pacific Journal on Human Rights in the Law and sits on the advisory board of the Berkeley Center on Comparative Equality and Anti-​discrimination Law. Her work focuses on the implementation of international human rights law in domestic contexts, especially Hong Kong. She has researched and published on several related topics, including human rights treaties and refugee protection; the rights to education and legal capacity in the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities; sexual orientation and gender identity discrimination; dignity as a constitutional value; and gender constitutionalism.

She teaches international human rights law and equality and non-​discrimination. In addition to her academic work, she serves on the board of the Hong Kong Dignity Institute and is past Chairperson of the Hong Kong Refugee Advice Centre. She has advised numerous other local and international organisations on a range of human rights issues.

Marta Machado has been a full-​time professor at FGV São Paulo Law School since 2007 and Director of the Centre for Racial Justice and Law, Associate Dean of the Academic Master’s and PhD Programmes since 2019. She gained her Master’s (2004) and PhD (2007) in Philosophy and Theory of Law from the University of Sao Paulo. She is currently a senior researcher at the Brazilian Centre of Analysis and Planning (CEBRAP); Global Fellow at the Centre on Law & Social Transformation (University of Bergen); Fellow at the International Reproductive and Sexual Health Law Programme, University of Toronto School; Associate Researcher at the Oxford Human Rights Hub; and one of the main investigators at Maria Sibylla Merian Centre Conviviality-​Inequality in Latin America (MECILA).

Victoria Miyandazi is a Lecturer in Law at the University of Embu, an Associate Advocate at Okubasu, Munene & Kazungu Advocates LLP, and a former Researcher at the Oxford Human Rights Hub. She holds a doctorate from the University of Oxford, where she was a Rhodes Scholar. Dr Miyandazi researches, teaches, and writes on Equality Law, Human Rights, Constitutional Law, Administrative Law, Property Law, and Comparative Law. She has published widely in these areas and continues to contribute to this body of knowledge.

She is the author of Equality in Kenya’s 2010 Constitution: Understanding the Competing and Interrelated Conceptions (Hart Publishing 2021).

Jule Mulder is a Senior Lecturer at the University of Bristol Law School and Co/​Editor-​in-​ Chief of the German Law Journal. She joined the European equality law network of legal experts in gender equality and non-​discrimination (funded by the EU Commission) in 2021 and has published widely on comparative and EU equality law. Her monograph entitled EU Non-​Discrimination law in the Courts: Approaches to Sex and Sexuality Discrimination in EU Law (Hart Publishing 2017) adopts an innovative critical comparative law methodology to investigate how German and Dutch courts interpret and apply European Equality Law and why their approaches differ widely, despite the common European origin of the laws and the Court of Justice’s competence to interpret EU law. Jule has participated in an international comparative research project on the aftermath of the Laval and Viking judgments. Her most recent project (funded by the Leverhulme Trust) focused on consumer vulnerability within the context of EU consumer and EU non-​discrimination law.

xvi

List of Contributors

Colm O’Cinneide is Professor of Constitutional and Human Rights Law at University College London (UCL). A graduate of University College Cork, he has published extensively in the field of comparative constitutional, human rights, and anti-​discrimination law. He has also acted as specialist legal adviser to the Joint Committee on Human Rights and the Women & Equalities Committee of the UK Parliament, and was from 2010 to 2014 Vice-​President of the European Committee on Social Rights of the Council of Europe.

Catherine O’Regan is the inaugural Director of the Bonavero Institute of Human Rights and a former judge of the South African Constitutional Court (1994–​2009). In the mid-​ 1980s she practised as a lawyer in Johannesburg in a variety of fields, but especially labour law and land law, representing many of the emerging trade unions and their members, as well as communities threatened with eviction under apartheid land laws. In 1990, she joined the Faculty of Law at UCT, where she taught a range of courses including race, gender and the law, labour law, civil procedure, and evidence. Since her fifteen-​year term at the South African Constitutional Court ended in 2009, she has amongst other things served as an ad hoc judge of the Supreme Court of Namibia (from 2010 to 2016), Chairperson of the Khayelitsha Commission of Inquiry into allegations of police inefficiency and a breakdown in trust between the police and the community of Khayelitsha (2012–​2014), and as a member of the boards or advisory bodies of many NGOs working in the fields of democracy, the rule of law, human rights, and equality.

Taís Penteado is a PhD Candidate in Law at FGV Law School of São Paulo (Class of 2024) and holds both an MA degree from the same institution (2020) and an LLM degree from Yale Law School (2022). Along the years, she has received financial support from important Brazilian agencies, such as the São Paulo State Research Foundation, the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel, and the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development, as well as from FGV and Yale Law School funds. Her work has been published in widely read law journals, such as ICON and Yale Journal of Law and Feminism, and focuses on equality law and critical legal theories.

