Landscape Thesis - Ecotones in transit

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The tension between abstraction and nature - The Andean Paramo and High Forest

Tatiana Vera Espinosa

BARC0119 Coordinator: Tim Waterman

Tutor: Eric Guibert Author: Tatiana Vera Espinosa Word count: 7211 excluding citations

3rd July, 2023

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I would like to thank: My supervisor Eric Guibert, for his guidance during this master’s degree and dissertation.

My Father and brother, for their support along the way. fig 01: Paramo Santurban, Photo taken from the city paper, 2016.

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Interconnected systems - The Dynamic Biome -

The Value of the Colombian Paramo & High Andean Forest

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The weaved ecotone and dependency

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The form of life of ‘Frailejon’ - the micro scale

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Land mosaics & Patterns - the macro scale p. 14-33

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The Landscape perception: A fixed ordinance 2500

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Of boundaries and ecotones

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Boundaries on Paramos and High Andean Forests

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Social dynamics - actors within the Andes p. 34-42

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Landscapes in transit - Direct & indirect disturbances 2000

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Climate change and the Anthropocene Climate change and the Anthropocene p. 43-50

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For planning and conservation – a socio-ecological balance -

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Dynamic mappings p. 51-56

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What is the Paramo & H.A. Forest ecotone? p. 57-58

B I B L I O G R A P H Y

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I N T R O D U C T I O N

Under a cloud forest on the Andean Mountain range lies a web of streams that connect the landscape and society. The Andean Paramo and High Forest are socio-economic landscapes that provide ecosystemic services to Colombia and represent, also their cultural heritage. The fellowship of both ecosystems underpins the cycles of water. Both Paramo and High Forest have individual attributes that are essential to the other’s flourishing.

Colombia’s biodiversity relies greatly on its unique geology and topography, the majestic mountain range transects the south of the American continent, creating sublime landscapes that oscillate between the land and the sky. The montane system of snow summits, paramos, and high, low or neotropical forests, creates intricate vertical and horizontal connections that become apparent in the ecotones1 — the transitions or thresholds between 2 ecosystems which display even greater interplays and exchanges between vegetative and faunal networks. A third layer needs to be considered: the human inhabitation that reveals human and non-human connections.

P A R A M O I N T R O D U C T I O N fig 03: Inside the Paramo, Photo taken from Shroeder, R, 2022.

& H. A F O R E S T

The boundless associations between ecosystems and habitats within the Andean Biome set Paramos and Andean Forests as dynamic landscapes. Not only due to their ecological exchanges but due to their displacement. Whilst the Anthropocene continues, these landscapes are and will be in movement and constant change. The fluctuations of both ecosystems and their ecotonal zones are of key points of analysis in the preservation of natural landscapes. The unpredictable ecological changes’ caused by anthropogenic activities challenge landscape management.

These Andean dynamic ecosystems under planning and conservation policies are defined within a static line, their ‘limits’ are marked, and their alliance unacknowledged; whilst Paramos are defined as protected areas, the High Andean Forest continues to be vulnerable to intense Anthropogenic disturbances. The continuous transit of their ecotonal zone due to climate change and human interventions suggests the need to re-consider planning policies as real understandings of natural processes rather than delineations of human abstractive thinking like they are set today.

Nature does not work within the same schemes as the human brain does, nature is about connections and flows, it is about the balance of the whole ecosystem. The multiple associations existing within the Andean Paramo and High Forest reveal how the transition between them is a much wider network of dynamic tendencies and movement, rather than a static line. The Andean biome as a vertical system of multiple ecological communities (and even ‘nested ecosystems’2) sets a wide complexity on the definition of each ecosystem’s ‘limit’, and therefore, an intricate endeavour to environmental conservation.

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Fig 04: Los Nevados National Natural Park, photo taken from Cañon,J.P, 2023

Fig 05: La Chingaza National Natural Park, photo taken from evaneos, 2023.

Los Nevados National Natural Park and La Chingaza National natural park are great examples of broad socio-territorial transformation. Across the years, both Paramo complexes have been subject to different land uses, from sacred territories for indigenous communities to farming production lands, and finally to national parks (Clavijo, et al, 2022). As historically colonised territories, the Andean Paramo has defined cultural values and ways of living — until today, the Andean Mountain continues to be the home of many farmers that depend on the land. The value of Paramos is increasingly recognised over the years and their transition to National Natural parks have impacted positively on an environmental dimension (although the High Andean Forest remains unprotected) but such nomination to protected area has created a breach with the communities that live on the Andean territory.

This thesis talks about how the ecotones in transit question the boundaries that are marked on planning and conservation policies, making a critique on the anthropogenic abstractiveness that imposes human ‘rational’ order over very dynamic interconnected ecosystems like Paramo and High Andean Forest.

“How do we choose which places “should” be parks, and how does that designation and management affect what we find there? In many ways these expectations have been built or “written” into the landscape itself through the process of park preservation and management” (Watt, 2017, p.13)

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P A R A M O & H. A F O R E S T

The argument starts with an introduction of the ecosystems portraying their ecological and social values. These territories are described as active landscapes that fluctuate within different scales. From a micro scale converging vegetative and faunal behaviours (the specie’s life plan) (Vargas, 2021) to a larger scale of growing patterns that configurate spatial and physical settings. Chapter ll follows a discourse of landscape perception and how the “landscape is the work of the mind” (Schama, 1996, pg. 6-7).

Supported by theories of abstractive thinking from Freya Mathews on ‘Letting the World Do the Doing’, human abstraction is represented on the setting of landscape boundaries. A socio-cultural perspective is also included, where human dynamics that fluctuate are presented. Both dimensions demonstrate that a ‘boundary’ seems vague over this ecotonal zone as there are constant horizontal and vertical movements.

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P A R A M O & H. A F O R E S T

I N T R O D U C T I O N

The body of the argument continues in Chapter lll with an explanation of the transit drivers and the Anthropocene over Paramos and High Andean Forests — the natural realms’ adaptation and ecotonal flows forth and back from both social and ecological dimensions. The thesis ends with a fourth chapter that sets ideas of representation, a mix of social and ecological borders within idyllic scenarios but that serves ideas of synergies and connections to be considered on planning and conservation policies. This thesis conceptualises the transitions between ecosystems, chapter l describes the border as a deep transition of connections and flows, chapter ll describes the border as a line linked to human abstractiveness and chapter lll describes the border as something that moves. All chapters linked to the Andean Landscapes ending with the conclusive fourth chapter that refers to the breach within their preservation. ` A call for Landscape Architects whose curiosity and passion lies on designing places, where the tangible and intangible meet, to feed their vision on planning and landscape management. Between working with places of ecological and cultural value, notions of design and representation, Landscape Architects can set theoretical foundations to support the complex endeavours of developing environmental conservation policies (Egoz, S. et al.,2016).

Fig 07: Frailejones, Photo taken from Diezgranados, M, 2019.

P A R A M O & H. A F O R E S T

Of boundaries and borders, do Paramo’s and High Andean Forests present a border themselves? how can we nurture connections and flows? (Guibert, 2023) N O T E S Ecotone: A transitional area of vegetation between two different plant communities, such as forest and grassland. It has some of the characteristics of each bordering biological community and often contains species not found in the overlapping communities (Britannica, 2023).

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Nested ecosystems: Nestedness is a common pattern for a variety of terrestrial and aquatic fauna, in which ever-smaller or ever-more-isolated habitats are inhabited by ever-smaller subgroups of fauna that are nested within one another (Science direct, 2023).

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Fig 06: Influence of winds and climatic variation in the three Colombian mountain ranges, Author’s own, based on diagram taken from Sarmiento, C., et al, 2015.

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Interconnected systems - The Dynamic biome

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D Y N A M I C S Y S T E M S

An idyllic scenery that reveals the possibilities of South America’s biodiversity and Colombia’s natural and social structures.

