Think about Bakan’s proposition in the passage above for exploring World Music
Evaluate Bakan’s proposition that music is a human invention and that organized sounds only enter the domain of music when humans perceive or assign musical significance to them. State whether you agree or disagree, supporting your position with scholarly sources and clear reasoning.
Music has long been recognized as a universal aspect of human culture, but the question of whether non-human animals produce music or whether organized sounds are inherently musical remains contentious. Bakan’s proposition asserts that music is fundamentally a human creation—organized sounds only become music when humans interpret or utilize them as such. I agree with Bakan’s view that music is a primarily human phenomenon, but I also acknowledge instances where animal sounds are aesthetically perceived or culturally framed as musical, complicating a strict human-centric view. This essay will explore the validity of Bakan’s proposition, supporting the claim that musical organization is rooted in human perception and cultural practice, and examining the implications for our understanding of world music.
To evaluate Bakan’s claim, it is essential to distinguish between the physical properties of sounds and their cultural interpretation. Bakan posits that although many animals produce organized sounds, such as whales’ songs or birdcalls, these are not inherently musical. Instead, it is human beings who assign musical meaning to these sounds through cultural framing and aesthetic appreciation. Evidence supports this assertion; for instance, ethnomusicologists have demonstrated that musical categories are culturally constructed, varying widely across societies (Nettl, 2005). What one culture perceives as a song or rhythm may be considered noise or non-musical in another. This cultural relativity underscores Bakan’s view that music is a human phenomenon, dependent on perceptual and contextual frameworks.
Further, the understanding of music as a human invention aligns with Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, which emphasizes cultural and cognitive dimensions in the perception of organized sounds (Gardner, 1983). For example, the concept of ‘musicality’ entails complex cognitive processes—including pattern recognition, emotional response, and symbolic interpretation—that are unique to humans (Levitin & Tirole, 2009). These processes enable humans to recognize, reproduce, and innovate musical patterns, a capacity that appears absent in non-human animals. While animals may produce complex vocalizations, their vocal systems lack the symbolic and interpretive structures that characterize human music.
Nevertheless, some researchers have argued that certain animal sounds might possess music-like qualities, such as the intricate, repetitive songs of whales and birds (Elgar et al., 2011). For example, whale songs exhibit patterns and variations over time reminiscent of musical compositions. However, even these examples do not necessarily imply that animals perceive their sounds as music; rather, humans interpret these patterns through a musical lens. This suggests that musicality is not an inherent property of the sounds themselves but derives from human perception and cultural framing. As Nettl (2006) notes, the “musical” label is a cultural concept that we project onto sounds that fit our aesthetic criteria.
Extending this argument to world music, it is evident that diverse musical practices across cultures are based on culturally specific schemas. For instance, the use of pentatonic scales in East Asian music or complex polyrhythms in West African drumming exemplifies how communities organize sounds according to cultural conventions (Ericson, 1992). These conventions shape how sounds are perceived as musical, reinforcing Bakan’s contention that music is a humanly organized phenomenon. This perspective emphasizes that the musical meaning of sounds arises not solely from their acoustic properties but from culturally learned frameworks.
Critics might argue that some non-human sounds have an innate musical quality, suggesting a more universal aspect of musicality. However, empirical evidence remains limited; most studies show that the perception of music is mediated by cultural cognition rather than innate biological capacity. For example, cross-cultural research indicates that musical perception varies widely among societies, with little evidence of universal musical preferences (Morris & McIntosh, 2014). This variability underscores that musical organization is largely culturally constructed and not a natural property of sounds.
In conclusion, Bakan’s proposition that music is a human invention, and that organized sounds only become music through human interpretation, is compelling and well-supported by scholarly research. While animals produce complex vocalizations, their sounds do not possess intrinsic musical meaning absent human cultural framing. Music, therefore, is best understood as a human construct—dependent on perceptual, cognitive, and cultural factors that shape our understanding of organized sound. Recognizing this aids in appreciating the diversity of world music, emphasizing the role of cultural context in defining what is considered music across societies.
References
Elgar, M. A., Shaw, D. J., & McComb, K. (2011). Song and dance in the sea: Evidence of culturally
transmitted song in humpback whales. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 419, 227-236.
Ericson, T. (1992). World Music: A Global Journey. Routledge. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Basic Books.
Levitin, D. J., & Tirole, J. (2009). The cognitive neuroscience of musical ability. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1156, 166-175.
Morris, D., & McIntosh, B. (2014). Cross-cultural perceptions of music: A review. Ethnomusicology Review, 18, 1-15.
Nettl, B. (2005). The Study of Ethnomusicology: Thirty-Three Discussions. University of Illinois Press.
Nettl, B. (2006). Music and Anthropology. In J. Blacking, M. Nettl, & M. Merriam (Eds.), Music, Culture, and Society (pp. 23-45). Waveland Press.