Amy Raub is Principal Research Analyst at the WORLD Policy Analysis Center, where her work focuses on developing approaches to quantitatively comparing legal provisions that can ameliorate or perpetuate inequalities for all 193 UN member states and translating this data for policy-​makers, citizens, civil society, and researchers. Raub is an economist with over two decades of experience working on discrimination and inequality across a range of policy areas, including constitutional rights, work-​family, sexual harassment, gender equality, migration, child marriage, disability, child labour, and education, among others.

In addition to being a co-​author of Advancing Equality, Raub has authored more than three dozen journal articles examining the status of constitutional rights globally, legal gaps that undermine equal rights, country progress towards equality over time, statistical analyses of the relationship between policies and outcomes, and assessments of whether countries are meeting their international and regional commitments to advancing health, development, well-​being, and equity.

Mary Reader is Research Officer at the Centre for Analysis of Social Exclusion (CASE) at the London School of Economics and Political Science. Her research interests include the

List of Contributors

xvii

causal impact of income, poverty, and social security on families, with a particular focus on health inequalities, early childhood, and larger families.

Aaron Reeves is an Associate Professor in the Department of Social Policy and Intervention at Oxford University, a Fellow of Green Templeton College, and a Visiting Senior Fellow in the International Inequalities Institute at the LSE. He is a sociologist working on the political economy of health and social stratification. He is currently writing a book on the British elite.

Marion Sharples is a feminist activist and gender equality specialist working within the non-​profit sector. Most recently, Marion ran the Global Partnerships and Learning programme at the Women’s Budget Group and co-​chaired the 2022 W7 working group on a Gender-​Equal Covid-​19 Recovery. Prior to this, Marion was the Project Manager of the Commission for a Gender-​Equal Economy set up by the Women’s Budget Group (2019–​ 2020). She is also a freelance cycling instructor and teaches refugee women to cycle. Marion holds an MSc in Gender, Development, and Globalisation from the London School of Economics. She is a Clore Social Fellow (2020 cohort, Emerging Leaders) and is trained in the Art of Participatory Leadership (2021).

Aleta Sprague is Senior Legal Analyst at the WORLD Policy Analysis Center at UCLA, where her research focuses on the practical impacts and challenges of legal reforms to advance social and economic equality. An attorney with over a decade of experience working to strengthen equal rights through law and public policy, Sprague is co-​author of Advancing Equality: How Constitutional Rights Can Make a Difference Worldwide (University of California Press 2020), as well as Equality Within Our Lifetimes: How Laws and Policies Can Close—​or Widen—​Gender Gaps in Economies Worldwide (University of California Press forthcoming 2023). Her writing on topics including equal rights, poverty, paid sick leave, and parental leave has been featured in the Harvard Human Rights Journal, the Columbia Journal of Gender and Law, the American Journal of Public Health, Health Affairs, the Atlantic, the Washington Post, and a range of other media outlets and academic journals. Sprague received her JD from UCLA School of Law. Lisa Waddington is the European Disability Forum Professor in European Disability Law at Maastricht University in the Netherlands. Her principal areas of research are European and comparative disability law, the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, and European and comparative equality law in general. She is a senior expert for a number of networks and organizations, including the European Network of Legal Experts in the Non-​discrimination Field and the European Disability Expertise network.

Rosalie Warnock is Research Associate in the Department of Social Policy and Social Work, University of York. She works on the Covid-​19 Realities and Benefit Changes and Larger Families projects. Her research interests include austerity, welfare bureaucracies, special educational needs, and disability (SEND) support services, family life, care, and emotional geographies.

List of Abbreviations A1P1 ACIP ACT-​Accelerator BAME BJC BOR BSL CALD CEDAW CEO CEPI CERD CESCR CJEU CMO CRAM CRC CRPD CRPD Committee CSG CSO CSW DDO DPC DWP ECHR EIGE EOC FSDO FTE GATT GAVI GPI HAS HILDA Survey HIV/​AIDS ICCPR ICERD

Article 1 of Protocol No 1 (peaceful enjoyment of possessions) Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices Access to Covid-​19 Tools Accelerator Black, Asian, and minority ethnic Budget Justice Coalition (South Africa) Bill of Rights Ordinance British Sign Language culturally and linguistically diverse Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women chief executive officer Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Court of Justice of the European Union Chief Medical Officer Coronavirus Rapid Mobile Survey (South Africa) Convention on the Rights of the Child Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities UN Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Child Support Grant (South Africa) Central Statistics Office Conference on the Status of Women Disability Discrimination Ordinance (Hong Kong) Department of Premier and Cabinet (Australia) Department for Work and Pensions European Convention on Human Rights European Institute for Gender Equality Equal Opportunities Commission Family Status Discrimination Ordinance full-​time equivalent General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Global Agency for Access to Vaccines genuine progress indicator Health and Safety Authority Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia Survey human immunodeficiency virus/​acquired immunodeficiency syndrome International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination

xx

List of Abbreviations

ICESCR IHREC IMF LAC MTBPS MWRF test NDA NDIS Act NHIF NHS NIDS NLS NPHET NSNP NS-​SEC ONS OPG PPE PPP PSED PUP RDO SAR SDO SERs TFEU TRIPs UDHR UNCTAD UNDP UNGPs UNHCR UNICEF US(A) WGEA WHO WRC WTO

