Essential guides on cattle farming. Diagnostic procedures in bovine reproduction

PRESENTATION BROCHURE

ESSENTIAL G IDES ON CATTLE FARMING

Diagnostic procedures in bovine reprod ction

Servet (División de Grupo Asís Biomedia S.L.) Centro Empresarial El Trovador, planta 8, oficina I Plaza Antonio Beltrán Martínez, 1 • 50002 Zaragoza (España) Tel.: +34 976 461 480 • Fax: +34 976 423 000 • www.grupoasis.com

Manuel Fernández Sánchez

P74210_Procedimientos_diagnosticos_reproduccion_PortadaSERVET.indd 1

P78620_Dosier_cubiertas.indd 1

31/3/16 16:18

13/4/16 10:29

The publishing strength of Grupo AsĂ­s Editorial Servet, a division of Grupo AsĂ­s, has become one of the reference publishing companies in the veterinary sector worldwide. More than 15 years of experience in the publishing of contents about veterinary medicine guarantees the quality of its work. With a wide national and international distribution, the books in its catalogue are present in many different countries and have been translated into nine languages to date: English, French, Portuguese, German, Italian, Turkish, Japanese, Russian and Chinese.

Its identifying characteristic is a large multidisciplinary team formed by doctors and graduates in Veterinary Medicine and Fine Arts, and specialised designers with a great knowledge of the sector in which they work. Every book is subject to thorough technical and linguistic reviews and analyses, which allow the creation of works with a unique design and excellent contents.

Servet works with the most renowned national and international authors to include the topics most demanded by veterinary surgeons in its catalogue. In addition to its own works, Servet also prepares books for companies and the main multinational companies in the sector are among its clients.

P78620_Dosier_cubiertas.indd 2

13/4/16 10:29

ESSENTIAL GUIDES ON CATTLE FARMING

Diagnostic procedures in bovine reproduction

ESSENTIAL G IDES ON CATTLE FARMING

Diagnostic procedures in bovine reprod ction Manuel Fernández Sánchez

P74210_Procedimientos_diagnosticos_reproduccion_PortadaSERVET.indd 1

31/3/16 16:18

AUTHOR: Manuel Fernández Sánchez.

FORMAT: 17 × 11 cm.

NUMBER OF PAGES: 72.

NUMBER OF IMAGES: 90 approx.

BINDING: Paperback, wire-o.

ESTIMATED

RETAIL PRICE

33 €

This practical guide describes the most common diagnostic procedures used in the control of the reproductive cycle in cattle: determining the cow’s reproductive status, diagnosing pregnancies, assessing reproductive tract health or checking for the presence of diseases, etc. After a brief explanation of the oestrous cycle and its relation with performance parameters, the different procedures, such as rectal palpation and artificial insemination, are shown step by step. The contents are structured in a chronological order according to the events of the reproductive cycle for a better understanding of the information provided.

This guide will be a valuable tool for both students and professionals.

P78620_Diagnostic_procedures_bovine_reproduction_dosier_int.indd 1

13/4/16 11:29

P78620_Diagnostic_procedures_bovine_reproduction_dosier_int.indd 2

13/4/16 11:29

Diagnostic procedures in bovine reproduction

Presentation of the book Reproductive control is the key to a farm's performance. To maintain good performance levels over time, a reproductive management programme is essential. Clients therefore often expect cattle practitioners to have an extensive knowledge of the theoretical bases that should be applied and of the techniques that should be used.

This handbook aims to analyse the most common situations a veterinary practitioner may encounter when in charge of the reproductive management of a dairy herd. It includes the most common diagnostic procedures to assess postpartum situations; prepare and synchronise the animal for artificial insemination; confirm pregnancy or reconfirm it in the case of an early pregnancy; determine foetal sex (sexing) using ultrasonography; and identify twin pregnancies, which require special management.

Diagnostic techniques, especially ultrasonography, have become essential tools to control the oestrous cycle; however, it is necessary to know how to correctly identify the structures that are palpated or shown on the ultrasound scan in order to make decisions on what to do at each moment. This handbook provides specialists in reproduction with tools to help them make decisions in their daily practice.

