Earthocity Science Magazine Issue II

EARTHOCITY

Issue II 23 June 2022

SCIENCE MAGAZINE

EARTH, SPACE, ENERGY & ENVIRONMENT "Science does not know its debt to imagination." https://campsite.bio/earthocity

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ISSUE II | PAGE 1

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ed Hafsa Sy

Eesha Ahmed Munahil Tarique Noreen Niaz Tooba Nayab Minahil Saeed Itrat Fareeda Tallat Mahmood Rashna Kanwal

aqib Rimsha S

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Maria Faheem Humna Tahir Faria Islam Azka Tahir Khafia Shahid Saliha Kanwal Saleha Qanta

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EARTHOCITY SCIENCE MAGAZINE ISSUE II

CONTENTS 37

7 Digitalization in Agriculture

The evolution, geological life period, morphology and stratigraphic analysis of ammonites

46 Is plastic really causing ocean pollution?

4 Editor's Note 5 Guest Contributors Section Phase I 10 Guest Contributors Section Phase II 13 INSIDER: Earth Poem 16 Emerging Writer Section Phase I 18 INSIDER: Poverty Tenor in Pakistan 19 Student Contributors Section Phase I 24 Student Contributors Section Phase II 29 Student Contributors Section Phase III 36 Student Contributors Section Phase IV 40 Student Contributors Section Phase V

This issue of science magazine features 16+ Young Emerging Writers Earth, Space, Energy & Environment

45 Student Contributors Section Phase VI 50 Team Contributors Section Phase I 55 Team Contributors Section Phase II

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19 JUNE 2022

ISSUE II

EARTHOCITY SCIENCE MAGAZINE

TALAL AHMED Editor & Contributor In our science magazine we focused much on the new discoveries and hidden treasures of the earth. Our findings includes the domain of earth sciences, space sciences, energy sciences, marine biotechnology, ocean sciences, environmental and climate changes. We adopted the strategy to introduce this to the students and others. So we are on our way to this scientific journey. This issue of the magazine brought some new insights regarding the field knowledge of Oceanography and Artificial Intelligence in agriculture. The Issue also highlights the empowerment of females in stem and also encourages the young emerging students to work on different articles of the magazine.

PROMOTING THE CONCEPT OF E3

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PHASE I

GUEST CONTRIBUTORS SECTION Featured Topics Dilemma of Climate Crisis in Pakistan Digitalization in Agriculture

About Writers Wardah Malik

She is an environmentalist by profession and by passion, a climate reality leader, SDGs advocate and ambassador and a green blogger.

Hafsa Syed

Hafsa Syed an AI/ML Engineer currently pursuing a master's degree in Artificial Intelligence in Pakistan. Her core interest and curiosity toward AI and advanced technologies keep growing as she learn and dig deeper into these fields. She is very passionate to establish her own startup "Techriculture Hub" to bring innovation

and technology in terms of AI to agricultural practices and energy production in Pakistan in the coming era.

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DILEMMA OF CLIMATE CRISIS IN PAKISTAN

BY WARDAH MALIK The global climate crisis poses a number of threats to the

The country relies heavily on its climate sensitive land,

well-being and prosperity of the people of the Islamic

water and forest resources for livelihoods and food security.

Republic of Pakistan. The country already witnesses

Agriculture remains an important source of employment for

several climate- and weather-related natural hazards due to

42 % of the population. Almost 90 % of agriculture depends

its geographical diversity and a varied tropical, continental

on irrigation from the glacier-fed River Indus and its

climate (hot summers and cold winters). Pakistan

tributaries. Climate change has hastened the pace of glacier

experiences recurring heatwaves and droughts, riverine and

melt, which will increase the incidence of glacier lake

flash floods, landslides, and sea storms or cyclones.

outburst floods (GLOF) and flash floods downstream. Faster

Climate change is expected to increase the frequency and

glacier melt, higher temperatures, shifting seasons and

intensity of these events as well as exacerbate people’s

erratic rainfall patterns are all altering the flow of the River

vulnerabilities.

Indus and this will increasingly affect agriculture-related

It is projected that there will be a significant increase in

activities, food production and livelihoods. Already, 39 % of

temperature across the countryard especially in the snow-

the population had experienced multidimensional poverty.

covered mountainous north, which will lead to faster glacial

Impacts to health (notably via heat exhaustion, malnutrition,

melt. Heatwaves are likely to become more frequent and

the emergence of vector-borne diseases such as Dengue

intense all over Pakistan, and the number of ‘hot’ days and

Fever, and the increased burden of waterborne diseases) will

nights are expected to increase significantly. Changes in

reduce people’s ability to work and earn a livelihood.

rainfall trends are not clear, though there may be some

Migrants, internally displaced persons, and religious and

shifting of seasons (peak summer rain shifting to August

ethnic minorities will be highly vulnerable as they are often

and peak winter rains shifting to March). Extremely wet

marginalized to hazard-prone land and face barriers to

days are likely to increase across all of the country except in

accessing healthcare, including financial barriers due to

Sindh Province, which will experience more dry days

informal employment. Climate change may potentially

(leading to the increased frequency of drought). Climate

increase the number of child marriages, premature births

change has the potential to trigger wide-ranging and strong

and domestic violence. Women and children will also be

negative feedback loops between livelihoods and health.

more vulnerable to malnourishment and malnutrition due to

Pakistan is a low-middle income country that remains

lower food production.

predominantly agrarian.

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ISSUE II

DIGITALIZATION IN AGRICULTURE

BY HAFSA SYED Digitalization in agriculture can be defined as the transformation of the agricultural sector from using old urban methodologies of farming to moving on with digital technologies starting from the Green Revolution An era, named Agriculture 2.0, the phase of farming that began in the late 1950s when new agronomic management practices, new synthetic pesticides, and fertilizers were used in agricultural fields and various machines were manually operated by farmers, Precision agriculture (a management strategy that gathers, processes, and analyses temporal, spatial, and individual data and combines it with other information to guide site, plant, or animal-specific management decisions to improve resource efficiency, productivity, quality, profitability and sustainability of agricultural

production.),

Smart

Farming

The industrial and Agricultural revolutions lie under United Nations (UNs) SDGs to end poverty, protect the planet, and improve the lives of everyone, everywhere. The 17 goals are part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development shown below.

(the

transformation from Precision Farming to end to end connectable, knowledge-based farm production systems.) to all the digital innovations in the field of agriculture leading towards Agriculture 4.0 currently. Now, Digital transformation is the process of finding solutions to social and sectoral needs by using digital technologies. Till Fourth Industrial Revolution, Agriculture has evolved from primitive level to advanced level gradually over time divided into 4 long term technological developments and the transformations are named from Agriculture 1.0 to Agriculture 4.0. the figure below shows the timelines of both industrial revolutions and Agricultural Revolutions.

The 2030 SDGs comprise the aims related to food (SDG 2), water (SDG 6), energy (SDG 7), climate change (SDG 13), and ecosystem (SDG 15). The main focus of discussion in this essay is Energy Digitalization or digital transformation in agriculture.

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Water energy and food are the resources connected and

Renewable energy technologies such as solar energy, wind

dependent on each other as the Impact on one resource

energy, and bioenergy can be integrated into agriculture in

affect the other. The interdependent and complex

villages and cities. If coupling an energy storage system with

interactions of these three basic resources are called the

renewable energy technologies, the excess energy generated

water-energy-food

challenges

can be stored to use in the future. As an alternative solution to

concerning food, water, and energy have to be planned to

the Nexus approach, new applications where photovoltaic

meet current and future socio-economic demands at local,

panels are combined can be used in field and horticulture, and

regional, national, and global scales for sustainable

aquaculture shown below.

development. There are technological solutions based on

Agrivoltaics - A system with PV technologies installed at a

nexus models for rural and urban fields, sensor

certain height from the ground, making it together integrates

applications),

greenhouse

agriculture and solar energy. It can provide both preserve

monitoring. knowing the interconnections between the

agricultural land and advantage crop production by increasing

three elements of the Nexus, it can be determined which

water use efficiency and decreasing water stress.

nexus.

renewable

Solutions

energy,

to

and

resource should be shared in what proportion for sustainable production, and how to take temporal and spatial strategical decisions. Figure 3 shows connections between water-energy-food nexus and interactions among WEF.

Integrated Food Energy Systems (IFES) - IFES is a farming system model designed to combine, intensify, and hence improve the simultaneous production of food and energy through the sustainable use of biomass; achieved in two ways: 1. Combining the production of food and fuel feedstock on the same land, e.g., inter-cropping, agroforestry, or agro-pastoral systems, 2. Using the by-products/residues of one production system i.e., ‘closed loop’ or ‘zero waste systems. Hence, energy-smart solutions can include simultaneously producing food and energy as a means of achieving sustainable production systems in rural communities as shown in Figure.

Renewable Energy and Environmental Technologies: Renewable energy technologies have the potential to provide synergy between water, energy, and food; and also, the optimum mix is available for three sectors. Solar-based pumping solutions offer a cost-effective alternative to the grid- or diesel-based irrigation pumps. Renewable energy and rainwater harvesting technologies can be combined with a nexus system.

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To indicate the necessity to develop new approaches based on science in terms of societal impacts in the evolution of digital agriculture a review on digital twins in agriculture from 2017 - to 2020 was presented in a report in which unique characteristics of agricultural digital twins were defined and it pointed out that digitalization will provide multiple benefits in terms of productivity and sustainability to the agricultural sector. the main themes covering sociotechnical dimensions of digitalization in agricultural production practices are connectivity, transparency, and governance.

Four key technologies that will be an active role in the future of digital farming are: 1. Vision and sensors 2. Automation and robotics 3. Digitization and big data 4. Biological actors Moreover, Industry 4.0 has the potential to transform the production capabilities of whole industries, including the agricultural fields. Connectivity is the cornerstone of this transformation and IoT is a key enabling technology that is increasingly part of agricultural equipment. Technologies, such as IoT, Edge Computing, AI, robotics, 5G, blockchain, Industrial Biotechnology, Nanotechnology, Photonics and supercomputing, all have the potential to make

agriculture

more

efficient,

sustainable,

and

competitive.

In the farming sector, the World is rapidly evolving towards a new digital cosmos covering technologies such as IoT, cloud computing, big data, automation, and artificial intelligence. And is moving towards a new paradigm that is recalled Agriculture 4.0 that integrates a number of innovations in order to produce agricultural products.

EARTHOCITY SCIENCE MAGAZINE

PHASE II

GUEST CONTRIBUTORS SECTION Featured Topics Urban Forests Why World is Focused on Ozone Layer's Rebuilding About Writers Rimsha Saqib

Rimsha is an environmental scientist and she aims to shift Pakistan towards sustainable techniques. She has been working in Petro Waste Busters as a health and safety internee.