Formed over 50 million years, the Andes Mountain range has shaped itself as a complex palimpsest of geographical layers that form the wonders of the tropical hemisphere. Between summits and valleys, diverse habitats colour the mountains that form Colombia’s natural heritage.

Andean Paramos and High Forests are montane landscapes found between the treeline and the snowline. Up within the clouds, the Paramo’s tropical alpine moorlands are found between 3000-5000 m above sea level along their adjacent ally: the High Andean Forest, which lies right below within 2500 m.a.m.s.l3 until its forest flora meets the Paramo’s perennial and shrub communities. The Andean Biome is a vertical system forged by the dramatic changes in elevation of the mountain range, and along climate variations and atmospheric conditions, various thermal grounds are formed — creating different types of paramo and forest zones.

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fig 08: Colombia, Andean Mountain Range and Paramos of la chingaza Natural National park and los Nevados Natural National park’s location. Author’s own.

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The value of the Andean Colombian Paramo and High Andean Forest

Ascending to the mountain’s summit, the temperature drops and the landscape surrounding gradually transforms itself with it — the tropical forest of tall trees and dense canopies grows smaller into rosettes, caulescent, acaulescent, Bambusoideae, clumps, cushion plants, bushes, and dwarf trees (Vargas, 2021). The beauty of having different altitudes is that it provides different characteristics to the landscape, the different elevation levels award diversity and complexity to the Andean Biome. The heterogeneity of floral networks depends on biotic conditions that explain their interrelation between another’s habitats’ species but also, that they are highly dependent on abiotic conditions as soil chemistry or atmospheric attributes such as temperature, natural light, and humidity. The forest gradually turns into dense clouds of moisture that embrace the peaks of the Andes Massif (which in cases are glaciers and volcanoes).

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(Espeletia plant)

Right below the summits of the mountain lies the Super paramo within 4500-5000 m.a.m.s.l, the Paramo from 3500-4000 m.a.m.s.l, the Sub paramo from 3000-3500 m.a.m.s.l, the High Andean Forest from 2500-3000 m.a.m.s.l, and until the valleys (and cities) neotropical forests dress the territory (IUCN,2023). Before the ‘Sub Paramo’, the High Andean Forest stands to support the moorlands (paramos) flourishment — Paramos and High Andean Forests are spaces of synergy and trade-offs, both ecosystems are essential to each other and keystones to an ecosystem service that links these landscapes’ social and economic dimensions: the natural water cycle.

Although the mountain presents various ecosystems and zonal ecological areas, the sub-paramo, paramo and super paramo as still seen as the sublayers of the ‘paramo’ ecosystem. Regardless of their vegetative variations within different areas, they belong to the same family. The similarity of biological and ecological needs between the paramo zones strengthens the idea of the ecotone between the forest and the Paramo (precisely the ‘sub paramo’) to be one of the key ones to the whole Andean biome.

The Paramo and H.A. Forest ecotones are defined “ecological hotspots with high levels of biodiversity, they are the hosts of remarkable vegetation, mostly endemic to these landscapes” (Vera,2023, p.1). Both ecosystems represent a great environmental value to the country, their role within Colombia’s hydrological system supplies up to 70% of the country’s population. The water produced by their vegetative star plant specie, which embodies water from the air releasing it later to the ground, strengthens the eco-social values of these landscapes (EIA,2023). fig 09: La Chingaza National Natural Park, photo taken from evaneos, 2023. fig 10: Parque La Chingaza, Photo taken from Juras, P, 2022.

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The weaved ecotone and dependency

Paramo’s main vegetative specie called ‘frailejon’ (Espeletia, family of Asteraceae) is the leader of the water cycle, its natural process feeds Colombia’s hydrological system and sets these landscapes as ecological and social structures. Frailejon’s biological anatomy allows them to capture large quantities of water from the sky, embody it, and release it to the ground nourishing lakes and rivers. The Andean Paramo and High Forest have a strong interdependency, they hold numerous ecological associations that are in constant exchange. The ecotone between both ecosystems is a complex zone dependent on biotic and abiotic conditions, making it fragile to disturbance.

“All ecosystems in the world that have evolved in isolation are fragile ecosystems, as they were not subjected to a continuous natural regime of disturbances and did not develop special adaptations to withstand different types of disturbances” (Vargas, 2021, p.18).

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‘Frailejon’ [Espeletia plant] (the vegetative star of the paramo) can only process water through ‘low hanging’ clouds that are created in the ‘cloud forest’ (the name the High Andean Forest receives after its thorough endeavours). The High Andean Forest located beneath the Paramo (2500-3000m m.a.m.s.l) creates a ‘horizontal rain’, that mist in the air formed by the tree canopy becomes dense clouds that are pulled by the wind until they collide with the mountain’s summit. This blanket of fog is ‘decoded’ by Frailejones [Espeletia plant], the tiny water droplets in the air are absorbed by them and transported through their bodies to the ground.

Fig 12: The Ecotone Ecological associations, the cycle of Water, drawing taken from Vera (2023). *the drawing is not scaled to proportion

W A T E R F A C T O R I E S

Fig 13: PNNN, photo [edited by author], taken from volcano adventures, 2023

Fig 11: Frailejon plant species – Caulescent examples [Espeletia corymbosa, E. grandiflora and E. killipii], photo taken from (Vargas, 2021) 3

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Fig 14: Belmira Paramo, unknown, 2023.

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The Paramos are moorlands of diverse grounds, bogs, rivers, and lagoons form an intricate dynamic biome. The H.A Forest and Paramo’s ecotone also presents diverse patterns that define the montane territory as an interactive ecological threshold that hardly follows linear compositions such ‘belt’ surrounding the Paramos massif blurs the edges and borders from both ecosystems. As appointed before, ecotones as transitional areas of immense diversity are key moments of a landscape that determine both ecosystems growth and therefore the entire biome: “In questions of biodiversity and land fragmentation, the ratio of edge to interior habitat is critical” (Foreman, 1995, p.81).

For this reason, questions develop: how can we define the width of such edge between the Forest and the Paramo? How does the edge or border behave? Is there even a defined border? The thickness/width of the ecotone can demonstrate countless ecological associations that only prove the definition of a boundary between such active ecosystems can turn unreasonable.

As Colombia holds 50% of the world’s paramos, and with a number of 36 paramos so far ‘delineated’, this thesis will focus on the analysis of two paramo complexes that are Parque nacional natural la Chingaza (PNNC) [National natural park la Chingaza], and Parque nacional natural los Nevados (PNNN) [National natural park los Nevados] — located on two different branches of the Andean Mountain range: ‘Chingaza’ at the Eastern arm and ‘los Nevados’ at the central arm. Both case studies represent the countries’ heritage of ecological and cultural value and display complex ecotones that carry constant symbiotic relationships that should be nurtured and enhanced.

The form of life of ‘Frailejon’: the MICRO scale

The definition of an ecosystem can be developed by analysing the form of life from the vegetative networks, which respond to biotic and abiotic conditions. Conservation strategies must start with the study of vegetative species and their adaptation throughout the years from natural or anthropogenic disturbances (Vargas, 2021). From early botanical and ecological studies, the Paramos’ star species were thoroughly analysed accounting the different factors that contribute to its transformation and adaptation; throughout these studies, the behaviours (‘habits’) of the species are revealed and demonstrate how tied they are to soil chemistry, wind, sun, humidity.

These conditions along with anthropogenic disturbances are key elements to cause behavioural changes that end up constructing patterns and land mosaics within the landscape.