The answer to each situation will depend on the specific decision made regarding the cow or batch of cows. Obviously, this decision is the vet’s responsibility; however, with this handbook, the author hopes to provide useful information about the different options and techniques available.

Finally, the author briefly addresses a highly important issue for practitioners from the point of view of occupational health and safety: ergonomics when performing the different procedures involved in reproductive management. This is a field in which, unfortunately, veterinary students are not usually trained. As cattle practitioners get older, they lose part of their muscle mass, which contributes to the appearance of lesions that are difficult to cure, such as cervical hernias or muscle imbalances, which favour the appearance of arthritis and chronic lesions.

P78620_Diagnostic_procedures_bovine_reproduction_dosier_int.indd 3

13/4/16 11:29

P78620_Diagnostic_procedures_bovine_reproduction_dosier_int.indd 4

13/4/16 11:29

Diagnostic procedures in bovine reproduction

The author Manuel Fernรกndez Sรกnchez Manuel Fernรกndez Sรกnchez graduated in Veterinary Medicine from the University of Zaragoza.

He works as a self-employed veterinary clinician. He has worked with ANGRA (national association of Rasa Aragonesa sheep breeders) on the development of genetic improvement and reproductive management programmes in meat sheep, and on the control of reproduction and milk quality in dairy cattle. He has also participated as a speaker in several courses organised by the USC (University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain).

hkeita/shutterstock.com

His professional experience in several business fields and clinical experience in reproductive control and nutrition in dairy cattle have given him a broad understanding of the needs of cattle practitioners.

P78620_Diagnostic_procedures_bovine_reproduction_dosier_int.indd 5

13/4/16 11:30

Communication services Website Online visualisation of the sample chapter for advertising.

PDF file with the book presentation.

Presentation of the author.

Visualisation and downloading of the PDF file compatible with mobile devices.

Communication in media Advertisement. 1 Interview with the author. 1 Press release.

http://www.grupoasis.com/promo/diag_reprod_bovine/

1 

P78620_Diagnostic_procedures_bovine_reproduction_dosier_int.indd 6

See conditions.

13/4/16 11:30

ESSENTIAL G IDES ON CATTLE FARMING

Diagnostic procedures in bovine reprod ction Manuel Fernรกndez Sรกnchez

P74210_Procedimientos_diagnosticos_reproduccion_PortadaSERVET.indd 1

P78620_Diagnostic_procedures_bovine_reproduction_dosier_int.indd 7

31/3/16 16:18

13/4/16 11:30

P78620_Diagnostic_procedures_bovine_reproduction_dosier_int.indd 8

13/4/16 11:30

Table of contents 1. Introduction 2. The cow’s productive cycle The productive cycle The oestrous cycle

3. Reproductive management Examination of the reproductive system by rectal palpation Artificial insemination Early pregnancy diagnosis By palpation By ultrasound

Foetal sexing

4. Ergonomics and occupational safety

P78620_Diagnostic_procedures_bovine_reproduction_dosier_int.indd 9

13/4/16 11:30

1

Introduction

Diagnostic procedures in reproduction

Mastering the different reproductive management procedures, especially the most common ones, is essential for cattle practitioners, as these techniques will allow them to perform an optimal examination of the cow’s reproductive system and to establish accurate diagnoses.

This books describes, in a structured manner, basic procedures such as rectal palpation and more complex ones such as ultrasound diagnosis, and is intended to help readers become more familiar with these techniques. These techniques are explained in relation to the cow's productive cycle to highlight how they can be used in practice to identify the stage of the oestrous cycle and how it can influence reproduction, as well as to diagnose possible reproductive disorders.

4

Greater awareness of a cow’s reproductive status contributes to optimising production.