She has done various research projects at university. She also works on the final year project "Assessment of solid waste generation of Quaid e Azam university using Geographical Information System (GIS)".

Maryam Mehmood

Maryam is a passionate Biotechnologist who personally believes in the saying "Biotechnology can recreate nature more beautifully". That is why she is trying her fullest to play her part in the best possible way by using her skills and knowledge domains.

of

Biotechnology

and

related

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ISSUE II

URBAN FORESTS

BY RIMSHA SAQIB

Any type of forest, woody or non-woody, grown within a

1. Trees can provide basic food items such as fruits and

city or suburb is referred to as Urban Forest. But the urban

nutrition which can serve the basic needs of the people

forest does not have facilities like public bathrooms, or

living in cities. Moreover, the wood can be used for

fences, or clear boundaries like other forests and parks.

cooking and heating purposes.

There are certain urban forest plans which are developed

2. Trees play an important role in regulating climate by

for cities and suburbs. The trees included in this plan may

absorbing 150kg of Carbon Dioxide per year, thus

be street trees, trees owned by any private person, or

decreasing the temperature and cleaning the air.

landowner, and trees grown in parks. (Held, 2020).

3. If trees are placed and grown strategically, the air be

Moreover, the urban forest can be present in a variety of

cooled down, reducing the temperature to about 2 to 8

habitats including urban jungles or crowded plant forests.

degrees Celsius. This can reduce the problem of heat

They play a significant role in regulating climate on a

strokes and help people adapt to the climate change

micro and local level. (Oke, 1989)

phenomenon.

4. Large-sized trees act as an ideal filter for harmful

Effect of Plantation in cities:

pollutants

Urbanization is increasing day by day due to certain factors

particulate matter in the air and cleaning the air. Most of

such as poverty and increasing population. The worrying

the toxicants such as carbon monoxide and particulate

point is that the increase in urbanization occurs without any

matter are absorbed on leaves or bark.

by

absorbing

harmful

compounds

and

land planning which has a huge effect on forests, lands, and

5. Research shows that the mental and physical health of

vegetation, as trees are cut to construct houses and

people living in proximity of forests or trees can be

buildings. (FAO, 2020).Trees can provide a variety of

improved significantly. High blood pressure and stress are

benefits such as reduction of temperature and regulation of

lowered and health is improved. (FAO, 2020)

climate, improved air quality, and conservation of the habitat of wildlife. (Oldfield, Wood, & Bradford,

Effect of Plantation on Environment:

2014)With the help of plantation, the negative effects of

As discussed earlier, plantations play a huge role in cleaning

urbanization can be compensated in the following ways.

the environment and regulating climate. It does this in the following ways.

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1. Due to certain anthropogenic activities, Carbon

The respiration phenomenon of trees is opposite to that of

Dioxide is entered into the environment which disturbs

humans, so humans exhale carbon dioxide and inhale

the natural chemistry of the air and increases the

oxygen, while trees inhale carbon dioxide and exhale

temperature. Trees help in absorbing excess carbon

oxygen. In this way, the natural balance of gases in the air

dioxide by absorbing it and removing excess oxygen.

is maintained and the carbon cycle flows properly.

2. Have you ever felt a fresh feeling in the woods or forests? It's because trees help purify the air by

Carbon footprints and its adverse effects:

cleaning and absorbing excess harmful pollutants in the

The total amount of greenhouse gases such as methane and

air such as particulate matter and oxides of nitrogen

carbon dioxide released to the environment through

and sulfur.

anthropogenic activities by a single person is called carbon

3. Trees make the environment colder as it provides shade

footprint. The United States has the highest carbon

and also absorb carbon dioxide which reduces the

footprint i.e.; 16 tons for a single person. There are several

temperature of your surroundings. So, plant trees in

ways to reduce carbon footprint such as using less private

your vicinity to breathe colder and cleaner air.

transport and shifting to public transport, learn and use the

4. Plantation prevents water pollutants by absorbing

5 R formula, switch to clean and sustainable energy and

phosphorus and nitrogen from storms. Otherwise, the

healthy lifestyle, and reduce the usage of fossil fuels. The

storm water can enter the ocean and rivers without

increased carbon footprint can cause several problems for

being filtered.

our environment such as global warming and increased

5. One of the greatest problems faced by the world

temperature. Due to increased temperature, wildlife and

nowadays is the use of fossil fuels for burning and the

their habitat can be affected greatly. Moreover, the melting

pollution caused by it. Researchers have found a way

of polar ice caps occurs which causes increased flow of

to use trees as a renewable energy source to reduce

water in rivers and floods. Extreme weather events can

pollution and substitute fossil fuels.

occur such as very high temperatures in the summer season and very low temperatures in the winter season.

Although trees can help clean the environment, there are some cons of the plantation as well. It can increase the risk

Conclusion:

of soil erosion due to which soil is eroded and eroded soil

Plantation and the presence of urban forests are very

flows to the oceans and rivers and cause pollution and harm

important for our environment as well as for ourselves. So,

to marine life. Moreover, farmers and local people are not

we should plant more and more trees and arrange plantation

aware of the proper way to plant trees. So, they usually

drives to reduce deforestation. Awareness should be given

plant the same seeds over land again and again which

to the people about the importance of forests and how they

reduces the chance of trees growing properly.

can help regulate our climate. Moreover, planting trees gives an aesthetic and clean look to the house and parks,

Flora and Carbon dioxide: Vegetation

can

remove

which gives a sense of satisfaction and pleasure to the carbon

dioxide

from

the

people watching the area. So, afforestation should be

environment by absorbing it from the air and using it in

promoted strategically so that carbon footprint can be

photosynthesis and respiration processes.

reduced.

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ISSUE II

EARTHOCITY SCIENCE MAGAZINE

POEM Every tree on earth Has its own worth Whatever their age Trees are our precious heritage Protecting them is our responsibility No one can deny their utility Trees give us oxygen And help us remember our origin Every tree has a story to tell Not everyone can feel Their secret pain Please read it once again Not everyone can hear Their tears, their fear Let's take care of our trees Let's get down on our knees And thank God for the air we breathe Instead of watching them write

By Nada Nayhi PROMOTING THE CONCEPT OF E3

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WHY THE WORLD IS FOCUSED ON OZONE LAYER'S REBUILDING

BY MARYAM MEHMOOD Ozone layer is the area of Stratosphere which absorbs large

The compounds that play role in depletion of Ozone layer are

amount of ultraviolet radiation (UV) coming from Sun.

known as Ozone depleting substances (CDS). Major ODS are:

These rays contain large number of Ozone particles as

1. ·Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),

compared to other regions of atmosphere. Ozone layer is

2. ·Methyl Chloroform,

also known as Ozone shield and it is made up of Ozone

3. ·Carbon tetrachloride, and

(O3) gas. Ozone molecules are made up of three Oxygen

4. ·Hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)

atoms. Ozone is a molecule that contains three oxygen

(Dameris, 2010).

atoms. At any moment, formation and destruction of ozone molecules is occurring in stratosphere (Van der Leun,

Ozone layer's rebuilding:

2004).

In 1985, first time government accepted the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer. After this

Why Ozone layer is important to us?

in order to stop Ozone layer’s depletion, many countries are

The ozone layer limits the number of total radiations that

agreed that they will not use ODS. Later on it became the only

reach us on Earth by absorbing them. These rays are not

United Nation environmental agreements that was ratified in

good for humans they can cause Cataracts and Skin cancer

every country around the world. After different international

in humans. UV rays are also harmful for marine life and

agreements, great reduction in use of ODS have seen in

plants. Ozone layer is playing great role in protection of

Europe and other countries. Now scientific monitoring

human health, plants, and animals against Ultraviolet

confirms ozone layers has started to recover(Hofmann et al,

radiations (Aggarwal et al, 2013).

2009).

Ozone Depletion: Scientists have noticed ozone layer thinning in the 1970s.

After research, scientists have found that Ozone layer’s depletion is linked with the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) as well as with halogen-source gases that are present in the stratosphere. 100,000 O3 molecules can be destroyed by just one Chlorine atom. Ozone destruction is more rapidly as compared to its natural formation.

Figure 1 Decrease in use of Ozone depleting substances over the years.

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Conclusion: Results of this environment protection struggle have been amazingly dramatic. Almost 99% of ODS has been gradually eliminated and the Ozone protective layer is getting replenished above Earth. Scientists are hopeful that the ozone hole above the Antarctic region will be closed till 2060. Furthermore, other regions of world will also return to their pre-1970s values before 2060. Because of all these measures now in a year on average almost two million people are protected from Skin cancer and marine life is also saved along with plants (Ball et al, 2018).

EARTHOCITY SCIENCE MAGAZINE

PHASE I

EMEMERGING WRITER SECTION Featured Topic Eco-friendly Bags

About Writer Zymal Umar

She is an environmental activist who wishes to see an eco-friendly Pakistan. She is the founder and owner of an innovative social project named Zee bags — an upcycling

enterprise

that

turns

old

newspapers into beautiful biodegradable bags and sell them, using the revenue earned for charitable purposes.

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ECO-FRIENDLY BAGS

BY ZYMAL UMAR

I, Zymal Umer an environmental activist who runs a non-

This can cause a range of potentially harmful effects on the

profit organization, Zee Bags. it has a twofold effect on

species that drink the water. Marine life is being highly

society, cleaning up the environment and reducing poverty.

affected by the increasing rate of water pollution also leading

It’s no secret that plastic is terrible for the environment, we

to its extinction.

hear about it all the time and it has been reiterated over and

Sunlight and heat cause the plastic to release powerful

over again by policy makers and scientists. Being a part of

greenhouse gases, leading to an alarming situation. As our

this society, I consider it my utmost responsibility to play a

climate changes, the planet gets hotter, the plastic breaks

role that is beneficial for the environment so I make eco-

down into more methane and ethylene, increasing the rate of

friendly bags to reduce the use of plastic bags that can take

climate change, and so perpetuating the cycle. Also, if plastic

up to hundreds of years to decompose.

is burnt it releases harmful gases limiting our options even

According to a report from the Guardian, an estimated 8.3

more to compose it properly.

billion tons of plastic have been produced since the 1950's

The only way to reduce the effect of pollution created by

that’s equivalent to the weight of more than 800,000 Eiffel

plastic is to reuse it instead of disposing it off. Being a citizen,

Towers.

we need understand this huge responsibility of keeping your

Despite this, and the fact that plastic is continuing to be

environment clean and green. The least we could do is to keep

produced each year, the UNEP reports that only 9% of all

the surrounding of your home and workplace tidy and try to

plastic is recycled and just 12% is incinerated. The

plant as much trees as possible to overcome the effects of

remaining plastic has polluted the environment or can be

deforestation that we have been facing over the last few years

found in dumps and landfills. My heart feels heavy to break

which are caused due to rapid urbanization.

this to you but about 2 million plastic bags are used every minute worldwide, isn't it a an extremely disturbing number?