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Irish Human Rights and Equality Commission International Monetary Fund Labour Appeal Court (South Africa) Medium Term Budget Policy Statement (South Africa) manifestly without reasonable foundation test National Disability Authority National Disability Insurance Scheme Act 2013 National Health Insurance Fund National Health Service National Income Dynamics Study (South Africa) National Longitudinal Surveys National Public Health Emergency Team National School Nutrition Programme (South Africa) National Statistics Socio-​Economic Classification Office of National Statistics Older Persons’ Grant (South Africa) personal protective equipment Paycheck Protection Program Public Sector Equality Duty (UK) Pandemic Unemployment Payment Race Discrimination Ordinance (Hong Kong) Special Administrative Region Sex Discrimination Ordinance (Hong Kong) socio-​economic rights Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union Agreement on Trade-​related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Universal Declaration of Human Rights United Nations Conference on Trade and Development United Nations Development Programme United Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees United Nations Children’s Fund United States (of America) Workplace Gender Equality Agency (Australia) World Health Organization Workplace Relations Commission World Trade Organization

1

Introduction Exponential Inequalities: What Can Equality Law Do? Shreya Atrey and Sandra Fredman

1 Introduction At the start of the pandemic, it seemed that Covid-​19 was a great leveller. Everyone was vulnerable, including heads of states and millionaires in the wealthiest parts of the world. The reality has been different. The pandemic has exposed and exacerbated pre-​ existing inequalities. People with disabilities, older people, people living in poverty, minorities, women, and those at the intersection of these groups have been disproportionately adversely affected, whether in access to medical care, vaccines, schooling, water, sanitation and housing, or safety from violence. Indeed, inequality has not only been the earliest but also one of the most lasting lessons around which consensus has endured, while views on public health measures such as handwashing, masks, quarantine, and vaccines have continued to shift.

The growth in inequality is striking given that high levels of inequality existed before the pandemic too. For example, in 2018, there were about 258 million children and young people out of school.1 This number, however, has risen to 450 million in 2022.2 In 2019, 388 million women and girls lived in extreme poverty.3 This number is estimated to be 450 million in 2021.4 Meanwhile, the ten richest men in the world have more than doubled their fortunes, from US$700 billion to US$1.5 trillion—​while the incomes of 99 per cent of the world’s population have worsened since the pandemic.5 As Michelle Bachelet, the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, summed up, it is both ‘the magnitude and scope of inequalities’ exacerbated by Covid-​ 19 that has been truly shocking.6 It is not simply that inequalities have continued to 1 UNESCO Institute for Statistics, Fact Sheet No 65 (2019) http://​uis.une​sco.org/​en/​topic/​out-​sch​ ool-​child​ren-​and-​youth#:~:text=​About%20258%20mill​ion%20c​hild​ren%20and,mill​ion%20of%20up​ per%20se​cond​ary%20age (accessed 19 April 2022).

2 ‘COVID-​19: Education Risks Becoming “Greatest Divider” ’ UN News website (30 March 2022) https://​ news.un.org/​en/​story/​2022/​03/​1114​932 (accessed 19 April 2022).

3 ‘COVID-​19 Is Driving Women and Girls Deeper into Poverty’ UN Women (17 October 2020) https://​ data.unwo​men.org/​featu​res/​covid-​19-​driv​ing-​women-​and-​girls-​dee​per-​pove​rty (accessed 20 April 2022).

4 ibid.

5 ‘Inequality Kills’ Oxfam Report (17 January 2022) https://​pol​icy-​pract​ice.oxfam.org/​resour​ces/​ine​ qual​ity-​kills-​the-​unpar​alle​led-​act​ion-​nee​ded-​to-​com​bat-​unprec​eden​ted-​ineq​ual-​621​341/​ (accessed 20 April 2022).

6 Statement by the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Half-​day Panel Discussion on Deepening Inequalities Exacerbated by the COVID-​19 Pandemic and their Implications for the Realisation of Human Rights (September 2021) https://​www.ohchr.org/​en/​2021/​09/​magnit​ude-​and-​scope-​inequ​alit​ies-​crea​ted-​ and-​exac​erba​ted-​covid-​19-​truly-​shock​ing-​high (accessed 20 April 2022).