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The biotypes and classification schemes of biological features showcase the plants adaptations, the different types of vegetation and the percentage of their presence within a zone — this could give clues of borders and edges. The biotypes classification of botanists like Hedberg, Cuatrecasas, Vareshi and Riviera &Vargas-Rios & Pedroza show different ways of grouping floral characteristics: an evolution of taxonomy that depicts the extensive dynamics that these floral communities present. The large variety of types of morphologies, densities, ‘materials’ (the constitution of the plant’s stem or trunk), types of stems, foliage and root systems portray the boundless forms of life of the species of these landscapes. (See figures 16,17 & 18) fig 17

The analysis is based on the Micro and macro scales of the Paramo Landscapes. Starting with the Micro scale, focusing on the vegetative species’ behaviours, followed by the Macro scale that examines shape and form within patterns and land mosaics.

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Cuatrecasas (1934).

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fig 16: Forms of Cryptolignetum, taken from UNAL, 2023)

Hedberg (1964).

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fig 17: Five forms of life of vascular plants representing afroalpine and Andean paramos ecosystems diagram, taken from UNAL, 2023)

Fig 15: Unknown, 2023.

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similarities, different continents

High Andean Forest dwarf trees 5-10mts 2) Espeletia sp.

6) Senecio gardneri (África)

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Sub-Paramo Ecotone

3) Espeletia semi- globulata (Venezuela) 4) Senecio keniodendron (África, Kenia);

7) Puya raimondii (Bolivia)

1) Espeletia moritziana (Venezuela) 5) Lomaria arborescens (Venezuela) 15) Alchemilla (Lachemilla) (Andes)

11) Echium wildpretii (Tenerife) 10) Lupinus alopecuroides (Ecuador)

F L O R A Vareschi (1992).

Paramo

8) Lobelia rhynchopetalum (Africa)

The underground rooting system also changes, from more open systems that spread over an area to more supressed systems that develop deeper roots. Such forms of life depict the vegetative preferences towards ground and soil compositions, the lower areas of the paramo present more organic substrates that allow the flourishment of more tree-like species whilst higher grounds are less fertile and present more barren and rockier environments like the sub-paramo ones where plants shorten and become rosette biotypes (Vargas, 2021).

12) Plantago perreymondii (Venezuela)

9) Lobelia telekii (África)

13) Ottoa oenantoides (Venezuela)

14) Jamesonia canescens (Venezuela)

similarities, different continents

16) Draba chionophila (Venezuela)

fig 18: Convergence of biotypes in mountains of America and Africa. diagram, taken from UNAL, 2023)

There is a heterogeneity between the forms of life of the Paramo and H.A Forests vegetative species, their transition displays a gradient of floral typologies bonded to the mountains slope. The soil and climatic conditions gradually change with the rise of altitude creating different ways of adaptation that translate into their physical biological forms. The High Andean Forest presents taller vegetation, because in higher altitudes the production of “wood” is more energetically costly for the plant — this is the reason why when plant communities ascend, they decrease in height and change their ‘material’ structure. The wooden trunks become hairy stems with higher capacities of absorption, like textiles that could easily soak the water they need to survive (Nassar, 2023).

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Paramo and vegetation according to altutude. fig 19: Vegetation profile and dominant genera from the Forest paramo transition zone, Author’s own based on diagram from C, Sarmiento, 2023.

Although Colombia does not present seasonality, the Andes mountains experience abrupt changes of temperature that oscillate during the day and contribute to the ‘form of life’ or behaviour of the plant. The daily ‘seasonality’ sets conditions for the flora’s networks flourishment and those temperature shifts allow a rapid transformation of water, essential to their ecological processes. These natural dynamics allow phenomena like solifluction (the flow of moist soil down a steep slope) causing natural degrees of erosion that draw patterns and land mosaics on the landscape (Brittanica,2023).

The studies of the form of life from the vegetative species prove that these ecosystems form dynamic borders that fluctuate constantly. Natural and anthropogenic disturbances in hand of the climate crisis forge constant unexpected changes over abiotic conditions like temperature, precipitation and strong winds that strongly affect the flora of the Andean Paramo and High Forest leading to larger configurations on the landscapes.

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fig 20: Los Nevados National Natural Park massif, Author’s own, aerial images taken from Satellite.pro, 2023.

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fig 21: La Chingaza National Natural Park massif, Author’s own,aerial images taken from Satellite.pro, 2023.

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Land mosaics & Patterns: the MACRO scale

“First, as a gradient, gradual differences in concentration of existing, components make a system heterogeneous, but not patchy. Thus, a vertebrate population may be dispersing from a point, or tree species' distributions may be linearly correlated with distance along a moist, tropical mountain slope. Second, as a mosaic, a system develops patches (and/ or corridors) with abrupt discontinuities or boundaries” (Forman,1995, p.82-83) The form of life of Espeletia for the paramos and High Forest trees in the case, is the offspring of landscape patterns and fluctuations over the ‘belt’/ecotonal zone. As Richard Foreman represents the types of boundaries and edges in the Land mosaics book, it is important to analyse the basic forms of fluctuations on edges. From curvilinear to linear flows, such edge of interconnections depicts patterns that create land mosaics in a larger scale. As figure x from Forman represents, the communities from both ecosystems can start jumping from one side and colonise the ‘other side’.

As Andean Paramos and High Forest’s vegetation (as mentioned before) rely on soil composition and climatic conditions greatly, a minor change towards ground chemistry or temperature can lead to natural spontaneous behaviours that allow such fluctuations within the edge. At la Chingaza National natural park (PNNC) and los Nevados National natural park such dynamics are evident within the ecotonal threshold.

Forman argues that “boundary and gradient are mutually exclusive patterns or concepts” (Forman,1995, p.83), they relate to abruptness or diffuseness. Nevertheless, both draw over the landscapes and challenge ecotones’ definitions. How thin or wide is this belt? And to which extend can we start defining it? Or define a type of ecotone?

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fig 25: Ecotonal zone Paramo (25) - Forest at PNNN, authors own, 2023

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With the analysis of both case studies’ ecotonal thresholds, one can explore that the idea of studying this landscape within scales [from the perspective of pattern, patch, and mosaic] can bring a new perspective to ecotonal zones — what from a larger scale at bird’s eye looks like a straight line turns into scattered pieces, depicting the sprawling of vegetation, thus widening the ecotonal threshold - See figure 25.

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fig 25.4 Paramo w= width V= vertical

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fig 23: Spatial relationships of boundary, border, and edges, taken from Forman, T, 1995)

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fig 25.1: Ecotonal zone Paramo (25) - Forest at PNNN, close up 1, authors own, 2023.

L= Lenght

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fig 24: Interior and core of patches, taken from Forman, T, 1995)

fig 25.2: Ecotonal zone Paramo (25) - Forest at PNNN, close up 2, authors own, 2023

fig 22: Boundary patterns between two ecosystems, taken from Forman, T, 1995)

fig 25.3: Ecotonal zone Paramo (25) - Forest at PNNN, close up 1 overlayed on aerial photo, authors own, 2023.

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fig 25.4: Ecotonal zone Paramo (25) - Forest at PNNN, close up 2 overlayed on aerial photo, authors own, 2023.

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fig 26: Ecotonal zone Paramo (26) - Forest at PNNN, authors own, 2023

Some other areas present a slimmer belt, although dramatic topographic changes influence the edge, the more abrupt change of habitats, from open grasslands to a narrow H.A forest suggests anthropogenic disturbances (see figure 26) like intense agricultural practices as the ones developed at ‘El bosque’ village at SW of los Nevados National natural park, the large gap which was once part of the forest now presents disperse tree vegetation and paramo’s plant colonies — the last one to be under the phenomena of ‘paramizacion’ (paramised edges), a type of edge effect.