According to some reports, there could be more plastic than fish in the ocean by 2050. Chlorinated plastic can release harmful chemicals into the surrounding soil, which can then seep into groundwater or other surrounding water sources, and also the ecosystem.

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ISSUE II

POVERTY TENOR IN PAKISTAN

BY RAZA ULLAH

Poverty reduction is one of the most sustainable

Therefore we can collect briefs that discuss different groups of

development goals set by the UN in 2015. According to

poor people present in the country by categorizing these at

this goal, Pakistan must reduce its poverty level to half by

different poverty levels. This categorization will help us to get

2030 from 24.3 percent to 12 percent. Pakistan is making

a deep insight into the state of poverty across the country from

hard efforts to achieve this target although the COVID-19

1998 to 2020 and will help the policymakers to formulate

pandemic has made it difficult to achieve this goal due to

more specific and relevant policies concerning these different

severe macroeconomic imbalances in the economy.

poverty groups.

There are reports that provides consistent data series of poverty in Pakistan from 1998 to 2020 using the CBN estimation method. If we look at the historical data, it suggests that the poverty has declined to some extent in Pakistan at the national as well as provincial level.

Sustained economical growth is considered as the important driver of poverty and in Pakistan, there is a need to maintain economic growth of around 6 percent to 7 percent to alliviate about 30 percent of the population living under poverty. It is evident from the statistics that the early 2000s were a period of high economic growth and this growth translated into low poverty rates. Whereas after 2006 GDP grew at a decreasing rate as compared to the proceeding years resulting on low poverty decline and subsequently resulting in a greater number of potential poor in the country.

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PHASE I

STUDENT CONTRIBUTORS SECTION Featured Topic Geology of Stone Mountain State Park, Georgia About Writers Azka Tahir

She is currently enrolled in a BS Geology degree. She is passionate and dedicated to her work. A talented girl from NJC aimed to learn and explore new applications and fields in the domain of geology.

Faria Islam

She is currently enrolled in BS Geology degree. She has good skills for fine art work and articles writings. A talented girl from NJC aimed to learn and explore new applications and fields in the domain of geology.

Khafia Shahid

She is currently enrolled in BS Geology degree.. A talented and responsive girl from NJC aimed to learn and explore new applications and fields in the domain of geology.

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ISSUE II

GEOLOGY OF STONE MOUNTAIN STATE PARK, GEORGIA

BY AZKA TAHIR, FARIA ISLAM & KHAFIA SHAHID

Stone Mountain Park is the world's largest single piece of

The park is owned and managed by Herschend Family

exposed granite. Only about a third of it is visible. It is

Entertainment who belongs to the state of Georgia. The

estimated that Stone Mountain is a plutonic igneous rock

elevation is 1,686 feet (514 m) above sea level and 825 feet

which is the type of igneous intrusion. It was formed

(251 m) above the surrounding area. Stone Mountain is

completely underground and has been uncovered over

famous by its geology, also the vast rock relief on its north

millions of years of erosion. It was formed during the

face, the largest bas-relief artwork in the world. The

formation of Blue Ridge Mountains. Geographically, it is

composition of the mountain ranges from quartz monzonite to

located on the east of Atlanta that is about 16 miles in

granite and granodiorite.

Georgia; US. It is estimated by uniformitarian that the

There are some myths and their facts about stone mountain:

granite was intruded into overlying metamorphic rocks by

Stone Mountain granite underlies half of Georgia, all of

the upwelling of magma during the last stages of the

Georgia, three states, seven states, etc.

Alleghenian Orogeny. Later they exposed at earth crust

Fact: The Stone Mountain Granite is a relatively small unit.

when magma solidified. (Stone mountain Georgia: A

Stone Mountain is the largest exposed granite outcrop in

creation geologist perspective by Carl R. Froede, Jr., B.S.,

the world.

P.G. Creation Research Society Quarterly 31(4):214

Fact: It may be the largest granite dome east of the

March, 1995).

Mississippi River; however, it is not the largest dome in the world. Many granite domes in the Sierras in the western United States are larger than stone mountain.

Stone Mountain is 300 million years old.

Fact: The granite is approximately 300million years old, but the mountain has15 million years old.

The rounded depressions on the mountain were caused by lightning strikes.

Fact: The rounded holes which are called weathering pits are result of weathering, not lightning.

Figure 1 Stone Mountain at State Park, Georgia.

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Granite:

The granite intruded into the metamorphic rocks of the

The huge exposed granite rock originated from a pluton

Piedmont region during the Alleghenian Orogeny, which

beneath the earth's surface in the mantle an exfoliation

results by the collision of North America and North Africa.

granitic dome is rising 700 feet above the valley floor that

This intrusion of granite also results the Panola Mountain

is entirely composed of medium to coarse-grained granite.

and Arabia Mountain, which were found in DeKalb

The granite of Stone Mountain is composed of quartz,

County.

feldspar, microcline, muscovite, and a small amount of biotite and tourmaline. Xenoliths composed of two type of

Alligator Back Formation:

metamorphic rock gneiss and amphibolite of country rock

It is Late Precambrian formation that is mainly composed

is embedded in Stone Mountain. These xenoliths are

of meta-sedimentary and volcanic rocks and can be found

angular, foliated, have feathery black amphibole, and have

in several places in the Blue Ridge Mountains that is near

a reaction rim of pale yellow orthoclase around them.

the Stone Mountain Park. It can also be found in the valley

Granite forming the mountain developed from magma

of Stone Mountain State Park. Also there are formation is

several miles deep in the earth’s crust five to ten miles

present as xenoliths on the dome.

below the surface. The granite shows east-west foliation with abundant muscovite. The muscovite belongs to metamorphic origin. Late metasomatic veins are also present through the granite composed of black tourmaline, k-feldspar and amphibole.

Figure 3 The picture marks the contact between Aligator Back Formation and Granite.

Weathering: The Stone Mountain is constantly subjected under some Figure 2 Granite of stone mountain state park.

changes since their formation. These changes called weathering. Irregular round depression may or may not

The granite shows east-west foliation with abundant

be filled with water present at stone mountain caused by the

muscovite. The muscovite belongs to metamorphic origin.

chemical weathering of granite by water combined with

Late metasomatic veins are also present through the granite

organic acids from plants. Plants are also present on the

composed of black tourmaline, k-feldspar and amphibole

granite surface.

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Weathering Pits:

Joints:

There are many depressions, ranging from centimeters to

Joints are observed on the surface of stone mountain. In

meters in depth and diameter that can be found on higher

and around the rock two system of joints are found. The

altitude surfaces of stone Mountain. These depressions may

earlier joint system formed due to the stress caused by

originate from the erosion of water; sometimes appear to be

folding around metamorphic rocks. The second joint

aligned with joints in the granite.

system is formed due to cooling of granite over million years and cracked in result of tension same as clay cracked when dries and hardens. These joints are filled with pegmatite and apatite.

Potholes: There are the rounded rocks at the bottom of the small pools in the streams of Stone Mountain Park. These cobbles and pebbles were rounded by this process, the depression itself grows, and is in fact caused by, the impact of the sediment against the sides of the depression that is almost like a hydraulic drill.

Figure 4 Weathering pits at stone mountain state park.

Xenolith: Different fragments of rocks with different composition from the granite can be found on the face of the Mountain.

The fragments are to be an older specimen than the granite surrounding. By finding older material that enclosed within younger material is one of the basic ways that geologists determine the sequence of past geological events.

Figure 6 Potholes at stone mountain state park.

Pegmatite: After the intrusion of granite of Stone Mountain there were several more periods of other intrusive activity. The granite cooled first outward side, the new magma find its way from the cracks and filled fractures. The rock cooled has fine grains called aplite. Composition of pegmatite is same as Figure 5 Xenoliths at stone mountain state park.

aplite but pegmatite is coarse grained rock.

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Relationship of flora to geology: Another granite outcrop in the piedmont on Stone Mountain typically vegetation is restricted to weathering pits, joints, and behind the exfoliation blocks. These are the areas where lichens and mosses a roothold on the granite given by weathering. They produce the organic acid which makes combined with rainwater and cause further weathering of granite. This action produces soil that supports grasses. Soil formed from the weathering of granite pine tree and hardwoods.

Figure 7 Presence of flora at stone mountain park.

Conclusion: Stone Mountain Park is much larger mass of rock that geologists call a pluton. It is mostly composed of granite and also has granodiorite. It is the mostly known for its geology. It exposed when erosion removed the overlying granitic rock, the resulting release in pressure caused the rock mass to move upward and intrude into older surrounding rock; sometime during the mid-Paleozoic era that is about 300-350 million years ago. The Stone Mountain is more resistive granite then other rocks. It is composed from variety of minerals. Many geological features like faults, joints, weathering pits, pegmatite, dikes, and fractures are observed.

EARTHOCITY SCIENCE MAGAZINE

PHASE II

STUDENT CONTRIBUTORS SECTION Featured Topic Effects of melting of glaciers About Writers Maria Faheem

She is currently enrolled in a BS Geology degree. She is passionate and dedicated to her work. She is a brilliant student and honest about every work. A talented girl from NJC aimed to learn and explore new applications and fields in the domain of geology.

Humna Tahir

She is currently enrolled in a BS Geology degree. She is much dedicated to her work. A talented and responsive girl from NJC aimed to learn and explore new applications and fields in the domain of geology.

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EFFECTS OF MELTING OF GLACIERS

BY MARIA FAHEEM & HUMNA TAHIR

Glaciers act as reservoirs. They are significant components

Absolute consequences of glacial mass disintegration:

of natural and human environments on Earth. More than

The consequences of glaciers melting have not only been

three quarters of the earth’s fresh water comes from

confined to one part of the world, but to the entire planet.

mountain glaciers. In certain parts of the world, glaciers

Each continent is sustaining under the adverse effects of

have retreated more than 30% in less than 50 years. In

swiftly melting ice glacier. The blistered melting of glaciers is

addition to, glaciers are having persistently notable

producing a big ripple effect such as, drastic flooding and

importance well beyond their geographical extent, bringing

declining biodiversity which stands in need of huge

forth meltwater for irrigation, industry, and households

intervention financial capital to alleviate. Accordingly, the

during dry seasons. In bleak regions, river and lake ice may

most prevailing effects are intimated below:

facilitate traffic in remote areas. Therefore, glaciers may have a wide range of unwelcome consequences too.