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exist but the fact that they have grown in magnitude and scope and exponentially so since the crisis that seems to be significant.

As equality lawyers, we have wondered what, if anything, equality law can do about exponential inequalities. Our interest in the question has been sparked by how little attention has been paid to equality law responding to this dramatic deepening of inequality.7 We find this perplexing given that the field of equality law—​at least in its name—​is literally about addressing the very subject of inequality. So where has equality law been in the face of exponential inequalities?

This book is dedicated to answering this question. To do so, it asks two further questions: what are exponential inequalities and how has equality law responded to them across contexts in comparative and international law (especially focusing on the UK, the US, Ireland, the EU, South Africa, Kenya, Brazil, India, Hong Kong, Australia, and Colombia), and across vulnerable groups including elderly persons, disabled persons, women, workers in the informal economy, and people living in extreme poverty.

Drawing on a range of interdisciplinary research, and comparative and international law, the book presents a complex picture of how equality law has been engaged during the pandemic in response to exponential inequalities and why its engagement, even where positive, appears limited not only in undoing exponential inequalities but by its own normative standards. The central argument of the book as a whole is that there is greater potential in equality law to deal with exponential inequalities than the extant doctrine suggests. This introductory chapter maps how the research in the individual contributions to this book lends to this conclusion. In the next two sections, we explain what we mean by exponential inequalities before turning to how they interact with equality law, especially exploring the central argument that there is untapped potential within both the theory and practice of equality law in doing more transformative work in challenging exponential inequalities of the kind that arise in crises such as the current pandemic. The significance of this work, however, lies in exceeding the current context and assessing the relevance of equality law in ‘crisis’ generally, such as climate emergencies, wars, austerity, recessions, refugee crises, and democratic deficits. Challenging the assumption that equality laws are meant to operate only in ordinary times, the research shows the relevance of engaging equality law in both ordinary times, as well as times of crisis. With more extraordinary global crises looming, the research explores productive avenues for engagement with equality law in the future by drawing on vital lessons which have been driven home by crises we have faced so far.

2 Exponential Inequalities The book uses the term ‘exponential inequalities’ to refer to the inequalities that grow rapidly because of crises. Thus, at a minimum, the use of the term draws attention to at least three things. First, it draws attention to inequality, which is understood qua 7 cf Meghan Campbell, Sandra Fredman, and Aaron Reeves, ‘Palliation or Protection: How Should the Right to Equality inform the Government’s Response to Covid-​19?’ (2020) 20 International Journal of Discrimination and the Law 183.

Introduction: Exponential Inequalities

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equality law as disadvantaged people suffer because of their personal characteristics related to race, caste, religion, sex, gender, sexual orientation, disability, age, etc, and as including stereotypes,8 prejudices,9 marginalization,10 the loss of dignity11 or being demeaned,12 or the loss of deliberate freedoms,13 capabilities,14 autonomy,15 or substantive equality.16 Personal characteristics or ‘grounds’ of discrimination play a key role in identifying disadvantages or inequalities people suffer not simply because of their bad luck, lack of ‘merit’, or for being singled out arbitrarily, but because they belong to groups which are disadvantaged per se.17 This distinguishes the use of the term in equality law with the use of the term in other contexts such as economics, where inequalities may not be understood as relating to specific grounds or disadvantaged groups alone. Furthermore, the use of the plural, as in inequalities, reaffirms the capacious use of the term to encompass inequalities which result from all forms of direct and indirect discrimination which lead to a whole range of redistributive, recognition-​based, or participative harms in an individual, institutional, systemic, or structural sense.18 Secondly, the term draws attention to the fact that these inequalities arise because of crises; that is, they arise in circumstances which are extraordinary or unusual such as natural disasters, economic downturns, pandemics, wars, and climate emergencies. What determines whether these are extraordinary circumstances or crises is not whether they are foreseen or unforeseen but whether they have the potential to disrupt what may be considered ‘normal’ or ‘ordinary’ life in a society. Importantly, however, once generated, exponential inequalities do not disappear when the crisis passes, and life returns to normal (or to a new normal). Thus, exponential inequalities are not restricted during crises. Instead, they may be understood as arising because of crises (although not solely), that is, in interaction with crises, and unless addressed, they persist beyond crises.

Thirdly, the term draws attention to the fact that these inequalities grow with exceptional rapidity. Thus, the term exponential is used in a colloquial (as opposed to mathematical) sense to highlight that inequalities, when they interact with crises, can be exacerbated or made worse both considerably (as opposed to marginally) and at pace (as opposed to slowly).

