BIODIVERSITY ASSESSMENT STUDY IN THE WINDSOR FOREST DIVISION, GALAMUDUNA ESTATE by Dilmah

BIODIVERSITY ASSESSMENT STUDY IN THE WINDSOR FOREST DIVISION, GALAMUDUNA ESTATE Dilmah Conservation 2025 MJF GROUP

Table of Contents THE STUDY TEAM............................................................................................................................ vi ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................................................. vii 1.

Introduction and Objective of the Study .................................................................................... 1 1.1. Study Area ................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2. Dilmah Conservation: A Commitment to Environmental Stewardship ....................................... 2

Methodology .................................................................................................................................. 4

Findings of The Study ................................................................................................................... 8 3.1. Descriptions on studied taxa groups ............................................................................................ 8 3.1.1 Summary of the species richness in each taxa group ............................................................. 8 3.1.2. Comparison of the number of recorded species in the study site with the number of species in Sri Lanka of each taxa group. ................................................................................................... 11 3.1.3. National Conservation States of Recorded Species ............................................................ 12 3.2. Fauna .......................................................................................................................................... 14 3.2.1. Amphibians ......................................................................................................................... 14 3.2.2. Fish...................................................................................................................................... 20 3.2.3. Reptiles ............................................................................................................................... 24 3.2.4. Mammals............................................................................................................................. 30 3.2.5. Birds .................................................................................................................................... 36 Migratory Bird Species ................................................................................................................. 42 3.2.6. Butterflies ............................................................................................................................ 45 3.2.7. Odonates (Damselflies and Dragonflies) ............................................................................ 49 3.2.8. Moths .................................................................................................................................. 53 3.3. Flowering Plants ........................................................................................................................ 55 3.4. Identified Main Habitat Types ................................................................................................... 75 3.4.1. Forest (Habitat 1) ................................................................................................................ 78 3.4.2. Grassland (Habitat 2) .......................................................................................................... 80 3.4.3. Streams (Habitat 3) ............................................................................................................. 82

Recommendations ....................................................................................................................... 87 4.1. Developing for Tourism ............................................................................................................. 87 4.1.1. Potential for Wildlife Observation Tourism ....................................................................... 87 4.1.2. Sessions on Wildlife Photography and Wildlife Art ........................................................... 93 4.1.3. Recommended Packages and Areas for Wildlife Observation Walks ................................ 94 4.1.4. Special Instructions for Wildlife Observation Walks ......................................................... 99 4.1.5. Potential Adventure Tourism Activities............................................................................ 101 4.1.6. Potential for Leisure and Mindfulness-Related Tourism Activities................................. 108 i

4.1.7. Potential for Cultural Tourism .......................................................................................... 109 4.1.8. Potential for Agro-tourism ................................................................................................ 110 4.1.9. Potential for other Types of Tourism ................................................................................ 112 4.2. Common Safety Measures for All Types of Tourism Activities ............................................. 113 4.2.1. Trail and Terrain Safety .................................................................................................... 113 4.2.2. Wildlife Interaction Safety ................................................................................................ 113 4.2.3. Health & Emergency Preparedness................................................................................... 116 4.2.4. Fire and Invasive Species Risk Management.................................................................... 117 4.2.5. Water Safety...................................................................................................................... 117 4.2.6. Waste Management and Hygiene...................................................................................... 118 4.2.7. Cultural Sensitivity and Community Safety ..................................................................... 118 4.2.8. Risk Waivers and Orientation ........................................................................................... 118 4.3 Conservation, Restoration, and Habitat Enrichment ................................................................. 119 4.3.1. Conserving Existing Natural Habitats ............................................................................... 119 4.3.2 Habitat Enrichment ............................................................................................................ 119 4.3.3. Restoring Degraded Habitats ............................................................................................ 119 4.4. Existing and Potential Threats and Mitigation Measures ........................................................ 121 4.4.1. Fire .................................................................................................................................... 121 4.4.2. Poaching............................................................................................................................ 123 4.4.3. Alien Invasive Species ...................................................................................................... 124 4.4.4. Environmental Pollution ................................................................................................... 131 References .......................................................................................................................................... 132 Annexures .......................................................................................................................................... 135 Annexure 1 - List of all the Recorded Amphibian Species ......................................................... 135 Annexure 2 - List of all the Recorded Fish Species .................................................................... 140 Annexure 3 - List of all the Recorded Reptile Species ............................................................... 141 Annexure 4 - List of all the Recorded Mammal Species ............................................................ 146 Annexure 5 - List of all the Recorded Bird Species.................................................................... 151 Annexure 6 - List of all the Recorded Butterfly Species ........................................................... 158 Annexure 7 - List of all the Recorded Odonate Species ............................................................. 165 Annexure 8 - List of all the Recorded Moth Species .................................................................. 168 Annexure 9 - List of all the Recorded Flowering Plant Species ................................................. 169