Increase of the level of oceans and extreme flooding:

Scientists often study glaciers to predict future climate

A big part of continent is being covered by water, as the level

changes and to construe the chronic effects. Over the past

of water is growing, and in some years it may be completely

few years, scientists have discovered an alarming rate of

submerged (Elena Bargantini, November 27, 2018).

glacier melting. In spite of that, what exactly are the causes

There are many areas that have glaciers at higher altitudes,

of glacier melting? The main reasons that could be

and are fusing causing abrupt rise in water input in water

suspected are burning of fossil fuels, oil and gas drilling,

bodies like rivers, seas and lakes. These water bodies will

deforestation, and ice breaking ships.

continue growing in size due to the excess input of water. The

(Carey, 2010)

result is overflowing, which will be a major disaster weaken and end up killing them in the long run. In result the fish species that depend on coral reefs for food will also die.

Moreover, individuals who rely on fish for food in such regions will also be effected.

Figure 1 Melted Iceland's glacier.

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Upsurging sea level and flooding of coastal areas:

Certain birds also bank on fish that are found in freshly

The average global sea level rose by 1-2 mm per year

melting glaciers. With the increasing water temperatures

during the 1900s and is projected to continue rising. In total

and water levels, this will start affecting aquatic plants.

the sea has risen by 2.7 centimeters since the 60s and the

Subsequently, the fish species will cut down and the

world's glaciers still contain enough to raise the ocean by

survival of the birds and animals that are dependent and

another half a meter. Sea-level rise will affect coastal

adapted to the glacier habitats will be convulsed. Likewise,

regions throughout the world. Rapid melting of glaciers can

coral reefs need sunlight for the process of photosynthesis,

lead to flooding of rivers and to the formation of glacial

approbating their survival. When water level boosts due to

meltwater lakes, which may constitute an even more

glacier melting, adequate sunlight will not be able to reach

perilous threat. Calving of ice chunks into lakes can cause

the corals. This will presumably end up killing them in the

catastrophic glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF).

long haul. There are numerous fish genera that hinge on the corals for food. Thus, without the coral reefs, they will pass

Climate Change:

on. Likewise, individuals who rely on fish for food in such

Glaciers play a significant role in reflecting and absorbing

areas will be racked.

heat on the Earth. As glaciers keep on melting, temperatures all over the world keep on increasing. In some

Biodiversity loss and animals losing homes:

areas, small glaciers have already disappeared, exposing

There are many living creatures that rely mainly on glaciers

the earth. The Earth is unable to deflect as much heat as

for

glaciers can thus heat will keep on increasing continuously

temperatures for their day to day activities liked blue bear.

(Rinkesh, 2022).

Some birds are also rely on fish found in freshly melting

The equilibrium of cyclonic and anticyclone structures and

glaciers. With the increasing water temperatures and levels,

weather conditions are getting worst (Elena Bargantini,

aquatic plants will start being effected. In result, the fish

November 27, 2018).

species will reduce and the survival of the birds and

As a result of sea-level rise, storm surges become more

animals that are dependent on glacier habitats

prevalent, with warm air and ocean temperatures

(Rinkesh, 2022).

combining to increase the frequency of coastal storms.

The habitats of several marine and terrestrial species are

There is also a sort of self-perpetuating climate effect,

changing and they are preserving the natural cycle (Elena

where the loss of ice leads to hot global temperatures. This

Bargantini, November 27, 2018).

constant

existence.

Some

animals

need

cool

extends even further than just the climate, as slowing oceanic currents are directly tied to a series of extreme

Recontamination of the living world:

weather occurrences throughout the globe (Alice Chen

Persistent organic pollutants are chemicals that can be

October 28, 2020).

transmitted over long distances in the atmosphere and once deposited can remain in the environment for decades. They

Loss of biodiversity and vanishing of coral reefs:

hoarded up in the food web, affecting the health of living

There are a lot of living organisms that rely mainly on

organisms. Researcher says that these pollutants have

glaciers as their natural habitat for continued existence.

accumulated in the glaciers after being ensnared in the surface ice through deposition from the atmosphere.

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The headlong melting of glaciers is now discharging the chemicals back into the surroundings and water bodies. It may affect the use of glacial meltwater in irrigation systems. Simultaneously, wildlife and fisherman may be exposed to increased concentrations of these contaminants in the environment.

Scarcity of freshwater: Studies show that only 2% of the freshwater pole can consume. Over 70 % consists of glaciers and snow. With the increase in population and decrease in the mass of glaciers, there will be a serious scarcity of fresh water in the coming years.

Diminution of agricultural production: Elevating temperatures cause mountain glaciers to melt and change water attainability. Primarily, as the glacier melts, more water rushes downhill away from the glacier.

However, as the glacier shriveled, the water supply will decline and as a consequence farms, villages and cities might be deprived of a valuable water source. The out turn will be a reduction in overall agricultural production. On the other hand, water that has melted gets renewed by

Figure 2 Melting of north pole.

Scientists have estimated that in some years the North Pole will transform into an enormous salty lake (Elena Bargantini, November 27, 2018).

Augmented global climate change: Glaciers play a momentous role in reflecting and absorbing the heat on earth. This implies that as glaciers keep on melting, temperatures throughout the world will at the same rate continue rising. Elsewhere, small ice glaciers have already vanished, exposing the earth. The earth is inefficacious to deflect as much heat as glaciers can thus heat will keep on increasing, more glaciers perpetuate melting and water levels persistently increase (Chen, 2020).

turning into ice through cooling to form glaciers. In this way, with the proliferating population and depleting glacial mass, there will be menace shortage of fresh water in the forthcoming years.

The North pole is melting: The North Pole is the area where it is easier to observe the melting glaciers. During the last 30 years, the surface of the arctic glaciers has extraordinarily decreased. Moreover, the average age of the arctic ice cap is diminishing: only a few parts are overcoming the 5 years. The majority of the ice of the North Pole grows during the winter season and melts during the summer.

Figure 3 Effects of climate change on glaciers over the past few years.

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Antarctic glaciers melting:

If carbon dioxide emissions can be reduced by 45% over a

Even the Antarctic is affected by the issues caused by the

decade, before drop-off to zero by 2050, then glaciers can

melting of the glaciers. The surface of the ice cap of the

still be retrieved. Sufficient targeted measures are required.

South Pole is less, between 2010 and 2016 of

Building large dams around glaciers could slow down

approximately 1500 km2. The ice cap is losing every year

erosion from arctic melting. The final solution is to create

approximately 5 meters of thickness from the base of the

artificial icebergs by taking the water from melting glaciers

ice layer, near the ocean floor. During the last 50 year, the

and refreezing and combining them. “The truth is: the

phenomenon of the melting glacier is getting worse Only in

natural world is changing. And we are totally dependent

Italy, during this time we have lost the 30% of the glaciers.

on that world. It provides our food, water and air. It is the

Scientists estimate that in 30 or 40 years the glaciers will

most precious thing we have and we need to defend

disappear. Or they will be unusable as water resource

it.”(David Attenborough)The greatest threat to our planet is

(Elena Bargantini, November 27, 2018).

the belief that someone else will save it. We must look beyond our separate selves to save Mother Earth from climate change (Wilfried Haeberli, Colin Whiteman, John F. Shroder, 2014).

Figure 4 Melting of ice shelves in Antarctica.

Interpretations: These GLOF events have trans-boundary effect resulting in

Figure 5 The ice-making submarine would protrude bergs to

loss of many lives, along with the destruction of houses,

help in fighting the climate change.

bridges, fields, forests, hydro-powers, roads, etc. Therefore, systematic monitoring of glaciers and glacial lakes and

Summary:

adaptation measures including early warning systems and

Melting of glaciers is causing adverse impacts on the

mitigation measure are required in potential GLOF area. It

world. Frequent diffusion of glaciers can cause increase in

is indispensable to relate this scientific knowledge of

the level of oceans and flooding, in result coral reefs are

potential

and

disappearing, food chain is collapsing. Moreover this

community. The analysis for this entire dispute is evident.

melting of glaciers is affecting the global climate badly.

Climate change needs to be terminated.

Ocean based industries are collapsing. North and south

GLOF

hazards

to

policy,

planning

poles are melting and have reduced.

EARTHOCITY SCIENCE MAGAZINE

PHASE III

STUDENT CONTRIBUTORS SECTION Featured Topic Future Climate Expectations Classification, morphology, geological life history and occurrences of brachiopods

About Writers Rashna Kanwal

She

is

currently

enrolled

in

a

BS

Geography degree. She is passionate and dedicated to her work. A talented girl from NJC aimed to learn and explore new applications and fields in the domain of geography.

Saleha Qanta

She is currently enrolled in a BS Geology degree. She is passionate and dedicated in writing articles and other creative stuff. A talented girl from NJC aimed to learn and explore new applications and fields in the domain of geology.

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FUTURE CLIMATE EXPECTATIONS

BY RASHNA KANWAL

Climate change is one of the biggest scientific and

No matter what happens during the next few decades, it’s

geopolitical challenges of our times. Climate predictions

pretty much guaranteed that glaciers and ice sheets will

are inherently probabilistic statements about the future

continue to melt, as temperatures and sea levels continue to

climate conditions on timescales ranging from seasons to

rise. But to an extent that, depending on your perspective, is

decades or longer, and on spatial scales ranging from local

either heartening or horrifying, the future and not just of the

to regional and global. Specifically, predictions of seasonal

next several decades but of the next several millennia. Due to

and inter annual weather (i.e., short-term climate) are

the excessive and continuous release of Greenhouse gases in

predictions of the departures from the average (normal)

the atmosphere, the Earth’s average temperature will increase.

climate for upcoming seasons, and these are distinct from

It influence the precipitation amount and pattern, Raise sea

short-range

level, increase acidity in oceans, increase the frequency,

weather

predictions

that

attempt

to

deterministically forecast day-to-day weather behavior.

intensity, or duration of extreme events and also, the emissions of greenhouse gases due to human activities is the root cause of global warming, which is continue to increase, year after year. And By 2030, almost all countries will experience “extreme hot” weather every other year due mainly to greenhouse gas pollution by a handful of big emitters.

Without the influence of the five biggest emitters China, U.S., Europe, India and Russia, only about 46% of countries would be likely to experience extreme heat with that frequency.

Figure 1 Global Average temperature (2000-2022).

To a discomfiting extent, the future has already been written. There’s a great deal of inertia in the climate system; as a result, we’ve yet to experience the full effects of the CO2 that’s been emitted to date.

So, if we continues to rely on fossil fuels to the extent that it is currently doing, then carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations in the atmosphere are expected to double from pre-industrial values by about 2050, and triple by about 2100. This ‘high emissions’ pathway for CO2, coupled with rises in the other greenhouse gases, would be expected to result in a global average warming of around 4.5°C by 2100, but possibly as low as 3°C or as high as 6˚C.