8 Larry Alexander, ‘What Makes Wrongful Discrimination Wrong? Biases, Preferences, Stereotypes, and Proxies’ (1992) 141 University of Pennsylvania Law Review 149.

9 Sophia R Moreau, ‘The Wrongs of Unequal Treatment’ (2004) 54 University of Toronto Law Journal 291.

10 Henk Botha, ‘Equality, Plurality and Structural Power’ (2009) 25 South African Journal on Human Rights 1; Hugh Collins, ‘Discrimination, Equality and Social Inclusion’ (2003) 66 Modern Law Review 16; Cass R Sunstein, ‘The Anticaste Principle’ (1994) 92 Michigan Law Review 2410.

11 Denise G Réaume, ‘Discrimination and Dignity’ (2003) 63 Louisiana Law Review 1.

12 Deborah Hellman, When is Discrimination Wrong? (Harvard UP 2008).

13 Sophia Moreau, ‘What is Discrimination’ (2010) 38 Philosophy and Public Affairs 143; Sophia Moreau, Faces of Inequality: A Theory of Wrongful Discrimination (OUP 2020).

14 Amartya Sen, Development as Freedom (OUP 1999); Martha Nussbaum, Women and Human Development (CUP 2001).

15 Joseph Raz, The Morality of Freedom (OUP 1998) ch 9.

16 Sandra Fredman, Discrimination Law (3rd edn, OUP 2022).

17 Tarunabh Khaitan, A Theory of Discrimination Law (OUP 2015) ch 2.

18 Sandra Fredman, ‘Substantive Equality Revisited ’ (2016) 14 International Journal of Constitutional Law 712.

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These theoretical assumptions are borne out by the contributions in the book which paint a vivid picture of the rapid growth in inequality during crises across a range of geographical contexts and vulnerable populations. The contributions, especially in Part I of the book, yield an evidence-​based understanding of exponential inequalities, drawn together from sociological, economic, legal, and policy-​based perspectives.

The accounts of exponential inequalities laid bare in these contributions help extract the common features of exponential inequalities which actually cut across geographical contexts and particularities of inequality across vulnerable groups. Three further features can be identified as defining exponential inequalities as they materialize in the real world. These include the presence of pre-​existing inequality, the preponderance of socio-​economic disadvantage or poverty, and the interrelationship between patterns of group disadvantage.

The contributions identify pre-​existing inequality as key to the generation of exponential inequalities. As Aparna Chandra argues, in a perfect world where inequality does not exist, exponential inequalities will not exist either.19 This is because the perfect world would have redistributive principles which would operate in and beyond crises to prevent, redress, and reverse any emerging inequality. But we are dealing with the real world, which is beset with pre-​existing inequality which affects vulnerable groups such as Black people, ethnic minorities, Dalits, indigenous populations, women, disabled persons, elderly people, children, and those at the intersection of these groups. In fact, as Aaron Reeves, Kate Andersen, Mary Reader, and Rosalie Warnock show in their chapter, the pre-​existing inequality groups suffer is a result of policies brought before a crisis.20 They demonstrate the ways in which austerity measures in the UK brought in after the global recession of 2008 have systematically impoverished large families along gendered and ethnic lines. Their work thus reveals the ‘path dependence’ of inequality on policy choices made by governments before a crisis. Their findings from the Benefit Changes and Larger Families project reveals the devastating impact of policies such as the two-​child limit and benefit cap on large families, especially those led by single mothers, during the Covid-​19 pandemic.

Likewise, the contribution from Aleta Sprague, Amy Raub, and Jody Heymann shows that is not simply policies, but also laws which leave a gap in protection.21 In their survey of constitutions of 193 countries, they show that while constitutional protection for workers has considerably expanded to include the right to decent work and equal pay, there is still a gap in protection in relation to issues such as workplace injury compensation and sickness pay, and also in relation to vulnerable populations such as disabled persons and workers in the informal economy.

This analysis sets the tone for discussing how ‘well-​prepared’ equality regimes have been in responding to inequality, especially that which has been exacerbated by crises. Laws which provide less than complete protection in ordinary times naturally 19 See Aparna Chandra’s chapter in this book, ‘A Life of Contradictions: Group Inequality and Socio-​ Economic Rights in the Indian Constitution’.

20 See Aaron Reeves, Kate Andersen, Mary Reader, and Rosalie Warnock’s chapter in this book: ‘Social Security, Exponential Inequalities, and Covid-​19: How Welfare Reform in the UK Left Larger Families Exposed to the Scarring Effects of the Pandemic’.

21 See Aleta Sprague, Amy Raub, and Jody Heymann’s chapter in this book: ‘Protecting Workers’ Equal Rights During Crisis and Recovery: Constitutional Approaches in 193 Countries’.