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denser groups of patches that intercalate forest and agricultural lands. The forest is successively fragmented creating a system of more abrupt changes that overall diffuse the ecotonal edge (See figure 27). The transition forest-Paramo follows topographic variations that also create patches as forest fingers that crawl up the hills (See figure 27.1). Other areas area increasingly more diffuse where it is seen that different tones of green that blend with the earthy colours of the Paramo. These areas depict a higher mix of sub-Paramo Frailejon communities and High Andean Forest dwarf tree communities — thus, the patterned mosaic creates a complex ecotonal zone (See figure 28).

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fig 27: Ecotonal zone Paramo (27) - Forest at PNNC, authors own, 2023 fig 27.1: Ecotonal zone Paramo (27) - Forest at PNNC, close up 1, authors

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fig 26.4 Paramo Forest 1 fig 26.1

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fig 26.1: Ecotonal zone Paramo (26) - Forest at PNNN, close up 1, authors own, 2023. fig 26.2: Ecotonal zone Paramo (26) - Forest at PNNN, close up 2, authors own, 2023

Paramo Forest

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fig 26.3: Ecotonal zone Paramo (26) - Forest at PNNN, close up 1 overlayed on aerial photo, authors own, 2023.

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fig 26.4: Ecotonal zone Paramo (26) - Forest at PNNN, close up 2 overlayed on aerial photo, authors own, 2023.

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fig 27.1: Ecotonal zone Paramo (27) - Forest at PNNC, close up 2, authors own, 2023.

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fig 27.3: Ecotonal zone Paramo (27) - Forest at PNNC, close up 1 overlayed on aerial photo, authors own, 2023.

+ fig 27.4: Ecotonal zone Paramo (27) - Forest at PNNC, close up 2 overlayed on aerial photo, authors own, 2023.

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fig 28: Ecotonal zone Paramo (28) - Forest at PNNC, authors own, 2023

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The forest and paramos ecotone at PNNN and PNNC present various types of patterns. The edges of the forest present sprawling of the trees and such ‘line’ becomes diffuse. The colours and green tonal changes suggest different species, heights, and densities within the vegetation. This implies mixed interconnections and flows from biotic and abiotic conditions. Conversations with topography are also present within these Paramo massifs, the more linear forest fingers respond to this as the forest species are seen to crawl upon the dents of the ground as those are ‘lower’ elevations that respond to the forest vegetative preferences of richer soils and warmer areas. fig 28.1: Ecotonal zone Paramo (28) - Forest at PNNC, close up 1, authors own, 2023. fig 28.1: Ecotonal zone Paramo (28) - Forest at PNNC, close up 2, authors own, 2023. fig 28.3: Ecotonal zone Paramo (28) - Forest at PNNC, close up 1 overlayed on aerial photo, authors own, 2023. fig 28.4: Ecotonal zone Paramo (28) - Forest at PNNC, close up 2 overlayed on aerial photo, authors own, 2023.

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no ‘first edge’. Unified composition with branching

fig 29: New Ecotonal patterns studies between Paramo and H.A forest, author’s own, 2023

fig 28.4 Paramo Forest

The different types of patches and patterns change the widths of the ecotonal belts, some depict anthropogenic disturbances, and some others depict fluctuations caused by changes of temperature, moisture, or ground characteristics. These fluctuations and2 interconnection can only define this area as a DYNAMIC border. The natural and unnatural responses of the vegetative networks are unpredictable and hardly measurable.

What is this ecotone or threshold? is it better described as balances between both ecosystems?

With the boundless ecological synergies, the definition of the ecotone becomes an ambiguous endeavour that highly questions the preservation of these landscapes. How are we to see these connections and interpret them for planning and environmental conservation policies?

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H U M A N M A N A G E/

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The Landscape perception - a fixed ordinance

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B O U N D A R I E S

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C H A P T E R

Abstractiveness is a term used by Freya Mathews to depict constructs of the human mind, it is the capacity of humans to imagine and re-imagine landscapes (Mathews, 2004). Throughout centuries, the landscape has been shaped by abstractive thoughts, serving as the medium of the Anthropocene. As the landscape being the product of human mind, what is artifice? and what do we consider natural?

In the quest of controlling nature, humans have imposed their abstractive thought onto nature, fixing form & shape, and deciding which relationships to keep or destroy. The anthropogenic linear ideas or order often disassociate with nature’s kingdom of flows and dynamic tendencies — “human’s ‘logic’ order is non-existent in the natural realm” (Vera, 2023, p.2). With the human need to controlling its environment, boundaries have been delineated to portray an end or a start but “Of what use are these boundaries within a landscape”? (Foreman, 1995)

foremans Straight ecotone

O F

B O U N D A R I E S

E C O T O N E S

fig 30: High contrast landscape boundary, taken from Forman, T, 1995)

&

Boundaries over the landscape have served for order of ownership, for definitions of land use or even cultures. In an era of urbanisation, the idea of a line that separates and creates categories or groups grows in appeal as it functions well within the city environment, but the produced boundary from a single line, also inevitably allows spatial relationships (Sendra, et.al, 2020). In the Andean Landscapes of Paramo and High Forest the synergies are clear, and so the use of a line to define its ecosystems is futile.

According to Pablo Sendra and Richard Sennet, boundaries and borders relate to exchanges. “The boundary is an edge where things end; the border is an edge where different groups interact. In natural ecologies, borders are the places where organisms become more inter-active, due to the meeting of different species or physical conditions” (Sendra et al., 2020, p.22).

fig 31: Forest-Paramo transition, taken from Cadena, C, 2015)

In rural environments, the idea of ‘border’ seems to resonate more. The wilderness depicts disorder, and disorder, disassociates with linearity. Nevertheless, ecotones that present higher levels of abruptness like the ones where a forest turns into a grassland (forest edge) can start to distort that idea and feed human abstraction to the landscape — ‘such linear ordinance is also present in the wildernesses, but it is rightful to remember that human intervention increases such ecological responses, and that the line isnot entirely natural. “Man, thus consistently increases the length of forest edge, and with it the frequency of those species of plants and animals which are commonly associated with the ecotone” (Nield, 1986, p.407)

Paramos ecotone

The configuration of an ecotone responds to various reasons: it should always be acknowledged that an ecotone is an area of exchanges and a dynamic moment within the ecological cycles. Successions and natural and anthropogenic disturbances enforce fluctuations on the ecotones, defining their border regularity or irregularity.

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The influences or ‘causes’ of an ecotones’ typology are to be analysed and considered, social borders are also present in the landscape and might weave with ecological ecotones.

Following the line of concept, what does a landscape ought to be? (Watt, 2017). The rational human abstractivness (creative skill) stresses the definition of nature (Mathews,2004). “The human agency has imposed its rational thoughts over the landscape, creating anthropogenic ideas of geography and confederacy on/with the landscape … it has been the medium that hosts two realms, which has created a dichotomy that has finally risen concerning consequences to the environment — the climate crisis” (Vera, 2023, p.2)

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When it comes to boundaries, it always comes to a matter of mental constructions that shape the limits of an existing element to another, but is it an element? Is it an action? Is it a person/living being? Or is it a system of all?

Boundaries on the Paramos & H.A. Forests?

“The Landscape has been a construct of time and perception, a complex endeavour from human activity and abstractive thought” (Vera, 2023, p.2).

While planning and conservation policies continuedly seek to zone and delineate areas, the power of the climate crisis carries on modifying all borders and landscapes. What is the paradox of the ‘boundary’? In a world of change and cycles, and most evidently in dynamic landscapes like Paramo & H.A. Forests, the singularity of a ‘line’ to represent their edge comes short of base. The environment has been for too long, mostly only seen as the source of services for the Anthropocene. Part of our human inhabitation has negatively effected natural relationships and interlinks – Boundaries are delineated with the use of a line that ends an area expected to produce yield or to divide land properties rather than a biodiverse ecological hub.