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However, this changes in precipitation will not be evenly distributed. Some locations will get more, and others will see less.

Figure 4 Changes in global annual mean precipitation for a Figure 2 Chart of Global greenhouse Gas emission and its

low emissions scenario (left) and high emissions scenario

gap in 2030.

(right).

A ‘low emissions’ pathway, based on a rapid shift away

Future melting snow and ice glacier:

from fossil fuel use over the next few decades, would see

The increase in temperatures is causing more and more

warming significantly reduced later this century and

glaciers to melt, consequently, this ends up exposing the

beyond.

earth underneath. As glaciers are capable of absorbing about 20% of heat from the sun, reflecting back the remaining 80%. So exposing the earth changes this, because now the earth absorbs most of the heat and reflects a lesser percentage. This is a vicious cycle which has already affected most parts of the planet and will be quite problematic to stop if solutions are not put in place in the shortest time possible.it is believed that the glaciers in the Garhwal Himalaya in India are receding at a rapid rate, and

Figure 3 Future projected climate change depends on net

by 2035they will be practically gone.

emissions of greenhouse gases.

Future precipitation changes: A warmer average increase in global temperature will cause the high rate of evaporation from the oceans and seas, and “speed up” the water cycle. Due to which the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere will increase and lead to more precipitation. Global average precipitation increases by 1% to 3% for each degree of warming, which means we are looking at a future with much more rain and

Figure 5 Projected loss of sea ice.

snow, and a higher risk of flooding to some regions.

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Future sea-level change: A warming climate holds important implications for other aspects of the global environment. Because of the slow process of heat diffusion in water, the world’s oceans are likely to continue to warm for several centuries in response to increases in greenhouse concentrations that have taken place so far. The combination of seawater’s thermal expansion associated with this warming and the melting of mountain glaciers is predicted to lead to an increase in global sea level of 0.28–1.01 meters (11–39.8 inches) by 2100. However, the actual rise in sea level could be considerably greater than this.

Figure 7 Observed and projected changes in global average temperature under four emissions pathways.

Future life changes on land: Changes in temperature, precipitation, and seasonal timing will alter the geographic ranges of many types of plants and animals. Many species will face extinction if the geographic range where they can survive shrinks. If warming is kept to 2°C, 18% of insects, 16% of plants, and 8% of vertebrate animals are projected to lose over half of their geographic range. However, if we can keep the Figure 6 Past and projected sea-level rise from 1800 to 2100. The orange line at right shows the currently projected

amount of warming to 1.5°C, the habitat loss to insects, plants, and vertebrates decreases by about a half. Warming

range of sea level rise of 1 to 4 feet by 2100.

surface temperatures are also predicted to increase the

Future temperature changes:

crop production, increase the risk of wildfires, and even

Increases in average global temperatures are expected to be

frequency of heat waves and droughts, which can affect impact human health.

within the range of 0.5°F to 8.6°F(1.1 to 5.4°C) by 2100.And for the next 100 years the global average temperature is expected to be at least twice as it has during the last 100 years, and Ground-level air temperatures are expected to continue to warm more rapidly over land than oceans.

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CLASSIFICATION, MORPHOLOGY, GEOLOGICAL LIFE HISTORY AND OCCURRENCES OF BRACHIOPODS

BY SALEHA QANTA

Introduction: Brachiopods (Borachio=arm; Pod = foot) are eukaryotic, multicellular invertebrates that are strictly marine or benthonic (Moore 1952). The name brachiopods refer to the “internal paired appendages”.

Figure 2 Precambrian brachiopod fossil.

The orthids are the ancestral to all articulate brachiopods, which can be traced to the earliest Cambrian. They played an Figure 1 Brachiopod (articulate).

Brachiopods range between 20mm – 70mm in size and in some of them are up to 370mm.

Evolution and geological life: Brachiopod first appears in Cambrian, having polyphyletic origin. Brachiopods are divided into two groups articulata and inarticulate (lingulate), so it’s hard to decide weather

extremely important role in Paleozoic shelly faunas and their evolutionary history can be closely associated with major event in the development of shallow marine ecosystem.

If we talk about the evolutionary history of Lingulata, from their first appearance they remain remarkably stable in habitiing the shallow marine and brakish marine intertidal environments in which they occur today. Their maximum diversity was in Ordovician, during which first calcareous shell intercullata appeared.

the articulates arose from the inarticulate or vice versa.

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The valve meets along a line of junction or commissure. In conventional orientation the umbones are located at the posterior end of the brachiopods and, since the hinge line is in front of them, the valves gape at the anterior end. Each valve is externally sculptured with faint rib radiating from umbo. The growth lines are sub concentric around the umbo; each growth line represent a record of former position. They Figure

3

Articulate

(left)

and

inarticulate

(right)

Brachiopods.

The greatest expansion of brachiopods took place in Ordovician when brachiopods become the dominant component of Paleozoic evolutionary faunas (doyle, August 6, 1996).

Member of this group are distributed through the entirely

are prominent where growth has caused for a short time. The pedicle valve is the larger of the two and is turned posteriorly to the convex part so can be seen from upper surface. This part of the shell is pedicle foramen through which pedicel emerge. Between the umbo and inner edge of the valve triangular cavity, the delthyrium, closed by the pair of deltidial plates. The edge of the shell where two valves articulate is hinge line.

geological column. Exclusively in Pre-Cambrian rocks, especially in some Paleozoic and Mesozoic deposits, their well-preserved shells are extraordinarily abundant (Moore 1952). They are abundant in the shallow marine environment throughout the Paleozoic. Although they survived through the end of the Permian mass extinction, they declined through the Mesozoic. So that 4500 fossil genera known, only 120 exist today.

Morphology: Certain fundamental characters are common to all brachiopods. They all have shell of two valves, usually fixed with the sea floor by mean of stalk or pedicle and a complex food gathering organ lophophore. The two oval calcareous valves differ in size and are equilateral and divided by the single plane of symmetry.

External Morphology - The two valves are unequally biconvex. Each grow from the first-formed part, the protegulum which later become part of umbo.

Figure 4 External morphology of Brachiopods.

Internal Morphology - The internal organ is displayed in thin section cut through the plane of symmetry. The shell is secreted by a cellular epithelium which secretes calcareous material at the valve margin. This epithelium has two layers thick in anterior part of brachiopods, where inner layer form mantle enclosing a large mantle cavity.

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Towards the posterior end of the shell of mantles of the two valves abruptly leave the internal valve surface and forming a single sheet of tissues, the interior body valve, which crosses between the valves and mantle cavity form posterior body cavity. Diductor muscles are the paired muscles that, on contraction, open the shell by pulling on the cardinal process, situated on the opposite side of the hinge axis from the ventral areas of attachment. Adductor muscles are the paired muscles that, on contraction, close the shell. Each is commonly divided into anterior and posterior elements. A knob at the mid-line of the brachial valve interior to which the diductor muscles attaches is known as the Cardinal Process.

Diductor Scars mark the attachment sites of valve opening muscles. They occur as a large pair of impressions only on the pedicle valve interior where they are either outside or enclose the smaller adductor muscle scars (Clarkson 1979).

Figure 5 Internal morphology of Brachiopods.

Occurrences in Pakistan: Brachiopods are found exclusively in Pre-Cambrian rocks.

Their

greatest

expansion

was

in

the

Ordovician.

Brachiopod’s well preserved shells are extra ordinally found in Mesozoic and Paleozoic deposits. Some of the deposits of brachiopods found in Khewra Sandstone, Kussak Formation, Juttana Dolomite, Chiddru Formation, Amb Formation, Wargal Limestone, Mianwali Formation.

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PHASE IV

STUDENT CONTRIBUTORS SECTION Featured Topic The evolution, geological life period, morphology and stratigraphic analysis of Ammonites About Writers Eesha Ahmed

She is currently enrolled in a BS Geology degree. She is passionate and dedicated to her work. She is an inspiring student in terms of knowledge collection and her good concepts.

Itrat Fareeda

She is currently enrolled in a BS Geology degree. She is passionate and dedicated to her work. A talented girl from NJC aimed to learn and explore new applications and fields in the domain of geology.

Noreen Niaz

She is currently enrolled in a BS Geology degree. She is passionate and dedicated to her work. She is an inspiring student in terms of knowledge collection and her good concepts.

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THE EVOLUTION, GEOLOGICAL LIFE PERIOD, MORPHOLOGY AND STRATIGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF AMMONITES

BY EESHA AHMED, ITRAT FAREEDA & NOREEN NIAZ

Introduction:

The septa strengthens the shell and stops it from being

Ammonites are extinct, large and diverse marine shelled

crushed by the external water pressure. The septa had

(coiled) organisms with a wide range in size (1 inch to 9 ft).

frilled edges.

They are classified as a subclass known as Ammonoidea belonging to the Cephalopod class of phylum Mollusca (invertebrates). They were most abundant during the Jurassic and Cretaceous time period. They were previously known as snakestone because they are coiled like a snake.

They are nektons (free-swimming) that feed on planktons and plesiosaur, a marine reptile.

Figure 2 Ammonite fossil morphology.

Intricate lines of varying complexity known as Sutures mark where septa joined the shell wall. The sutures of ammonoids are complex in shape. Curves along the length of the suture are known as saddles and lobes. Saddles are convex towards the aperture. Lobes are convex towards the protoconch (i.e. in opposite direction towards saddle).

Figure 1 Ammonite fossil.

Morphology: The general morphology of Ammonites includes: Shell, the most important functions of a shell is protection and flotation. The complete 360˚ coil is called whorl. The ammonite shell is divided into chambers which are

Figure 3 Suture line morphology.

separated by walls known as Septa.

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The body chamber is the last chamber in which ammonite

Ammonites had 26 chambers, while Nautilus had 30

itself lives earlier chambers are those which were filled

chambers. In the Ammonites, the septa are convoluted or

with gas or fluid, which the animal was able to regulate in

wrinkled, and the sutures make a more complex pattern. In

order to control its buoyancy and movement. The center of

contrast, the Nautilus have smoothie curved septa. The tube

the ammonoid shell is the axis around which the shell

in their shells, Siphuncle, in Nautilus siphuncle runs

grows, called umbilicus; it forms a depression in many

through the center of the spectrum while in Ammonites,

species.

siphuncle runs around its outer edge through the edge of

Shell Shapes - Most ammonoids have tightly coiled

every septum.

planispiral shells, though heteromorph ammonites deviated from this style. Evolute, convolute and involute planispiral coiling are all common in ammonoids.

Suture Patterns - Ammonites with simple suture patterns are known as Goniatite, which flourished during the Paleozoic Era. Ammonoids with more highly folded suture patterns are known as Ceratite and were most abundant during the Triassic period. Ammonoids with interwoven suture patterns are known as Ammonites and these are abundant during the Cretaceous period.