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fail to provide adequate protection during crisis. Thus, when pre-​existing inequalities interact with crisis, especially measures put in place to address the crisis, they only exacerbate those inequalities such as in the case of migrant workers in India who were left to walk thousands of miles to their homes when the first lockdown was announced with less than a few hours’ notice, which included a complete shutdown of transport services.22 The lack of foresight in imagining how migrant and daily-​wage workers in the informal economy living across states would have travelled back home, or had their basic needs such as food, water, shelter, and sanitation met, reveals a lack of appreciation of pre-​existing inequality, almost as if it did not exist before the pandemic.

But indeed, the inequality resulting from the pandemic only seems to build upon the very inequality which existed before.

It is striking that poverty or socio-​economic disadvantage seems to be a defining characteristic of exponential inequalities studied in this book. Although we study exponential inequalities through the lens of equality laws which generally do not recognize poverty or socio-​economic disadvantage as grounds of discrimination per se, we observe a preponderance of poverty or socio-​economic disadvantage both within groups which are protected within recognized grounds and those which fall outside the recognized grounds. In fact, as Beth Gaze’s contribution shows, the worst impact of the pandemic has been on the poor, and poverty levels have risen sharply.23 She argues that pre-​existing disadvantage which is socio-​economic in nature remains largely unaddressed by Australian equality laws. This is because the laws have been too focused on attributes or identities associated with grounds of discrimination rather than their attendant socio-​economic disadvantage. As she states, it is disadvantage, not discrimination, then which seems to be the cause of exponential inequalities.

This is true even in constitutions, such as that in Kenya. In her chapter, Victoria Miyandazi shows that the exponential rise in poverty by 13 per cent from 2019 to 2020 in Kenya impacted those who fell outside of the protection of the traditional grounds of discrimination, such as slum dwellers.24 Through the case study of evictions at the height of the pandemic with lockdowns in place, her contribution shows the deliberate targeting of slum dwellers who were stigmatized as prone to spreading the virus.

Yet even when evictions were stayed by judicial orders out of concern for inequality and socio-​economic disadvantage, these orders were frequently disregarded. She shows that even well-​meaning constitutional jurisprudence fails to be effective in an environment defined by apathy for inequality and rule of law. Equality laws, whether statutory or constitutional, thus need to be accompanied by effective enforcement to hold exponential inequalities genuinely at bay.

It is not only law but also political economy which has shaped poverty within and beyond status groups. Helena Alviar’s contribution demonstrates the intimate relationship between political economy and poverty, especially gendered poverty.25 Alviar 22 Patralekha Chateerjee, ‘The Pandemic Exposes India’s Apathy Toward Migrant Workers’ The Atlantic (12 April 2020).

23 See Beth Gaze’s chapter in this book: ‘Responding to Exponential Inequalities in Australia: Beyond the Limits of Equality and Discrimination Law’.

24 See Victoria Miyandazi’s chapter in this book: ‘An Equality-​sensitive Approach to Delivering Socio-​ economic Rights During Crises: A Focus on Kenya in the Covid-​19 Era’.

25 See Helena Alviar García’s chapter in this book: ‘The Interaction of Laws Enabling Gender Equality with Other Legal Regimes: Limiting Progress in Times of Crisis’.

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shows that despite a plethora of equality laws enforcing the constitutional guarantee of equality between sexes in the Colombian constitution, the lack of any budgetary allocation for implementing these laws has limited their potential to alleviate gender inequality. Thus, gender inequality has been exacerbated not only by a lack of public resources but also by neoliberal policies. In particular, she shows that decades of neoliberal policies to boost the mining sector in Colombia have essentially made women poorer with very little social and economic investment in either retaining women in the private sector or compensating for their labour at home. Coupled with a diminished role of the state across sectors such as healthcare and housing, these neoliberal policies essentially diminished the Colombian government’s ability to respond to the pandemic in an appropriate manner. A fairer redistribution of resources thus remains key to gender equality but in the absence of clear obligations on both public and private sector in linking the two—​redistribution of resources and gender equality—​crises such as the pandemic only end up worsening the already dire situation of women in Colombia.

Exponential inequalities are also characterized by intersectional disadvantage wherein the worst of inequalities befall those who are disadvantaged because of their membership in two or more disadvantaged groups such as women of colour, single mothers, older women, disabled women, etc. Furthermore, crises too intersect to exacerbate inequality further. Intersectionality in both these senses defines the exponential inequalities studied in this book. In their chapter, Diane Elson and Marion Sharples apply a feminist economics lens to show how the Covid-​19 pandemic has had a highly differential impact on workers depending on their gender, race, class, disability, and citizenship status, and in particularly sensitive areas such as essential services and public procurement.26 They examine the situation in the UK, comparing the differences in public policies across the four nations and the impact they have had in creating exponential inequalities understood in an intersectional sense, that is, compounding the disadvantage suffered by those belonging to several vulnerable groups at a time. They draw on the UK Women’s Budget Group research to show that health outcomes which were previously highly differentiated based on income and wealth, and further along racial and gendered lines, only widened in the wake of the pandemic.