INTRODUCTION

Relation between the oestrous cycle and the productive cycle Birth

1st calving

Puberty Calf

Heifer

2nd calving First-parity cow

Multiparous cow

1st lactation

Milk production

3rd calving

2nd lactation

3rd lactation

2 years 5

Service and conception

Reproductive state

Open

0

2

4

6

8

Pregnant 282 days

Service and conception Open

83

Pregnant 282 days Calving interval 365 days

Service and conception Open

83

Pregnant 282 days Calving interval 365 days

10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48

Age (months)

Figure 3. Representation of the oestrous and productive cycles. The ideal scenario is for cows to get pregnant 120 days after calving. If a cow gets pregnant 83 days after calving, with 282 days of gestation, the calving interval would be 365 days.

P78620_Diagnostic_procedures_bovine_reproduction_dosier_int.indd 10

13/4/16 11:30

2

The cow’s reproductive cycle

Diagnostic procedures in reproduction

The oestrous cycle What distinguishes a vet who performs rectal palpations and ultrasound scans from a technician is the former’s comprehensive knowledge of the oestrous cycle and of the organs and hormones involved.

It is important to know the ovarian structures that appear in all the phases of the oestrous cycle.

The examination of the ovarian structures that are present in the different phases of the cycle is of special interest in the examination of the reproductive system.

8

Figure 4. Uterus with a corpus luteum in the left ovary and a follicle that is more than 2 mm in diameter in the right ovary.

The progesterone released by the corpus luteum will inhibit ovulation and the follicle will regress.

THE COW’S REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE

All these structures can be present simultaneously in the ovaries at a given time. What matters is to be able to determine why they are there and what stage of the oestrous cycle the cow is in.

Ovarian artery and vein

Ovary Tertiary follicle (Graafian follicle)

Secondary follicle

Follicle rupture Infundibulum

Corpus luteum

Isthmus

9

Ampulla

Oviduct

Figure 5. Follicles of different sizes and in different phases, as well as a very evident corpus luteum.

P78620_Diagnostic_procedures_bovine_reproduction_dosier_int.indd 11

13/4/16 11:30

2

The cow’s reproductive cycle

Diagnostic procedures in reproduction

The oestrous cycle consists of follicular waves. Two waves usually appear, although there may sometimes be three or more. However, the cycle can be considered as composed of two waves, as it is the most common situation (Fig. 6).

Follicles develop during these waves and it is thus possible to find follicles in different stages of development throughout the whole cycle. Their development through two follicular waves is shown next.

Hormone concentration

The oestrous cycle

LH

Progesterone (corpus luteum)

Dominant follicle

1st wave

Oestradiol

2nd wave FSH

Oestrus Atretic follicles

Ovulation (dominant follicle)

Oestrus

10

Figure 6. Representation of the bovine oestrous cycle. From ovulation, different hormones play different roles depending on the phase of the oestrous cycle. Their evolution defines the structures that will be detected in the ovary using any of the techniques available.

Atretic follicles

THE COW’S REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE

» Follicular wave: it represents the coordinated growth of a group of small antral follicles (about 25 per wave), which go through three phases in each wave: First wave:

» Follicular recruitment. Phase during which the group of follicles that are 2–3 mm in size start to grow, which is preceded by an increase in FSH (follicle stimulant hormone) levels. These levels then decrease as a result of increased levels of oestradiol secreted by the growing follicles.

» Selection phase. One of the developing follicles reaches 8 mm in diameter and grows at a fast-

11

er rate than the rest, thus becoming the dominant follicle, while the others regress and become subordinates. This phenomenon, known as deviation, characterises the selection phase. There is a change in the capacity to respond to FSH and LH. Oestradiol makes FSH levels decrease; however, the dominant follicle acquires the capacity to keep growing in these circumstances. It also starts to develop LH receptors on the cells of the granulosa.

» Dominant phase. Depending on the presence or absence of a functional corpus luteum (it is absent at the end of the cycle), the dominant follicle will ovulate or the granulosa cells will lose their LH receptors and the dominant follicle will become atretic.

P78620_Diagnostic_procedures_bovine_reproduction_dosier_int.indd 12

13/4/16 11:30

2

The cow’s reproductive cycle

Diagnostic procedures in reproduction

12

Figure 7. Follicular recruitment.

Figure 8. Selection phase.

THE COW’S REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE

13

Figures 9 and 10. Dominant phase.

