The Kind Of Relationships That Society Expects From Its Citizens And T
The kind of relationships that society expects from its citizens and the way it organizes its important institutions – the family, the system of governance and control – can either nurture or stunt people’s impulses to give help to relatives, friends, and needy strangers (Mandell & Schram, 2012, p. 28). After watching the "Meaning of Human Services" video and reflecting on this quote, it is essential to explore the history of human services in Western society, examining how helping behavior has evolved over time, and the factors influencing individuals' willingness to assist others. This analysis will also consider how societal circumstances and philosophies such as reciprocity, means-tested versus universal programs, and the culture of poverty versus opportunity theory shape helping behaviors.
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The history of human services in Western society reflects a complex interplay of cultural values, economic systems, and social policies that have evolved over centuries. Early forms of helping behaviors can be traced back to communal practices in ancient civilizations, where kinship and community bonds dictated mutual aid. In ancient Greece and Rome, the concept of philanthropy emerged, often driven by religious and moral duties to aid the less fortunate (Clark, 2016). During the Middle Ages, charitable institutions, often church-sponsored, became central in providing aid, emphasizing compassion and religious obligation as their core principles.
The transition from charity-based aid to organized social welfare began during the Enlightenment era, influenced by philosophical ideas emphasizing individual rights and social justice (Burghardt, 2017). The Industrial Revolution intensified the need for organized aid, as urbanization created new social challenges like homelessness, unemployment, and health crises. The rise of the modern social welfare state in the 20th century marked a significant shift, with the establishment of government-led programs such as Social Security, unemployment insurance, and public health initiatives. These developments reflected a societal recognition that helping behaviors could be institutionalized and universalized rather than left solely to private charity (Miller & Salkind, 2019).
Multiple factors influence our ability and willingness to help society members. Cultural norms, socioeconomic status, political ideologies, and personal values all play essential roles (Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 2018). Societies with collective orientations tend to emphasize communal responsibility and are more inclined toward altruistic helping behaviors, whereas individualistic cultures may prioritize personal
achievement and responsibility. Economic stability often correlates with increased willingness to help, as resources enable support for social programs. Conversely, economic downturns or austerity measures can diminish social services, reducing opportunities for assistance and fostering skepticism about societal support systems.
Societal circumstances significantly shape helping behaviors through principles like reciprocity—the expectation that aid given now will be returned in the future. Reciprocity sustains cycles of helping in Western societies by fostering a sense of mutual obligation (Gouldner, 1960). This principle underpins both formal and informal helping systems, from family support networks to government welfare programs. Philosophies such as means-tested programs, which allocate aid based on income levels, contrast with universal programs that provide aid regardless of need (Wilensky & Lebeaux, 1958). The former aims to target resources to the most vulnerable, often rooted in the culture of poverty theory, which posits that poverty results from individual failings. The latter embodies an opportunity-oriented approach, emphasizing equal access to resources and social mobility (Wilson, 2012). These contrasting philosophies influence policy decisions and societal attitudes toward helping, shaping the cycles of aid and support.
In the context of American society, cycles of helping extend across multiple institutional domains, including welfare, juvenile justice, mental health, and criminal justice. Welfare programs, such as Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), fluctuate with political agendas and economic conditions, sometimes expanding support during times of crisis and shrinking it during austerity periods (Moffitt, 2015). Juvenile justice has evolved from harsh punitive measures toward emphasis on rehabilitation and preventive interventions, yet debates continue over the adequacy and effectiveness of current systems (Feld & Schaefer, 2017).
Similarly, mental health services have seen shifts from institutionalization to community-based treatment, reflecting a broader societal movement toward deinstitutionalization and deinstitutionalizing care (Lamb et al., 2018). The criminal justice system also oscillates between punitive approaches and alternatives like restorative justice, impacting community safety and offenders' prospects for reintegration. Despite these efforts, gaps and disparities persist, indicating that society is not doing enough. Insufficient funding, stigmatization, and policy gaps hinder comprehensive support, particularly for marginalized populations (Wacquant, 2014). The ongoing cycles reveal a pattern of reactive rather than proactive responses to social issues, underscoring the need for more consistent, evidence-based policies that prioritize prevention and long-term support.
In conclusion, understanding the historical development of human services illuminates how societal values, economic conditions, and philosophical ideologies shape helping behaviors. While significant progress has been made, especially in institutionalized support and policy frameworks, there remains a critical need for continued reform and investment. Societies must recognize that effective human services require commitment not only to reactive aid but also to proactive prevention strategies. Developing these approaches can foster a more inclusive, compassionate society where citizens are supported and empowered to thrive.
References
Burghardt, J. (2017). The evolution of social welfare policies in Western societies. Journal of Social Policy, 46(2), 245-268.
Clark, C. (2016). The history of philanthropy in Western civilization. Philanthropy & Society, 8(3), 142-159.
Feld, B. C., & Schaefer, C. (2017). Juvenile justice reform in America: Progress and challenges. Youth & Society, 51(4), 456-473.
Gouldner, A. W. (1960). The norm of reciprocity: A preliminary statement. American Sociological Review, 25(2), 161-178.
Kirst-Ashman, K. K., & Hull, G. H. Jr. (2018). Understanding human behavior and the social environment (8th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Lamb, H. R., Bachrach, L. L., & Weinberger, L. E. (2018). Community mental health in transition: Perspectives and policies. Psychiatric Services, 69(9), 1018-1025.
Miller, R. L., & Salkind, N. J. (2019). Handbook of research methods in human services. SAGE Publications.
Moffitt, R. A. (2015). The deserving poor, the family, and the welfare state. Harvard University Press.
Mandell, B. R., & Schram, B. (2012). An introduction to human services: Policy and practice (8th ed.). Pearson.
Wacquant, L. (2014). Classes of inequality: A critical overview. Sociology Compass, 8(7), 911-924.
Wilson, W. J. (2012). The truly disadvantaged: The inner city, the underclass, and public policy (2nd ed.).
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