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fig 32: Delineation of Park’s location PNNN, taken National natural parks of Colombia, 2023)

N A T I O N A L P A R K L I N E S

The idea of the line and boundary are highly present in urban scenarios, where they are needed, and function well within the urban social and ecological dynamics. The boundary that encloses a park works inside the city - there is no adjacent landscape nor ecotone to care for, and the park flourishes along with human management. The boundary requires management and in large rural territories like Paramos and High Andean Forests where nature must ‘do its doing’ (Mathews, 2004) management is most likely to be dismissed.

Thus, idea of the boundary is contra productive.

The image of the landscape as a collection of elements and events is constructed by human inhabitation and bonded also to cultural meaning. As mentioned before, the landscape is the product of different minds that throughout the years have defined material and immaterial dynamics on the territories. The actors of the Paramos are affected by the inflicted boundary, the conservation policies, and the definition of radical protected areas conflict on these territories currently still inhabited by communities of farmers that have settled in the mountain for years whose way of living has shaped their traditional values.

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fig 33: Delineation of Park’s location and bird species at PNNC, taken from Linares, et al, 2019)

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Social Borders

As geological layers have formed the Andean mountains for millions of years, so the inhabitants of the mountain have engraved the lands: it is a palimpsest of human and non-human relationships. As ecological gems and their charm are seen as unexplored territories, Paramos have always been appealing to the human perception of nature.

Before the times of colony, the Paramos were seen as sacred territories aligning to indigenous believes of nature and life. The lands were explored for religious ceremonies, full of lagoons that were seen as platforms of life. The relationship from the indigenous with nature was of harmony and respect, about giving and receiving. “The paramo was considered by the Muiscas7 a sacred space, where the foundational elements for life and balance of the cosmos were concentrated” (banco de occidente,2023)

T H E A C T O R S -

within the

A N D E S

Today, the mountain is still inhabited. Many farmer communities are in the quest of re-draughting agricultural practices and turn into sustainable approaches to manage the land produce parallel to the preservation of the environment — The biggest issue continues with the large industries that seek to exploit the land with intensive mining, agricultural (mainly potato plantings) and even timber production. It is important to acknowledge that the Paramos present social movements and human inhabitation, whether for production (in a small scale), touristic or any cultural practice that shapeways of living and engraved dynamics all need to be considered. There is the right to Landscape and mainly for the communities that live on the Andean mountains. The sense of place becomes a social border, another side of that ecotone that needs to be considered when setting territorial regulations.

With such little disturbance, the paramos were thriving and evolved to be fragile to changes. The abstraction of the territory had a spin with the presence of the Spanish colonisers. The unknown territory of alpine landscapes and dense forests reached by the Spanish during the times of colony changed its land use. The colonisers (driven by old legends of gold and treasures), sat foot on the Andean Mountain range and found its resemblance to their Spanish Castile plateau in the Iberic peninsula, which they used to call “Paramera” (Banco de Occidente, 2023) — this is how their name ‘Paramo’ was defined by human abstraction.

“The word ‘páramo’ was imported by the first European colonisers from the Iberian Peninsula where it refers to barren plains. Historically, far from a scientifically sanctioned term, páramo was a common signifier for uncivilized and unproductive areas, a treeless wasteland” (Cuellar et al., 2023) The indigenous knowledge allowed a balance exchange between the mountain and their communities, their practices respected the landscapes natural cycles and allowed the regeneration of the land after minor disturbances. Such practices were overruled by the presence of the Spaniards who introduced foreign agricultural and grazing practices that were and continue to be detrimental to the Andean Paramo and High Forest. The ‘unproductive area’ had to become a highly productive land of yield. “…landscape is already so preconditioned as being "of nature," and because its imagery is so deeply ingrained in a particular culture's sense of place, it is extremely challenging to imagine or project it differently” (Corner, 2014, p.9) fig 34: Water cycle, the misak, taken from Escobar, D, 2019 fig 35: Maria Pito protecting indingenous culture, taken from, Rasolt, D,2020.

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fig 34

fig 35

Los Nevados National Natural Park was analysed by its social dynamics. A Social mapping was developed (see fig 36 on next page) to represent the large number of interactions that happen within the massif. From Pedestrian routes designated for activities like hiking and Eco-tourism, hostel accommodations and camping areas to small farms (some that practice agriculture) – the homes of the montane communities.

The mapping depicts high activity on the ecotonal belt, an affair to re-assess on planning and conservation policies.

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fig 36: Social dynamics - ‘border’ at los Nevados National Natural Park massif, Author’s own.

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The value of the Andean Colombian Paramo and High Andean Forest

“In detecting global climatic change, boundaries are often proposed as a sensitive indicator, the ‘canary’ in the mine. And in sustainability issues, humans are edge species, but by carving up the land and increasing edges enormously, we eliminate the key values of large patches, thus degrading our landscapes” (Forman, 1995, p.81)

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The Paramo and High Andean Forest ecotonal zone seen as a border of exchanges and constant fluctuations within horizontal connections adds another dimension. The vertical connections of the ecosystems (which are strictly connected to altitude and temperature), influence the movement of these landscapes up and down the mountain. As temperature (abiotic condition) is a strong driver of the plant’s behaviour. The constant changes caused by the climate crisis force the ecosystems to be in constant movement and display another dimension of dynamic behaviours

T I M E &

M O V E M E N T

“In October 2018, an IPCC report claimed that humanity has just 12 years to restrict global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels – a tolerable adaptation threshold beyond which the risks to resources, ecosystems, biodiversity, food security and human life become far greater” (LI, 2019). The impact of the climate crisis on the ecotones, the decrease of their width and its movement will end up in great biodiversity loss.

As climate change continuous to rise the earth’s temperature, the montane ecosystems continue to transit within its vertical axis in the quest of ideal conditions for their flourishment. As Paramo’s evolution has responded to a slow process of adaptation (mainly in relation to their altitude) their tolerance to disturbances and change is very low, such movement of the ecotonal margin not only becomes an issue of geographical location or ordinance for land inhabitation/use, but it also creates ecological disruptions on both ecosystems.

The ecosystems are being altered and their ecotones are moving. Every landscape reacts to a degree of influence and tolerates disturbances differently. The shifts from the High Andean Forest and Paramo’s ecosystems’ ecotone differ from anthropogenic and natural disturbances. As presented before, the territory suggests different types of patterns that respond to various ecological behaviours: affecting the territory from a micro to a macro scale. “the boreal forest--temperate forest ecotone (BTE), are expected to shift to higher latitudes under climate change” (Piers, et al, 2017) fig 37: Los Nevados National Natural SW ecotonal zone study over the years, Author’s own, aerial images taken from Satellite.pro, 2023.

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The anthropogenic big disturbances comply agriculture, grazing, mining, timber production (plantations of non-endemic species like pines) along with minor ones like hiking and eco-tourism. The increase of the temperature forces the forest and paramo system to climb higher, risking the loss of certain Espeletia species found along all the stages of paramos (sub paramo, paramo and super paramo)

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Agricultural practices involving man-made fires directly increases the mortality of both Paramo and Forest vegetative and although wildfires are traditional aboriginal landscape practices in some countries of the world (that improve an ecosystem’s structure) in the case of H.A forests and Paramos such effect is not the same. The Anthropogenic fires change the soil structure leading to a Phenomena called ‘Paramización’, which involves the movement of Paramos down the mountain as Espeletia thrives in more barren soils than the tree species of the forest (Nassar, 2023). The anthropogenic disturbances over the land by intensive grazing, agriculture, and mining forge changes on the nature of paramos and H.A Forests habitats; the unpredictability of such events reflects on the loss of biodiversity. How will the forest restore itself within the remains of an abused land? And therefore, how will the frailejon (espeletia plant) thrive without the mist that the forest composes? fig 39

1984

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fig 38: Los Nevados National Natural SW ecotonal zone study over the years overlayed diagram, Author’s own, aerial images taken from google earth pro, 2023. fig 39: Anthropogenic fires at La Chingaza National Natural park, photo taken from Vargas-Rios, 2021. fig 40: Just burnt areas at Los Nevados National Natural park, photo taken from Vargas-Rios, 2021. fig 41: Extensive cattle farming at Paramo, photo taken from Vargas-Rios, 2021.