No singular factor can be isolated as having led to this, not even the pandemic. Their own contention is that economic policies adopted before, during, and after crises play a crucial role in creating and exacerbating exponential inequalities which are intersectional in nature.

Kelley Loper builds on this theme and shows how exponential inequalities result from multiple and intersecting crises.27 With the example of Hong Kong, she demonstrates the dynamics of interaction of inequalities along multiple axes especially as they transpire when several major crises such as the democratic deficit and the Covid-​ 19 pandemic interact with ongoing socio-​political, economic, and cultural conflicts in a country. Loper shows that the lack of democratic participation affects those who 26 See Diane Elson and Marion Sharples’ chapter in this book: ‘Addressing Intersecting Inequalities through Alternative Economic Strategies’.

27 See Kelley Loper’s chapter in this book: ‘Intersecting Crises and Exponential Inequalities: The View from Hong Kong’.

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are intersectionally disadvantaged (namely, women of ethnic minorities or immigrant women) worse than others during a crisis like the Covid-​19 because they lack a voice to either protect their rights or to preserve the processes through which those rights can be protected during crises. She canvasses the dynamics of this interaction against the template of equality laws in Hong Kong and against the larger backdrop of equality laws in other Commonwealth countries to show how exponential inequalities develop without the intervening force of robust equality laws.

This is further exemplified by Marta Machado and Taís Penteado, who show that the present crisis has only intensified other crises, such as the roll back of reproductive rights in Brazil.28 In a painstaking review of the current crisis, they map the disturbing impact of the pandemic on women’s reproductive rights, especially women who are socio-​economically vulnerable, domestic workers, disabled, and belonging to ethnic minorities. They hone in on the intensification of attacks on abortion rights during the Covid-​19 pandemic when opportunities to resist those attacks were greatly reduced.

The lack of participative democracy during the pandemic (which has been classified as an emergency in many countries) furnished an opportunity for the government to accelerate law and policy reform to make access to abortions and contraception not only scarce but also illegal in Brazil. They thus take this opportunity to resist the proposed criminalization of abortion through a substantive approach to gender equality which they argue is part of Brazilian constitutionalism and its promise of social justice for all groups.

A crisis can thus accelerate inequality and at the same time decelerate democracy and rule of law. The larger point is that, the compounding effects of the intersection of multiple forms of disadvantages and their interaction with multiple crises create a cascade of exponential inequalities which are causally difficult to disentangle as having arisen out of either a specific form of disadvantage or a particular crisis.

3 Equality Law While the talk of exponential inequalities has been rife in the public discourse, not much seems to be said of equality law and its capacity to address exponential inequalities. The contributions in this book examine this hypothesis and show why equality law in practice has remained marginal despite an exponential rise in inequality.

In most jurisdictions, equality law has not been engaged to challenge exponential inequalities. As Colm O’Cinneide states in respect of the UK, ‘it is notable that, at the time of writing—​two years after the covid epidemic began—​no serious equality law challenges have been brought against aspects of UK covid policy’.29 His chapter thus critiques the structural and temporal limits of the current equality law regime in the UK. He suggests that, while equality law has some innovative features, they are ultimately piecemeal in addressing the exponential inequalities recounted above. He suggests instead that a substantive response to inequality today requires a concerted 28 See Marta Machado and Tais Penteado’s chapter in this book: ‘Covid-​19 and Exponential Reproductive Rights-​related Inequalities in Brazil’.

29 Colm O’Cinneide, ‘New Directions Needed: Exponential Inequalities and the Limits of Equality Law’.

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move beyond the existing adversarial model of equality law, and towards a much more radical institutional innovation. He explores what this could look like, drawing from the 1960s anti-​discrimination institutional architecture, which included community relations boards, public advocates, and other ‘tribute’-​style mechanisms.

Similarly, in the case of Ireland, Mark Bell confirms that there is ‘very little evidence of litigation on discrimination related to the pandemic’.30 His chapter shows how the current structure of equality law organized around courts and case law remained latent in the present crisis when most of the response was policy-​based. Bell critiques the limits of the complaints-​based model of equality law in light of the sparse case law it has generated during the crisis, and thus looks to public sector equality and human rights duty in Ireland to provide a different recourse to addressing inequality during the crisis for challenging exponential inequalities.