Figure 5 Morphology of Nautilus.

Geological Age and Evolution: Ammonites arose in the Devonian about 416 million years ago. Three groups of ammonoids succeeded one another through time, each having a more complex suture pattern.

Early ammonites such as Bactritida, Clymeniida, had simple suture lines traced across their shell followed by Figure 4 Suture patterns of Ammonite.

more complex patterns that includes goniatitic pattern, ceratitic pattern, ammonitic patterns.

Ammonites vs. Nautilus:

As Ammonites evolved throughout the Mesozoic era,

Ammonite is a marine mollusc of subclass Ammonoidea,

between 252 and 66 million years ago, their shell structures

which is extinct, while Nautilus is a marine mollusc of

grew smaller, more tightly coiled, and more complex.

subclass

During their long history, ammonites survived three mass

Nautiloidea,

which

is

an

extant

species.

Ammonites appeared in the Devonian period, while

extinctions, most notably the Permian extinction, which

Nautilus appeared in the Late Cambrian.

was due to global warming about 252 million years ago in

Nautilus has the same outer physical appearance as the

which many species of ammonites died out. It was believed

Ammonites, but the main difference is seen in both in their

that survivors diversified explosively in the million years

interior, which are in chamber, septa, and siphuncle.

that followed.

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The ammonites came to an end 66 million years ago,

Stratigraphic Analysis:

during the planet’s most recent mass extinction event. In

By investigating Ammonite’s distribution, the change in its

the final days of the Cretaceous, a 7.5-mile wide asteroid

morphology and chemistry preserved in geologic strata,

slammed into Earth and killed off more than three-quarters

we can determine the age and environmental changes that

of all species on the planet. Some scientists hypothesize

occurred when the rock was formed. If a biofacie consists

that the ammonites couldn’t survive the aftermath because

of ammonite then the morphology of the ammonite taxa

of the sudden decline of their main food source i.e. marine

and the type of biozone it’s found in will determine the

plankton.

geologic age. It can distinguish intervals of geologic time less than 200,000 years of duration. Ammonites are guide fossils because they are easily identifiable, geographically widespread, evolve rapidly, have a short life span and are found in many types of marine sedimentary rocks. They are well known for marking the P-T and K-T boundary.

Occurrences in Pakistan - In Pakistan, ammonites are mostly found in the Triassic, Jurassic age and Cretaceous ages.

Figure 6 Evolution of Ammonites.

Table 1 Ammonites occurrences in Pakistan.

Figure 7 Stratigraphic fossil range chart .

EARTHOCITY SCIENCE MAGAZINE

PHASE V

STUDENT CONTRIBUTORS SECTION Featured Topic Geology of the Atacama Desert, Chile.

About Writers Minahil Saeed

She is currently enrolled in a BS Geology degree. She is passionate and dedicated to her work. A talented girl from NJC aimed to learn and explore new applications and fields in the domain of geology.

Munahil Tarique

She is currently enrolled in a BS Geology degree. She is passionate and dedicated to her work. She also earns the credit for the making GIS maps and other geological maps.

Tooba Nayab

She is currently enrolled in a BS Geology degree. She is passionate and dedicated to her work. She is an inspiring student in terms of geological sketching, writing and drawings, and also her good concepts.

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GEOLOGY OF THE ATACAMA DESERT

BY MINAHIL SAEED, MUNAHIL TARIQUE & TOOBA NAYAB

Introduction:

Its arid to hyper arid climate is well-known. The Atacama

The Atacama Desert is the driest nonpolar desert lies in the

Desert is associated with low erosion rates, the formation of

north of Chile, stretches across a roughly 1,000 kilometers

rare nitrate and iodate salts, as well as more common halite,

tract of land wedged between the coastal Cordillera de la

gypsum, and anhydrite salts.

Costa mountain range and the Andes Mountains (fig.1).

The region's exceptional aridity is owing to its location within a subtropical high-pressure belt created by Hadley circulation's descending air. The coastal and low elevation precipitation drops to 3 mm yr.–1 in this region.

Figure 2 Location of desert, because of its aridity.

Modern precipitation in the desert is less than 2 mm per year. Hyperarid conditions have resulted from subtropical air subsidence and temperature inversion caused by coastal upwelling of cold Peru-Chile current waters (Humboldt Figure 1 Location map of Atacama Desert.

currents). As moisture from the Atlantic becomes orographically lifted, the Andes Mountains to the east cast a rain shadow over the desert.

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The Atacama Desert's landscape reflects the intense

The Central Depression, to the east, is a result of a

orogeny that occurred after the middle Cretaceous, which

combination of pediment surfaces and longitudinal basins

was marked by the compression and subduction of the

characterized by isolated Cenozoic sedimentation and arid

Pacific oceanic plate beneath the South American

climatic conditions. The Precordillera, is the Atacama

continental plate. As a result, the Andes Mountains and

Desert's most notable relief feature. Perched sub planar

Atacama faults were formed. During the Cenozoic age,

surfaces

thrusting and uplifting were greatly intensified. A

Pleistocene valley incision. The Western Cordillera

convergent margin has been the primary tectonic setting of

stratovolcanoes reaches up to 2000meters over the

South America's western edge from the Late Paleozoic to

Altiplano.

the Recent.

The antiquity of these geomorphic surfaces in the Atacama

reveal

Neogene

sedimentation

cycles

and

is one of their most striking features; they could be as old Geomorphology:

as 10 to 15 million years. These landscapes are significant

Many relict landscapes can be found in the Atacama Desert

because they can be used to understand the region's

(landscapes formed in the past, but preserved on the present

geomorphic evolution. Because this evolution can estimate

surface). Salt pans at the foot of the coastal mountains on

tectonic uplift rates, it may also be used to reconstruct

the west, alluvial fans sloping from the Andean foothills on

historical environmental and climatic conditions.

the east, volcanoes, hot springs, and miles of sand are few

The uplift of the Central Andes, combined with the

of the Atacama’s landforms. The Atacama Desert offers the

Atacama's hyper arid climate, has resulted in the

most unusual yet mesmerizing of all Chile’s landforms.

preservation of relict landscape surfaces. The Central Andes uplift resulted in deep stream incisions and the abandonment

of

earlier

stream

formations.

These

landscapes were conserved once they were no longer subjected to fluvial change by streams draining the Andes, as arid regions are less prone to erosion and weathering than wet, humid settings. As a result of the Atacama Desert's severe aridity, many of these landscapes have remained unchanged since their origin.

Figure 3 Arial view of desert, showing geomorphology.

The present landscape of the Atacama Desert is divided into five units; (i) the Coastal Cordillera, (ii) the Central Depression, (iii) the Precordillera or Domeyko Cordillera, (iv) the Altiplano, and (v) the Western Cordillera (Fig.4).

The Coastal Cordillera in the south rises to 3000 metres above sea level, indicating coastal uplift during the Neogene

Figure 4 Landscape division of Atacama.

period, and is bordered to the west by marine terraces and a large coastal cliff.

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The buried soil in this area is a paleosol (fossil soil) that has not been altered by soil-producing processes in the last 5 to 8 million years. Because chemical weathering is low in this geomorphological framework, the only component that generates the soil is the physical weathering of bedrock.

Moreover, cemented gypsic soil in locations where it has been buried for 8 to 5 million years appears nearly identical to gypsic soil in regions where it is still exposed. This indicates that the majority of soil formation occurred early in this soil's history, making it essentially a relict soil.

Geology of Atacama Desert: Atacama Desert is comprised of numerous geological features that makes it in contrast to any other environment on the Earth. It contains mostly the sedimentary rocks but the basement rocks are of metamorphic rocks having sedimentary protolith including some volcanic sedimentary rocks. The age of these successions is from Pre-Cambrian to Recent. The exposed sedimentary rocks of Mesozoic and Cenozoic age are of continental origin. Their features indicate that they have been deposited under arid conditions. Atacama Desert is comprised of older and younger rocks. The geologic age of older rocks is from PreCambrian to Mesozoic era and younger rocks are of Mesozoic to Recent age. The geology of the Atacama Desert is indicated by the evolutionary pattern of subduction-related

magmatic

arcs

during

the

Late

Carboniferous to Permian which developed the series of magmatic belts longitudinally trending in N-S direction.

The evolution of this subduction has several stages according to which mainly four to five are developed and these regions are divided into stratigraphic units. The regions namely, Coastal Cordillera, Pre Cordillera, Marine platform, Central Depression, Western Cordillera. Below is the litho column which represent the summarized form of these stratigraphic

Table 1 Litho column of sedimentary succession present at Atacama Desert.

Evaporites of Atacama: The Atacama Desert's stratigraphic sequence of evaporites spans the Late Triassic to the Holocene. The formations Cifuncho and Pan de Azucar contain the oldest deposits.

They are made up of evaporites, volcanic conglomerates, and sandstone that were deposited in alluvial fans and braided rivers. The Early Jurassic consists of anhydrite and gypsum, which were deposited in a coastal lagoon environment. The Caracoles Group contains anhydrite and gypsum that are closely associated with terrestrial and marine clastics and marine limestones. They were most likely deposited in a coastal lagoon environment. Early cretaceous strata of the Lautaro formation's shallow marine limestone and Quebrada Monardes formation's continental red sandstones are deposited in northern Atacama. The transition between these two sequences is marked by evaporites.

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The evaporites are thought to be the result of deposition in an intra-arc basin's saline coastal lagoon and inland sabkha environments associated with fluvial and aeolian red beds.

Table 2 Geochemistry of Atacama Desert.

Conclusion: The Atacama Desert can be regarded as the world’s oldest

Figure 5 Moon valley in the Atacama Desert.

continuously arid area. The sedimentary record suggests the Evaporites have been found in the Purilactis Formation of

deposition of evaporites in semi-arid to hyper-arid climates.

the northern Atacama, which dates from the Late

The change in the desert’s temperature was caused by

Cretaceous to the Paleocene. The Purilactis Formation also

Andean uplift, global climatic cooling, and Humboldt

contained minor anhydrite nodules in the playa lake

currents. Climatic oscillations would have occurred over

sediments. In the San Pedro Group, deposits of gypsum,

geologic time, but they had no significant impact on the

anhydrite, and halite are present. These have been

area's aridity, except for the short-term supply of local

interpreted as having been deposited in an alluvial-fan to

surface and groundwater. In comparison with other older

playa-lake environment. Fossiliferous horizons containing

deserts like the Sahara and the Namib Desert of Africa, the

limnic algae, ostracods, and gastropods are present in the

Atacama contains the longest continuous record of

northern part of the exposure, indicating the presence of

sedimentation under an arid to semiarid climate.

lower salinity water for a short period of time. In Quaternary saline lakes and coastal lagoons, evaporites such as gypsum, anhydrite, halite, borates, and sodium sulphates have been deposited and continue to be deposited.