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Fig 44: Frailejones valley, Photo taken from Gonzalez-Maya,2017.

“It is important to comprehend the threats the species are facing in order to mitigate and decrease the impact on the biodiversity of paramos” (Paramunos, 2023).The species take what they need to survive, and so espeletia as a competitive plant moves downwards to the burnt forest where the soil structure now fits best for them — the issue relies on how much forest will be left or until when that bit can supply the Paramo’s species.

After understanding a base of the dimensions that compose both Andean Ecosystems and that they represent a border that moves, it is worth to mention that the transit implies the movement of both eco and social dimensions. Colombia’s “Ley de paramos” (Paramo’s law) provides regulations on uses and land ownership, limiting heavy industries and extensive farming or mining — activities that are mainly managed by multinational and international enterprises. Communities of farmers that inhabit and live the Paramo are forced to migrate their homes (and jobs) once these lands become national parks, but then, where falls the right to landscape?

The mountain has shaped the lives of these communities, and their inhabitation has stimulated natural processes; these conservation regulations underpin a “dichotomy between cultural and natural landscapes representing the combined work of nature and of man” (Egoz, S. et al.,2016, P.1) as Shelly Egoz describes on landscape and human rights manifesto. Preservation of Landscapes could become an endeavour that compromises multiple notions and scales in both material and immaterial volumes.

P A R A M O H. A F O R E S T

fig 42: Primary successions after volcanic eruption at Los Nevados National Natural park, photo taken from Vargas-Rios, 2021. fig 43: Primary successions over rocks at La Chingaza National Natural park, photo taken from Vargas-Rios, 2021.

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The Andean Mountain range as a system of vertical and horizontal ecological connections also represents the knitting of the natural and anthropogenic realms (having the climate crisis as the reflection of the second one’s actions), where both dimensions overlayed, create a dilemma that questions the way these Landscapes have been represented for grounds of environmental conservation — such anthropogenic delineations/boundaries over the landscape are contradicted by the ecotones in transit.

From an ecological perspective, such ecotonal zone fluctuates upwards and downwards based on the behaviours of the vegetative networks, and as explored on chapter 1, the fluctuations of the ecotonal zone are varied and they present various edges.

The different patterned dynamics should be considered when deciding how to represent them on conservation policies. With the hold of so many ecological dynamics that are strongly tied to human inhabitation and with the climate crisis as result of these (and being a constant variable), should the representation of these policies become dynamic and variable too?

F O R P L A N N I N G &

P O L I C I E S

The Andean Paramo and High Forest are of vital contribution to Colombia’s hydrological system and water resources, which defines BOTH ecosystems as socio-ecological landscapes that provide an economic service to the country. The social borders of the landscape direct to create regenerative strategies that align to both human and non-human dynamics, different grades of protection can be represented on the environmental conservation mappings. A first and strictly protected ring should be established — this one mostly related to inner core of the Paramo complex that hasn’t moved through the last 50-year span and that also includes the snow summits which require strong protection as their presence affects the chain of interconnections between habitats and ecosystems.

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A second ring as a flexible buffer which allows low impact anthropogenic movement, this ring includes the ecotonal zone and allows its movement (the initial location and width of this ring responds to the analysis of the aerial satellite photos from the last 50-years, see figure 37 in chapter 3), this ring deflects with the presence of a third ring. The flexible buffer should always include communities of both ecosystems whether its width decreases due the presence of the third ring. The third or outer ring represents part of the social dynamics: some areas will be destined to low impact agricultural and grazing activities from the inhabitants of the mountain which will rotate within short periods of time (to be confirmed after thorough biological and ecological studies). The 4th dimension of the mapping entails the axis of human movement that cross the whole paramo complex; activities as eco-tourism and hiking also influence the landscape vegetative adaptations and forms of life, to which strategies of degrees of use can be implemented to avoid the exhausting of areas that are in higher need of regeneration and natural succession. The whole rotational plan of ecological and social synergies should be supported by a regenerative design over the

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fig 45: Scenario 01 for new guidelines to Paramo’s conservation policies delineation, Auhtor;s own, 2023

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The third ring represents the controversial breach within Paramo’s inhabitants and the designation of this land to highly protected areas that had been nominated as National parks and with the acknowledgment that mining, agricultural and grazing practices are detrimental to these landscapes it is essential to use different modes of care to the land to enhance regenerative processes. The respected Humboldt institute in Colombia (Research institute of biological resources) throughout the last decades has been investigating and monitoring the behaviours of the vegetative species from the Paramos, as per the acknowledgment of anthropogenic disturbances to be of high impact on these landscapes, analysis after grazing and agricultural activities were developed to measure the successional and regenerative qualities of Paramos (Vargas, 2021).

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“Pioneer species (Rumez acetosella and Agrostis humboldtiana), intermediate species (Paspalum hirtum and Espeletia argentea) and late species (Calamagrostis effuse and Espeletia grandiflora) were clearly identified” (Vargas, 2021, p.74).

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fig 45: Scenario 01 for new guidelines to Paramo’s conservation policies delineation, Auhtor;s own, 2023

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Although the regeneration of these landscapes is slow due to their low tolerance to disturbances, strategies of collaborative participation from the users of the territory can lead to modes of care and environmental education. The right selection of species to start the regenerative process is key to the reestablishment of paramo and H.A forest species – following topographic, hydrological, and ground typology attributes for each biotype. Decompressing soil, introduction of organic biomass (that can be recycled from the surrounds of the massif), direct seeding, transplanting of main vegetative species (Espeletia) and strategies of future germination (collection of seeds) can be replicated modes of care to follow the previously areas destined to small scale anthropogenic activities within the third ring.

Environmental conservation mappings should represent a balance between social and ecological dimensions, should analyse different scales and most importantly, such conservation strategies and representations need to fluctuate over time. The rotational strategies involve the changes within the more strictly protected areas and the flexible buffers, oscillating them according to anthropogenic disturbances and their impact over biological and ecological networks. The frequency of re-examining the mappings is also essential to regenerative and successional processes.

Rather than only speaking about the ecotone from a biological and ecological notation, the perspective broadens and welcomes new ideas of ecotones.The Paramo and High Andean Forest ecotones is a wider construct of ecology and montane inhabitation that follows a history of cultural values. Dynamic Landscapes require dynamic Landscape strategies within the gruelling endeavour of developing planning and conservation policies to keep nurturing synergies from all dimensions.

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C O N C L U S I O N

IMAGES OF NESTED PNNN

C O N C L U S I O N fig 47: Thermals Los Nevados National natural park, taken from Volcano adventure, 2023. fig 48: Paramo Chingaza, taken from Suescun, F, 2017)

Landscapes are assemblages of countless interconnected pieces, dynamics, and exchanges. For the Colombian Paramos and High Andean Forests of Los Nevados and La Chingaza National natural parks, the boundless associations between them are essential to the endeavour of Environmental preservation. The layers of social, economic, ecological, political, and cultural dimensions within the landscapes allow them to be laid open to subjective interpretation; What is the Ecotone of the Paramo and High Andean Forest? - As highly dynamic ecosystems, is it possible to define their border with the simplicity of a line?