P78620_Diagnostic_procedures_bovine_reproduction_dosier_int.indd 13

13/4/16 11:30

3

Reproductive management

Diagnostic procedures in reproduction

Examination of the reproductive system by rectal palpation The cow’s genital tract consists of the vulva, vestibule, vagina, uterine body and horns, infundibula and ovaries. The broad ligament suspends all these structures in place and keeps them within the pelvic and abdominal cavity.

Uterine horns Oviduct

14

Ovaries Body of the uterus

Broad ligament

Cervix External cervical opening

Figure 11. Structures of the bovine genital tract.

Figure 12. Location of the broad ligament. Note how it suspends the structures in place. Craniocaudal view.

REPRODUCTIVE MANAGEMENT

Rectal palpation is a technique that must be mastered in order to:

» Determine the cow’s reproductive status. » Identify ovarian diseases and diagnose what phase of the oestrous cycle the

15

animal is in.

» Recognise ovarian structures. » Detect causes of infertility. » Perform artificial insemination.

P78620_Diagnostic_procedures_bovine_reproduction_dosier_int.indd 14

13/4/16 11:30

3

Reproductive management

Diagnostic procedures in reproduction

Procedure Âť 1. Approach Approach the cow from the rear. As for all medical procedures, the animal must be appropriately restrained. To perform a rectal palpation, someone should hold the tail about midway of its length, raising it so the anal area is exposed and turning it to one side.

Appropriate material is essential: the examination should be performed using a rectal sleeve coated with lubricant to facilitate the procedure. The examiner should remove any rings or material that may hinder the procedure and have clean and trimmed nails.

16

Figure 13. Material necessary to perform a rectal palpation: lubricants and plastic gloves.

REPRODUCTIVE MANAGEMENT

The rumen displaces the reproductive tract to the right; the left arm is therefore used on a more frequent basis to perform this examination, although the right arm can also be used. In fact, using both arms alternately helps to prevent lesions as it reduces muscle imbalances.

17

The hand is inserted into the rectum by forming a cone with the thumb and fingers and using a slight rotary motion. This manoeuvre stimulates defecation.

Figure 14. Introduction of the hand in the rectum.

P78620_Diagnostic_procedures_bovine_reproduction_dosier_int.indd 15

13/4/16 11:30

3

Reproductive management

Diagnostic procedures in reproduction

Âť 2. Positioning.

Once the hand has been introduced, it is placed flat to allow the faecal material to be expelled above the arm. The remaining faeces are then scooped out.

The rectum is sometimes filled with air, which causes its walls to be too tense and firm. Peristalsis normally expels this air, but, if it does not, it is necessary to hook the peristaltic ring with a set of fingers and pull it towards the anus so the air can be expelled.

18

All these manoeuvres should be performed gently, since they could cause lacerations and even the rupture of the rectum, which is particularly dangerous in heifers. In this case, blood and clots are seen coming out of the anus; the procedure must be interrupted and appropriate treatment established.

REPRODUCTIVE MANAGEMENT

It is sometimes possible to detect peristaltic waves, which are caused by contraction of the rectal wall. To allow them to pass over the hand, the clinician should place two fingers at the centre of the ring formed by the waves and stroke the area forward and backwards.

19

Rectal palpation should be performed with care, especially in heifers, so as not to tear the walls or cause inflammation.

Figure 15. Placement of the fingers to allow peristaltic waves to pass over the hand.

P78620_Diagnostic_procedures_bovine_reproduction_dosier_int.indd 16

13/4/16 11:30

3

Reproductive management

Diagnostic procedures in reproduction

» 3. Retraction In a heifer, before her first calving, all the structures are found within the pelvic cavity. However, in a cow that has already calved it is easier to find them anterior to the pelvic cavity, within the abdominal cavity. Figures 16 to 19 show the location and morphology of the uterus in a heifer (nulliparous) and an adult cow (multiparous).

20

Figure 16. Location of the uterus in a heifer.

Figure 17. Uterus of a heifer.

REPRODUCTIVE MANAGEMENT

Figures 16 to 19 show the different morphology of the reproductive system in females at different stages of the reproductive cycle.