Geochemistry: The

subduction-dominant

South

American

plate

is

responsible for the geochemistry of Atacama Desert rocks.

Rocks, surface materials (sediments, soils, and saline precipitates), and water all contribute to the desert's composition. Depending on these characteristics, the geochemistry varies. The geochemistry of the Atacama Desert is shown in the table next.

EARTHOCITY SCIENCE MAGAZINE

PHASE VI

STUDENT CONTRIBUTORS SECTION Featured Topic Is Plastic Really Causing Ocean Pollution?

About Writer Talat Mahmood Ahmad

She

is

currently

enrolled

in

a

BS

Geography degree. She is passionate and dedicated to her work. She has true sense of writing article and her level of thinking is excellent. A talented girl from NJC aimed

to

learn

and

explore

new

applications and fields in the domain of geography.

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IS PLASTIC REALLY CAUSING OCEAN POLLUTION?

BY TALAT MAHMOOD AHMAD Plastic is a broad term for a wide range of synthetic and

Pathways of ocean plastic:

semi-synthetic material made from polymers that has

Plastic enters ocean water usually through waste water

capability of being molded into desired shape. Post-World

discharge and runoff water by the river systems. Moreover,

War II era saw growing popularity of plastic when the

the fragmentation of discarded plastic from the landfills

countries began to mass produce it due to its strength,

also fills up the ocean. (Morritt, et al., 2014). Fishing

versatility and durability. Moreover, it was cheap and easy

industries and littering also contribute to plastic pollution in

to manufacture. Although known for its convenience, the

marine ecosystem.

same properties that made it useful also caused it to pose serious environmental threat. Plastic not only is difficult to decompose but it also causes toxic chemicals to release into soil when allowed to be perished under sunlight and if burned, it causes air pollution.

With the increased production of plastic, the ultimate sink for plastic trash as with almost everything else are the oceans. Most of the plastic that enters ocean is from land based sources. Ocean conservancy estimated that every year 11 million metric tons of plastic enter into ocean and half of the plastic ever manufactured has been made in last 15 years. So, how does plastic end up in our oceans and impact them?

Figure 2 Image showing the share of global plastic waste in Asia as of 2019.

Most of the plastic emitting rivers are located in Asia and a few in East Africa and the Caribbean. Philippines has the biggest share of plastic waste in the oceans and accounts for 1/3 of all plastic inputs. Seven rivers of Philippines are choking our oceans with plastic; River Pasig accounting for 6.43% of the ocean plastic. India has the global share of 13% while China releases 7% of plastic into oceans. River Ganges of India also dominate the ocean plastic discharge.

Figure 1 Plastic bag floating through Manilla Bay,

(Meijer, et al., 2021).

Philippines.

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Plastic; A threat to Ocean?

In addition to that, ingesting plastic results in internal

The United Nations has declared increasing plastic waste in

injuries and digestive system blockage. Lab experiments

ocean a ‘Planetary Crises’. Due to the fluidity of oceans,

have shown that consumption of large volume of

plastic waste can easily travel from one part of the ocean to

microplastics slows down the growth of fish. (Naidoo T., et

another. Plastic pollution has grown exponentially and

al., 2019). An incident recorded in Thailand showed the

spread all over the world’s oceans; from the poles to

death of shark whale due to ingestion of single plastic

remotest islands and even to deepest trenches i.e., the

drinking

Mariana Trench. (Borrelle, et al., 2020) Scientist believe

Likewise, Entanglement of marine organism in plastic

that once plastic enters the ocean, it’s almost impossible to

products results in suffocation and death. Research has

remove as macro plastics break down into microplastics

shown that fishing lines which are made from nylon, a

which further disintegrate into nano plastics that makes it

plastic derived from crude oil, entangled 65% of coral

extremely difficult to recover it. In addition to that,

communities in Oahu, Hawaii. 80% of the entangled

scientists are also certain that even if all the plastic inputs

communities were partially or entirely dead. (T Yoshikawa

into the oceans come to an end today, the continuous

& K Asoh, 2004). Another research conducted in 2006

degradation of plastics would cause microplastics in oceans

reported that at least 267 species suffered from the

to more than double between 2020 and 2050. (LeBreton et

consequences of ingestion and entanglement due to plastic.

al 2019).

It was also estimated that 86% of all sea turtle species and

straw.

(Haetrakul

&

Munanansup,

2009).

44% of all the bird species were harmed by plastic.

(Allsopp, et al., 2006). Smothering or suffocation by plastic deprives coral, sponges and other animals at the bottom of ocean from light, food and oxygen.

Figure 3 Plastic classification by size. Picture Credit: WWF.

Plastic is injuring our ecosystem in the following ways: Danger to marine life: Marine organisms are extremely vulnerable to plastic. To

Figure 4 Entanglement of Humpback whale in fishing

begin with, plastic looks like food to them. For instance,

gear in Hawaiian Islands. Photo by Ed Lyman/NOAA

clear plastic is mistaken for jelly fish. Plastic is ingested by all kind of marine organisms ranging from top predators to plankton. This causes false sense of satiation or to simply put, their feeling of hunger is reduced thus weakening them.

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Food chain distribution: Plastic fragments consist of the toxic chemical that originates either from the material itself (plastic additives) or by the absorption of chemical pollutants from the surrounding waters. When this toxic plastic is swallowed or eaten up by marine organisms, it can result in the dissemination of hazard pollutants into the food chain.

(Rochman, et al., 2013).

Concerns about the dangers of nano plastics are also extensive. Experimental research conducted on water flea

Figure 5 Plastic Bottle litter Karachi Beach damaging the

Daphnia Magna indicated that its exposure to nanoplastic

aesthetic of the beach and surrounding ocean.

greatly reduced its survival. In number of instances, the mortality rate shot up to 100% in the studied population.

Furthermore, when this water flea was fed to fish, nano plastics were able to cross their blood brain barrier and resulted in behavioral changes including lower feeding and movement rates. This can then harm to entire marine ecosystem (Mattsson, et al., 2017).

On the contrary, very little is known about the effects of this disruption in food chain on humans.

Reduced ocean aesthetic and navigational hazards: The vast and mysterious oceans are the perfect example of the beauty of the natural world. Sadly, the human activities are damaging the beauty of the oceans. Plastic debris, either

The Great Pacific garbage patch: Great Pacific Garbage Patch (GPGP) is the collection of marine debris found on North Pacific Ocean that is bounded by North Pacific Subtropical Gyre__ a large system of swirling ocean currents. Great Pacific Garbage Patch extends from western coast of North America to the eastern coast of Japan. The center of the gyre is calm and stable, so the swirling motion of north pacific subtropical gyre draws in trash to its center. A 2018 study by L. LeBreton estimated that there is at least 79,000 tons of ocean plastic in an area of 1.6 million km2 and 1.8 trillion pieces of plastic are floating in this area. Most of this plastic consists of microplastics.

floating on ocean, found on the beach or on deep sea floor has become an aesthetic problem. Likewise, plastic debris poses navigational hazards to vessels by damaging their propellers. Economic costs that come with it is also massive.

Figure

6

The

mass

concentration

model

shows

concentration of plastic decreases towards the outer boundary of the GPGP. The center concentration levels contain the highest density. Credits: The Ocean Cleanup.

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Conclusion: Yes, based on the evidences and researches it is safe to assume that plastic is undoubtedly polluting our oceans with the marine organism the most vulnerable to plastic pollution. But is plastic pollution the biggest threat our oceans are currently facing? Although plastic pollution must not be disregarded or taken lightly however, there are far more pressing and dangerous challenges that our oceans are

facing

including

climate

change

and

ocean

acidification. Plastic pollution combined with climate change and ocean acidification can have dangerous consequences on our ocean and marine ecosystem.

EARTHOCITY SCIENCE MAGAZINE

PHASE I

TEAM CONTRIBUTORS SECTION Featured Topics The Al Naslaa Rock Formation, Saudi Arabia.

Biologically Inspired Robotics: More than Meets the Eye. About Writers Rawan Al Mustafa

A

Jordanian

geologist

by

profession,

aiming her dream to complete her master degree in geology. Rawan played a role as a

researcher

during

her

journey

in

Germany, 2018. She involves in different volunteer activities and also serving as Head Geosciences for team Earthocity.

Aillah Baluch

She is Biotechnology graduate. She has taken various courses and workshops in the field of biomedical engineering and robotics to expand her domain. Currently, she is working as a Clinical Research Associate in the Department of Anatomy at Basic Medical Science Institute- Jinnah Postgraduate Medical Center, Karachi. She is also the part of team Earthocity in Biotechnology section.

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THE AL NASLAA ROCK FORMATION, SAUDI ARABIA

BY RAWAN AL MUSTAFA A tourist may be perplexed by a variety of natural occurrences. One of these is the Al Naslaa Rock Formation in Saudi Arabia's Tayma oasis. Tayma has been inhabited since ancient times, according to recent archaeological discoveries. The Al Naslaa Rock Formation, located in Saudi Arabia's Tayma Oasis, is one worth mention.

According to archaeologists who have studied and explored this area, it has been inhabited from prehistoric times.

The Al Naslaa is one of Saudi Arabia's most photogenic petroglyphs. It's one of the most well-known and wellknown petroglyphs, with a consistent slit between two rocks. The separation between status rock and its flat surface is an entirely natural occurrence. Many individuals are fascinated by the topic of how long the rocks will remain balanced.

Al Naslaa may appear to some as nothing more than a big rock, but it is one of the world's most remarkable geological structures. The fascinating creation may be found deep within Saudi Arabia's Tayma Oasis, where it has perplexed and enthralled historians, geologists, and tourists for years. A massive chunk of sandstone (with unique shaping on both sides) is balanced on a naturally formed pedestal in this formation. What distinguishes this structure from others? It's all over!

Figure 1 Al Naslaa rock formation.

Al Naslaa is remarkable not only for its shape, location, and age, but also for the precise break that divides one side of the formation from the other. While it appears to be a normal fissure in the sandstone's foundation, the break is so precise and straight that it appears as if the rock was split apart with a laser. Furthermore, the two incredibly hefty sides of the creation appear to balance on little more than thin fragments of rock, almost as if they are floating in midair.

It's necessary to understand the history of the famous formation in order to determine its character. The formation has been around since antiquity and has taken centuries to shape. The limestone, shale, and sandstone in the Tayma Oasis have spent millennia cultivating into fascinating shapes, and Al Naslaa is only one of several rocks in the Tayma Oasis that have a unique appearance (with the help of a little rain and wind, of course).