With the rapid earths climatic and environmental changes caused by the intensive anthropogenic disturbances, environmental policies are questioned due to the transit of the ecotones. The Paramo and H.A Forest border portrays a deep & wide transition that fluctuates constantly and moves upwards and downwards. The Andes Mountain as a natural structure that merges the material and immaterial world (ecology and Social/cultural dynamics), and that is in constant change and movement, should follow policies that represent their dynamism as well. The most recent law over the Colombian Paramos was set on 2018 — 5 years from accelerated change sets to wonder: how often should we rethink these regulations and most importantly, how can we define these dynamic landscapes on the policies?

Every year multiple natural events occur, and multiple social and cultural dynamics are formed. These landscape conservation policies should address a balance between ecological and cultural value — the ecotones in transit from the Andean biome are clear representations of the interconnection between ecology and society: they are eco-social systems.

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B I B L I O G R A P H Y

INTRO Clavijo Mejía, R. et al. (2022) Del Páramo al parque natural: transformaciones socioterritoriales del macizo Chingaza [From the Paramo to Natural park: socio-territorial transformations of the Chingaza massif] Available at: https://cuadernots.utem.c l / a r t i c u l o s / d e l - p a r a m o - a l - p a r q u e - n a tural-transformaciones-socioterritoriales-del-macizo-chingaza/ Watt, L. A. & Lowenthal, D. (2017) The paradox of preservation: wilderness and working landscapes at Point Reyes National Seashore / Laura Alice Watt ; foreword

by David Lowenthal. Oakland, California: University of California Press.

Vargas-Ríos, O. (2021). Bases ecológicas y sociales para la restauración de los páramos. Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia. [ Ecological and Social bases for Paramos restoration. Faculty of Sciences, National University of Colombia].

Schama, S. (1996) “introduction,” in Landscape and memory. London: Fontana Press, pg. 7.

Egoz, S. et al. (2016) The right to landscape : contesting landscape and human rights / edited by Shelley Egoz, Jala Makhzoumi, Gloria Pungetti. 1st issued in paperback 2016. London ;: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.

Guibert, Eric. (2023), Seminars of Landscape Architecture theory and practice, The Bartlett School of Architecture, University College London.

C I T A T I O N

CHAPTER 0l Vargas-Ríos, O. (2021). Bases ecológicas y sociales para la restauración de los páramos. Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia. [ Ecological and Social bases for Paramo’s restoration. Faculty of Sciences, National University of Colombia].

ICUN – International Unit for Conservation of Nature (2010) Paramos, Available at: https://www.iucn.org/content/paramos Vera, Tatiana (2023), Between the Land and the Sky, Landscape theory and Practice, Seminar 1, Bartlett School of Architecture, p.1.

EIA – Escuela de Ingenieria de Antioquia [Antioquia School of Engineering] (2023), Vargas-Ríos, O. (2021). Bases ecológicas y sociales para la restauración de los páramos. Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia. [ Ecological and Social bases for Paramo’s restoration. Faculty of Sciences, National University of Colombia], p.18.

Foreman, R.T.T (1995) Land mosaics: The ecology of landscapes and regions.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.81.

Vargas-Ríos, O. (2021). Bases ecológicas y sociales para la restauración de los páramos. Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia. [ Ecological and Social bases for Paramo’s restoration. Faculty of Sciences, National University of Colombia].

Nassar, A, 2023 [Biologist from UniAndes University, MA in Ecological regeneration Javeriana University] Interview with Tatiana Vera on 10 Jun 2023, Colombia and United Kingdom via Microsoft Teams.

Encyclopaedia Britannica (2023) Ecotone [definition] [Online]. [Accessed 15 Jun 2023]. Available from: https://www.britannica.com/science/solifluction Foreman, R.T.T (1995) Land mosaics: The ecology of landscapes and regions.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.82-83.

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CHAPTER 02 Vera, Tatiana (2023), Tatiana Vera Espinosa Research Method Statement, Landscape Architecture thesis, Bartlett School of Architecture, p.2.

Foreman, R.T.T (1995) Land mosaics: The ecology of landscapes and regions.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.81.

Sendra, P. & Sennett, R. (2020) Designing Disorder. Verso Books, p.22.

Terrell-Nield, C.E. 1986: Ecotones and community boundaries: analysis by pitfall trapping. Field Studies 6, 407-28, p.407 Watt, L. A. & Lowenthal, D. (2017) The paradox of preservation: wilderness and working landscapes at Point Reyes National Seashore / Laura Alice Watt ; foreword by David Lowenthal. Oakland, California: University of California Press, p.2.

Mathews, Freya (2004) Letting the World Do the Doing, Australian Humanities Review.

Paramos de Colombia (no date) Páramos de Colombia - Colección ecológica del banco. Available at: https://www.imeditores.com/banocc/paramos/cap2.htm (Accessed: 02 June 2023).

Cuellar, C. et al, (2023) independent social research foundation [online] found at: https://www.isrf.org/2023/04/26/paramunos-a-digital-strategy-for-knowledge-co-creation-about-the-colombian-paramos/#:~:text=The%20word%20' p%C3%A1ramo'%20was%20imported,unproductive%20areas%2C%20a%20treeless%20wa steland.

Corner, J. and Hirsch, A.B. (2014) The landscape imagination: Collected essays of James Corner, 1990-2010. New York, NY: Princeton Architectural Press.

CHAPTER 03 Foreman, R.T.T (1995) Land mosaics: The ecology of landscapes and regions.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.81.

Climate change: Response and commitments to address the climate crisis (2019) Landscape Institute. Available at: https://www.landscapeinstitute.org/policy/climate-change/ (Accessed: 26 June 2023).

Evans, Piers & Brown, Carissa. (2017). The Boreal-Temperate Forest Ecotone Response to Climate Change. Environmental Reviews. 25. 10.1139/er-2017-0009, p.1.

Nassar, A, 2023 [Biologist from UniAndes University, MA in Ecological regeneration Javeriana University] Interview with Tatiana Vera on 10 Jun 2023, Colombia and United Kingdom via Microsoft Teams.

Inicio (2022) Prácticas de cuidado en los Páramos. [Care practices for the Paramos], Available at: https://paramunos.com/ (Accessed: 02 July 2023).

Egoz, S. et al. (2016) The right to landscape: contesting landscape and human rights / edited by Shelley Egoz, Jala Makhzoumi, Gloria Pungetti. 1st issued in paperback 2016. London: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, p.1.

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CHAPTER 04: Vargas-Ríos, O. (2021). Bases ecológicas y sociales para la restauración de los páramos. Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia. [ Ecological and Social bases for Paramo’s restoration. Faculty of Sciences, National University of Colombia], p.74.

C I T A T I O N

IMAGES: Fig 01. The city paper (2023) Paramo Santurban [Online]. [Accessed 20 Jun 2023].

Available from: https://thecitypaperbogota.com/business/court-rules-against-mining-in-colombias-fragile-paramos/ Fig 03. Schroeder, Rebecca (2022) Inside the Paramo [Online image]. [Accessed 20 Jun, 2023]. Available from: https://w- ww.volunteerlatinamerica.com/blog/posts/inside-the-paramo Fig 04. Cañon, Juan Pablo (2023) [Photograph] Parque national natural Los Nevados - Nevado del Tolima [Los Nevados National Natural park].

Fig 05. Gourmound, Caroline (2023) Los Nevados National natural park [Online].

[Accessed 15 Jun, 2023]. Available from: https://www.evaneos.co.uk/colombia/holidays/places/3471-los-nevados-np/ Fig 06. Sarmiento, C (2015). Influencia de vientos y variacion climatica en las tres cordilleras Colombianas [Influence of winds and climatic variation in the three Colombian mountain ranges] [Diagram] Páramos vivos, Transicion Bosque – Paramo: Bases conceptuales y métodos para su identificación en los Andes colombianos.

Fig 07. Diezgranados, M. (2023) Frailejones, [Espeletia plants], The guardian [Online]. [Accessed 29 Jun 2023]. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/apr/09/land-el-dorado-clean-water-blue-gold-paramos-colombia-andes Fig 09. Gourmound, Caroline (2023) Los Nevados National natural park [Online].