21

Figure 18. Location of the uterus in a cow.

Figure 19. Uterus of a cow.

In adult animals, a good reproductive examination depends, to a great extent, on “retracting“ the uterus as much as possible within the pelvic cavity.

P78620_Diagnostic_procedures_bovine_reproduction_dosier_int.indd 17

13/4/16 11:30

3

Reproductive management

Diagnostic procedures in reproduction

The first step is to locate the cervix, which is usually found in the middle of the pelvic cavity, although it may be displaced laterally. It can be distinguished as a firm, cylindrical and somewhat irregular structure, which may feel like a “turkey neck�.

Once located, the cervix can be grasped. It should be found to be freely moveable.

22

The fingers are placed between the horns and, with the help of the broad ligament, the uterus is pulled dorsally and caudally to move the structures into the pelvic cavity.

REPRODUCTIVE MANAGEMENT

20

21

23

22

Figure 20. Locate the cervix.

Figure 21. Move towards the space between the two horns.

Figure 22. Gently pull the uterus dorsally and caudally.

P78620_Diagnostic_procedures_bovine_reproduction_dosier_int.indd 18

13/4/16 11:30

3

Reproductive management

Diagnostic procedures in reproduction

With gentle movements, the uterine horn to be examined should be held in the hand, working towards the uterine bifurcation and making sure each horn has been examined along its entire length.

24

Figure 23. Grasp the uterine horn that needs to be examined.

Figure 24. Palpate the uterine horn as you work towards the uterine bifurcation.

Figure 25. Examine the uterine horn along its entire length.

Take advantage of this manoeuvre to feel the tone of the uterus, which may be greater in animals in heat.

REPRODUCTIVE MANAGEMENT

Another procedure that will be addressed further on is pregnancy diagnosis by palpation.

Once the uterine horn has been examined and pregnancy has been ruled out, the ovary, which can be felt after the oviduct or directly suspended from the mesometrium, should be palpated (Fig. 26).

25

Palpation of the ovaries in pregnant cows is not recommended as it may induce luteolysis due to palpation of the corpus luteum.

Figure 26. Hold the ovary between your fingers and gently examine it.

P78620_Diagnostic_procedures_bovine_reproduction_dosier_int.indd 19

13/4/16 11:30

P78620_Diagnostic_procedures_bovine_reproduction_dosier_int.indd 20

13/4/16 11:30

The publishing strength of Grupo AsĂ­s Editorial Servet, a division of Grupo AsĂ­s, has become one of the reference publishing companies in the veterinary sector worldwide. More than 15 years of experience in the publishing of contents about veterinary medicine guarantees the quality of its work. With a wide national and international distribution, the books in its catalogue are present in many different countries and have been translated into nine languages to date: English, French, Portuguese, German, Italian, Turkish, Japanese, Russian and Chinese.

Its identifying characteristic is a large multidisciplinary team formed by doctors and graduates in Veterinary Medicine and Fine Arts, and specialised designers with a great knowledge of the sector in which they work. Every book is subject to thorough technical and linguistic reviews and analyses, which allow the creation of works with a unique design and excellent contents.

Servet works with the most renowned national and international authors to include the topics most demanded by veterinary surgeons in its catalogue. In addition to its own works, Servet also prepares books for companies and the main multinational companies in the sector are among its clients.

P78620_Dosier_cubiertas.indd 2

13/4/16 10:29

PRESENTATION BROCHURE

ESSENTIAL G IDES ON CATTLE FARMING

Diagnostic procedures in bovine reprod ction

Servet (División de Grupo Asís Biomedia S.L.) Centro Empresarial El Trovador, planta 8, oficina I Plaza Antonio Beltrán Martínez, 1 • 50002 Zaragoza (España) Tel.: +34 976 461 480 • Fax: +34 976 423 000 • www.grupoasis.com

Manuel Fernández Sánchez

P74210_Procedimientos_diagnosticos_reproduccion_PortadaSERVET.indd 1

P78620_Dosier_cubiertas.indd 1

31/3/16 16:18

13/4/16 10:29