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Some believe Al was produced from a volcanic dike of a weaker mineral that solidified before the rest of the rock was excavated.

Other experts believe the split is a fault line since the material near faults is weaker and erodes more easily when subjected to the elements. If this is the case, the wind is most likely to blame for tearing away at the fault's weak Figure 2 Hand carvings at Al Naslaa rock formation.

The Tayma Oasis was populated by everyone from Babylonian royalty to common tradesmen on their way before these formations even grew into the beautiful shapes they occupy today. They interacted with the terrain in a variety of ways, including writing on the rocks and sketching on them. Al Naslaa is fortunate enough to have one of these petroglyphs on its surface, the figure of a horse, in addition to its famous structure.

What appears to be a simple crack at first glance immediately awes visitors, as the break is so precise and straight that it appears as if someone used a powerful laser to split the sandstone boulder in half? Al Naslaa is one of many rocks in the Tayma Oasis with a distinct appearance, but it is distinguished by its near-perfect split.

What geologists think?

Since its discovery, the Al Naslaa standing rock formation has caused consternation among geologists and historians, as no one has been able to explain how it came to be.

Natural elements may have shaped the smooth contours of the two stones and the little pedestal, but the flawless vertical split appears to be man-made. The smooth divide,

material, leaving just the near-solid remaining half of the rock.

There's also the possibility that the split is the consequence of a joint (fractures produced at weak areas in rock formations) that was formed by erosion, such as wind, water, or ice.

Rumors about Al Naslaa While this is a more unusual notion, many people have put their money on it, saying that the breach between the two pieces of the rock is too perfect for erosion to have caused it. Others believe that the ancient settlers of the civilization that first came into contact with Al Naslaa were the ones who split the rock apart. Still, their explanations for how they did it may be even more difficult to believe than the alien notion.

The laser-theory would have been plausible if the Flinstones had met the Jetsons, but most geologists and historians doubt that this possibility is well-founded.

Ancient civilizations had no recorded technology of that quality. The possibility that the creation was produced by super humans, aliens, or robots is still up for debate because no one was present to see the rock's formation and disprove the more extreme claims.

according to most geologists, has a completely normal cause: tectonic movement. The earth shifted only slightly, yet it was enough to split the rock in half. Other experts, on the other hand, believe that the split is actually a fault line, because the material near faults is usually weaker and erodes more easily.

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ISSUE II

BIOLOGICALLY INSPIRED ROBOTICS: MORE THAN MEETS THE EYE

BY AILLAH BALUCH

The ability to provide someone a second chance in life, to

It contains a structural frame that goes around the user’s

break all barriers of traditional medicine, and to make the

body or part of their body. The material of the frame differs

unfathomable fathomable. That is exactly what the field of

per the design, such as metal or special kinds of fabric.

biorobotics is, in short, to bring fantasy to reality.

Sensors are integrated into the design to monitor and

Biologically enthused robots hold sensory abilities, and

respond to the user’s movement. For example, arm

their mobility and flexibility are much higher than

exoskeletons use arm motions to provide the right amount

traditional robots. These biorobots are no longer restricted

of support that is needed. The mechanical pulley system

to research work in laboratories; novel applications of this

provides an increasing amount of support as the user raises

technology are being commodiously explored in several

their arm. When the arm is lowered, the exoskeleton

areas. The concept of biorobotics is not new despite it

gradually releases its support.

being the latest trend in numerous fields. The earliest work on bio robotics was the development of humanoid robots

by Professor Ichiro Kato and his colleagues in the early 1970s.

Eye-catching

innovations

include

biohybrid

artificial organs which encompass all devices that substitute for an organ or tissue function and incorporate both synthetic materials and living cells. These implantable devices

operate

well

beyond

simple

electrical

or

mechanical stimulators and their purpose is to restore lost organ functions such as blood pumping, hormone delivery, and tissue regeneration. They can act as valid alternatives to transplantation and tissue engineering approaches, thus overcoming donor shortage issues and pursuing high throughput organ function replacement.

Further innovations in this field include the construction of wearable exoskeletons. This allows individuals who have lost their limb/s due to injury or degenerative diseases to ambulate freely. An exoskeleton and the person wearing it need to work together.

Figure 1 Labeled diagram of Arm Exoskeleton.

Tactile sensors are important not only for self-standing robots and limb prosthetics but also as a means for the restoration of the sense of touch to diabetics with peripheral neuropathy

this

encompasses

concepts

of

tissue

engineering, neural engineering, and biomimetics.

Biorobotics in hospital settings are being used to assist in surgeries, allowing for more precise and less invasive interventions. Examples to consider are endoscopic robots at the tip of a probe that can help remove a polyp during a colonoscopy.

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Surgeons use mechatronic handheld tools to manipulate their hands at the macro level while affecting similar responses from a mechanical device operating at the microlevel.

Figure 2 Robot assisted high precision surgery.

As remarkable as this field is, it comes with its own set of challenges and ethical issues. But we cannot overlook the good this brings to the lives of many people. A new age of automata is upon us, which has the power to change our current reality for the better.

EARTHOCITY SCIENCE MAGAZINE

PHASE II

TEAM CONTRIBUTORS SECTION Featured Topics The super power of soft skills in energy.

Meteorite 84001.

About Writers May Mrabet

A Tunisian energy engineer by profession, aiming her dream to work with multiple organizations. May played an important role in promoting energy sciences with new advancements and technology. She also

work

company.

with Here

contributing

as

Tunisia at

best

Earthocity

Head

energy she

is

Coordinator

in

Earthocity energy hub.

Talal Ahmed

He is a geologist by profession, with excellent research and observational skills focused on helping track field activities.

His research areas are Environmental, Engineering and Astrogeology. He is also the founder and CEO of the organization EARTHOCITY SCIENCE MAGAZINE

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THE SUPER POWER OF SOFT SKILLS IN ENERGY

BY MAY MRABET In recent years, the energy efficiency industry has become

Also, companies like optimistic and upbeat people. They

increasingly relevant to building owners, real estate firms,

like to have positive vibes flowing at their companies as it

government officials, educators and business owners to

inspires others to be positive as well.

decrease the overwhelming cost of energy consumption. As

Second, no one can deny the necessity of Time

the demand for renewable energy continues to increase, the

Management Abilities - multi-tasking and the ability to

industry is looking to recruit high-caliber candidates to

prioritize tasks are a must. Companies want people who are

drive green energy business forward. Individuals looking to

well organized and use their time wisely when on the job.

enter

and

Third, problem-solving abilities - often involves decision-

sustainability sectors need to demonstrate competency in

making and decision-making skills are especially important

communication, an active interest in green energy, and a

when it comes to management and leadership roles. Energy

natural aptitude for understanding changing technologies

leaders are mostly likely to hire and promote professionals

related to energy and environmental systems. For those

who demonstrate the ability to solve problems creatively

hoping to pursue leadership roles, an energy leader should

and effectively.

be able to manage geographically diverse teams, coordinate

Fourth, being a team player because many companies place

complex technical projects and possess the ability to

emphasis on the ability to work well in-group settings.

identify and run with new ideas. Because having the right

Employers look at team player skills to assess who will be

talent in place is crucial to communicate the benefits of

formidable in future leadership roles.

these

professions

in

the

clean

energy

energy efficiency solutions to the end-user who more often than not are not versed in energy efficiency technology.

Success in the energy industry is made easier by possessing a number of soft skills.

Below are other soft skills that can help energy management employers promote their politics about energy transition: First, we need a Strong Work Ethic and Positive Attitude Employers want professionals who are motivated and dedicated enough to do what it takes to get the job done.

Along with that, they expect people to give their very best work every day in terms of energy savings.

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Fifth, being flexible & adaptable - I cannot say enough about this soft skill. Nowadays, with every-changing economy and workplace, energy pros need the ability to adapt to new situations and changes. Companies want to know that their people are open to new ideas, embrace change and because of that, come through in a pinch.

Finally and the most important skill to be listed is to have passion for the Energy Industry - Employers want their people to love the industry and believe in their own abilities and talents. Enthusiasm will shine through and be catchy!

Often within green energy, your success will very much depend on your personal drive and determination as well as the skills or technical knowledge that you possess.

Demonstrating a natural curiosity for how things work and a willingness to persevere when ideas do not work out on the first attempt is important. This is an industry that is advancing at an incredible rate and there are more and more opportunities arising in a variety of disciplines from economics and engineering to law, marketing, policy and finance.

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TEAM SECTION

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ISSUE II

METEORITE 84001

BY TALAL AHMED Allan Hills 84001 (often abbreviated ALH84001) is a

Because they did not come from a "wet" Mars, other

meteorite discovered by a team of US meteorite hunters

meteorites with probable biological marks have sparked

from the ANSMET project on December 27, 1984, in Allan

less curiosity. ALH84001 is the lone meteorite discovered

Hills, Antarctica. ALH84001, like the other SNCs

during this time frame.

(shergottite, nakhlite, and chassignite), is assumed to be

Isotopic

from Mars. It does not, however, fit into any of the

ALH84001 were precipitated at a temperature of 18 °C

previously identified SNC groupings. It weighed 1.93 kilos

with water and carbon dioxide from the Martian

when discovered (4.3 lb). It made headlines throughout the

atmosphere, according to a paper published in October

world in 1996 when scientists stated that carbonate

2011. The carbonate carbon and oxygen isotope ratios

globules found there might include evidence for minuscule

indicate that the carbonates were deposited from a slowly

remains of Martian microorganisms.

evaporating subsurface water source, most likely a shallow

This rock is thought to be one of the Solar System's oldest

aquifer a few meters or tens of meters beneath the surface.

research

revealed

that

the

carbonates

in

parts, having crystallized from molten rock 4.091 billion years ago. It is considered to have evolved on Mars during a period when liquid water existed on the now barren planet's surface, according to chemical tests.

Vicky Hamilton of the University of Hawaii at Manoa presented data from the Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Odyssey spacecraft orbiting Mars in September 2005 to investigate the origin of ALH84001. The meteorite appears to have come from Eos Chasma in the Valles Marineris canyon, according to the research. The study was limited to areas of Mars that were not shrouded by dust, so it was inconclusive.

According to the scenario, ALH84001 was blasted off the surface of Mars by a meteorite collision 4.5 billion years

Figure 1 Famous micrograph of Mars meteorite ALH84001 shows structures that resemble fossils, but most scientists regard them as mineral formations. Perseverance seeks less ambiguous evidence. NASA/JSC

ago and landed on Earth 13,000 years later. Radiometric dating techniques such as samarium-neodymium (Sm-Nd), rubidium-strontium (Rb-Sr), potassium-argon (K-Ar), and carbon-14 were used to determine these dates.

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23 JULY 2022 | ISSUE II

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