[Accessed 15 Jun 2023]. Available from: https://www.evaneos.co.uk/colombia/holidays/places/3471-los-nevados-np/ Fig 10. Juras, P. (2016) Frailejones [Espeletia Grandiflora], [Online image of Oil on canvas painting]. [Accessed 09 Jun 2023]. Available from: https://www.philipjuras.com/artwork/2016052802frailejones/ Fig 11. Vargas-Ríos, O. (2021). Frailejon plant species [Drawing]. Bases ecológicas y sociales para la restauración de los páramos. Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia. [ Ecological and Social bases for Paramo’s restoration. Faculty of Sciences, National University of Colombia].

Fig 13. Volcano adventure (2023) Los Nevados National natural park [Online image]. [Accessed 15 Jun 2023]. Available from: https://www.instagram.com/p/CmpiEHIvx5f/ Fig 14. Unknown (2023) Paramo Belmira [Online]. [Accessed 15 Jun 2023]. Available from: https://mylifebeyondhome.com/paramo-de-belmira-near-near-medellin/ Fig 15. Unknown (2023) [Online]. [Accessed 15 Jun 2023]. Available from: https://www.beyondview.co.uk/colombias-paramo-ecosystems-that-support-life/

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-Fig 16. Vargas-Ríos, O. (2021). Forms of Cryptolignetum [Drawing]. Bases ecológicas y sociales para la restauración de los páramos. Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia. [ Ecological and Social bases for Paramo’s restoration. Faculty of Sciences, National University of Colombia].

Fig 17. Vargas-Ríos, O. (2021). Five forms of vascular plants representing afroalpine and Andean Paramo’s ecosystems [Drawing]. Bases ecológicas y sociales para la restauración de los páramos. Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia. [ Ecological and Social bases for Paramo’s restoration. Faculty of Sciences, National University of Colombia].

Fig 18. Vargas-Ríos, O. (2021). Convergence of biotypes in mountains of America and Africa [Drawing]. Bases ecológicas y sociales para la restauración de los páramos.

Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia. [ Ecological and Social bases for Paramo’s restoration. Faculty of Sciences, National University of Colombia].

Fig 19. Sarmiento, C (2015). Perfil de vegetación y géneros dominantes de la Zona de Transición Bosque-Páramo [Vegetation profile and dominant genera from the forest paramo transition zone] [Diagram] Páramos vivos, Transicion Bosque – Paramo: Bases conceptuales y métodos para su identificación en los Andes colombianos.

Fig 20. Satellite.pro (2023).[Satellite images] [Accessed 08 Jun, 2023]. Available from: https://satellites.pro/Colombia_map#4.776942,-75.334625,11 Fig 21. Satellite.pro (2023).[Satellite images] [Accessed 08 Jun, 2023]. Available from: https://satellites.pro/Colombia_map#4.590798,-73.644791,11 Fig 22. Foreman, R.T.T (1995), Boundary patterns between two ecosystems, Land mosaics: The ecology of landscapes and regions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.83.

Fig 23. Foreman, R.T.T (1995), Spatial relationships of boundary, border and edges, Land mosaics: The ecology of landscapes and regions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.86.

Fig 24. Foreman, R.T.T (1995), Interior and core of patches, border and edges, Land mosaics: The ecology of landscapes and regions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.130.

Fig 30. Foreman, R.T.T (1995), High contrast landscape boundary, Land mosaics: The ecology of landscapes and regions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.130.

Fig 31. Cadena, C (2015). Transición Bosque-Páramo [Forest-Paramo transition] [Photograph] Páramos vivos, Transicion Bosque – Paramo: Bases conceptuales y métodos para su identificación en los Andes colombianos.

Fig 32. Unknown, (2023) Parques nacionales naturales de Colombia, [National parks mappings of Colombia] [Online mapping generator]. [Accessed 25 Jun 2023]. Available from: https://mapas.parquesnacionales.gov.co/ Fig 33. Linares, L.G, et al, (2019) Aves del Parque Nacional Natural Chingaza, [Bird species at La Chingaza national natural park] [Online image]. [Accessed 15 Jun 2023].

Available from: http://revistas.humboldt.org.co/index.php/biota/article/view/694/653

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C I T A T I O N

Fig 34. Escobar, D. (2019), Water ritual, the misak, 'El ciclo sagrado de las altas cumbres: agua, vida y pensamiento entre los misak (guambianos)', [the sacred cycle of the summits: water, life and thought between the misak], Revista Antípoda, (34), 145+, [Online image]. [Accessed 20 Jun, 2023] Available from: https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A573713713/AONE?u=anon~2bf00560&sid=googleScholar&xid=894b5d74.

Fig 35. Rasolt, D. (2020), Maria pito protecting indigenous culture, ‘they cannot keep us silent’ , Earth island journal [Online image]. [Accessed 20 Jun, 2023] Available from: https://www.earthisland.org/journal/index.php/articles/entry/cannot-keep-us-silent-paramos-colombia-indigenous-rights/ Fig 37. Google earth (2023).[Satellite images] [Accessed 01 Jun, 2023]. Available from: https://earth.google.com/web/ Fig 38. Google earth (2023).[Satellite images] [Accessed 01 Jun, 2023]. Available from: https://earth.google.com/web/ Fig 39. Vargas-Ríos, O. (2021). Anthropogenic fires at La Chingaza National natural park [Photograph]. Bases ecológicas y sociales para la restauración de los páramos. Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia. [ Ecological and Social bases for Paramo’s restoration. Faculty of Sciences, National University of Colombia].

Fig 40. Vargas-Ríos, O. (2021). Just burnt areas at Los Nevados national natural park [Photograph]. Bases ecológicas y sociales para la restauración de los páramos. Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia. [ Ecological and Social bases for Paramo’s restoration. Faculty of Sciences, National University of Colombia].

Fig 41. Vargas-Ríos, O. (2021). Extensive cattle farming at Paramo [Photograph]. Bases ecológicas y sociales para la restauración de los páramos. Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia. [ Ecological and Social bases for Paramo’s restoration. Faculty of Sciences, National University of Colombia].

Fig 42. Vargas-Ríos, O. (2021). Primary successions after volcanic eruptions at Los Nevados national natural park [Photograph]. Bases ecológicas y sociales para la restauración de los páramos. Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia. [ Ecological and Social bases for Paramo’s restoration. Faculty of Sciences, National University of Colombia].

Fig 43. Vargas-Ríos, O. (2021). Primary successions on rocks at La Chingaza National natural park [Photograph]. Bases ecológicas y sociales para la restauración de los páramos. Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia. [ Ecological and Social bases for Paramo’s restoration. Faculty of Sciences, National University of Colombia].

Fig 44. Gonzalez-Maya, J.F, et al, (2017). Frailejon valley [Photograph]. El oso andino en el macizo de Chingaza, Corporacion Autonoma Regional del Guavio, Bogota, D.C. Colombia Fig 47. Volcano adventures, (2023). Termales Parque de los Nevados [Thermals Los Nevados National Natural park [Online image]. [Accessed 29 Jun, 2023] Available from: https://www.instagram.com/p/ClPVo56OQpf/ Fig 48. Suescun, F, (2017). Paramo Chingaza [Photograph]. El oso andino en el macizo de Chingaza, Corporacion Autonoma Regional del Guavio, Bogota, D.C. Colombia NOTES: 01. Encyclopedia Britannica (2023) Ecotone [definition] [Online]. [Accessed 20 Jan, 2023]. Available from: https://www.britannica.com/science/ecotone 02. Science Direct (2023) Ecotone [definition] [Online]. [Accessed 22 Jun, 2023].

Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/nestedness

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Tatiana Vera Espinosa