While there has been a genuine lack of cases being brought forward under equality law in some countries, in others like Hong Kong, as Kelley Loper shows, the limited role of equality litigation is despite the interest in engaging equality law to bring complaints. For example, although the Equal Opportunities Commission—​which has the power to investigate discrimination claims in Hong Kong—​received 1,448 enquiries related to discrimination and Covid-​19 in 2020, it is not clear how many cases were in fact investigated.31 But it is clear that only one such case was actually adjudicated by a court.32 What explains this indifference to equality law? Doctrinal issues such as the reliance on grounds, the number and nature of recognized grounds, the scope of direct and indirect discrimination, the standard of review to be applied to discrimination claims, the range of available remedies, in addition to practical difficulties of time, money, and expertise in engaging equality law, all dictate the extent to which equality law is useful in particular jurisdictions. But prior to these doctrinal issues are issues with the architecture of equality law as a field which affect engagement with equality law at a more fundamental level. Two such broad sets of issues—​relating to the material and structural scope of equality law—​can be identified as the root causes of the waning influence of equality law in conversations around exponential inequalities during crises.

First, the material scope of equality law appears to be a mismatch for exponential inequalities. A crisis such as the Covid-​19 pandemic is exceptional in its scale in that it has indeed impacted everyone everywhere, even if not equally. Recessions, climate disasters, and wars have a similar impact which is global in nature. This scale of exponential inequalities seems to transcend the personal and territorial scope of equality law.

In terms of the personal scope, both the constitutional right to equality as well as statutory non-​discrimination guarantees are framed as individual rights or entitlements. Even though equality law is generally framed in reference to grounds (such as race and sex) and in turn groups defined by grounds (such as Black people and women), the protections themselves accrue to individuals based on their group

30 Mark Bell, ‘More than an Afterthought? Equality Law in Ireland during the Pandemic’.

31 Kelley Loper, ‘Intersecting Crises and Exponential Inequalities: The View from Hong Kong’.

32 ibid.

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membership or status related to grounds and not to groups themselves.33 It is also in this sense that equality law is considered ‘symmetrical’ in nature, that is, it protects individuals as defined by grounds and not only members of disadvantaged groups alone.34 Equality law has thus traditionally served individual claimants who have been able to show personal injury or discrimination suffered either individually or as a distinct class. This liberal model of equality law seems to have been a poor fit for challenging exponential inequalities which have arisen out of crises and the particular laws and policies adopted in response to crises which are fundamentally broad-​based.

Importantly, even where the impact of such laws and policies is not individual but group-​based, equality law seems to be of little relevance where rights and entitlements themselves accrue to individuals. The leap from addressing discrimination against individuals belonging to disadvantaged groups, to group inequality per se has thus been difficult despite the conceptual link between the two in equality law.

Similarly, in terms of the territorial scope, both domestic and international equality laws which focus on states as the primary duty-​bearers limit the possibility of global action which transcends nation-​states or the focus on particular forms of disadvantage within them. Equality or non-​discrimination based on grounds is thus conceived very much as a ‘domestic’ issue even when international law imposes a whole gamut of state obligations in this area. This means that, even though issues of inequality may transcend state boundaries and are truly global in nature, they can hardly be dealt with as such. This comes out in the issue of vaccine equity, which remains an illusion despite widespread agreement that one of the most effective responses—​from a healthcare perspective—​to the coronavirus is to vaccinate as many people as possible around the world.35 Catherine O’Regan’s chapter examines how international law is navigating the problem of ‘vaccine nationalism’ or equality in access to vaccines between countries. O’Regan discusses the intersection of three key areas in international law in promoting equality in access to vaccines. These areas include the rights protected in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), the international law on intellectual property under Trade-​related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs, especially the Doha Agreement), and the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights. Her chapter shows that equal access to vaccines remains a far cry, not only because of international human rights law’s state-​ centric approach, but also because of the strong protection for patents in international law under the World Trade Organization’s TRIPs agreement. The latter as a regime in fact rejects state-​centrism and is actually premised on inter-​state equity,36 being potentially more effective in scalar terms. Trade and patent law thus trumps equality law—​whether domestic or international—​which is premised on state sovereignty and imposes obligations on states within their territorial boundaries primarily.

33 See for an account of limitations of the grounds-​based model of equality law, Kate Malleson, ‘Equality Law and the Protected Characteristics’ (2018) 81 Modern Law Review 598.

34 Naomi Schoenbaum, ‘The Case for Symmetry in Antidiscrimination Law’ (2017) 69 Wisconsin Law Review 70.

35 See statements made at the 2nd Global Covid-​19 Summit https://​ec.eur​opa.eu/​com​miss​ion/​pres​scor​ ner/​det​ail/​en/​STATEM​ENT_​22_​3​050 (accessed 14 May 2022).

36 See Catherine O’Regan’s chapter in this book: ‘Equal Access to Vaccines: Exposing the Limits of International Human Rights Law?’.