Tables Table 1: Summary of Recorded Species ............................................................................................... 10 Table 2: Number of recorded species in each taxa group, as a percentage of the total number of species recorded in each taxa group in the country............................................................................... 11 Table 3: Summary of National Conservation Status of recorded species. ............................................ 13 Table 4: Recorded Endemic and Nationally Threatened Amphibian Species ...................................... 15 Table 5: Fish Observation Locations .................................................................................................... 21 Table 6: The Recorded Fish Species and their Habitats ....................................................................... 21 Table 7: Recorded Endemic, Nationally Threatened and Near Threatened Reptile Species. ............... 25 Table 8: Recorded Endemic, Nationally Threatened and Near Threatened Mammal Species. ............ 32 Table 9: Recorded Endemic , Nationally Threatened and Near Threatened Bird Species ................... 38 Table 10: Recorded Migratory Bird Species and their Habitats. .......................................................... 42 Table 11: Recorded Endemic , Nationally Threatened and Near Threatened Butterfly Species. ......... 47 Table 12: Recorded Endemic, Nationally Threatened and near Threatened Butterfly Species. ........... 50 Table 13: Recorded Moth Species ........................................................................................................ 53 Table 14: Recorded Endemic, Nationally Threatened and Near Threatened Plant Species ................. 56 Table 15: Number of species recorded in each habitat ......................................................................... 77 Table 16: Alien Invasive Flora observed during the study ................................................................. 127 Table 17: Alien Invasive Fauna observed during the study ................................................................ 128

Maps Map 1: Study area ................................................................................................................................... 1 Map 2: Survey plan of Windsor Forest Division and Surrounding. ....................................................... 2 Map 3: Sampled paths during the field study and other important observation locations ...................... 5 Map 4: Fish Observation Locations ...................................................................................................... 21 Map 5: Habitats within and close to the study area .............................................................................. 75 Map 6: Surrounding of the study area and habitats .............................................................................. 76 Map 7: Stream habitats ......................................................................................................................... 86 Map 8: Map - Recommended areas/locations/trails for wildlife observation tours .............................. 94 Map 9: Recommended locations for fish and odonate observations..................................................... 98 Map 10: Cycling routes ....................................................................................................................... 104 Map 11: Existing and uprooted pinus plantations ............................................................................... 121

Figures Figure 1: Species Richness in each taxa group ....................................................................................... 9 Figure 2: Number of Nationally Threatened Species recorded. ............................................................ 13

Plates Plate 1: Field Work and Team ................................................................................................................ 7 Plate 2: Recorded Amphibian Species .................................................................................................. 19 Plate 3: Observed Freshwater Fish Species .......................................................................................... 23 Plate 4: Observed Reptile Species ........................................................................................................ 29 Plate 5: Sightings of Mammals ............................................................................................................ 35 Plate 6: Recorded Bird Species ............................................................................................................ 45 Plate 7: Recorded Butterfly Species ..................................................................................................... 48 iii

Plate 8: Recorded Damselflies and Dragonflies .................................................................................. 52 Plate 9: Recorded Moth Species .......................................................................................................... 54 Plate 10: Flora ...................................................................................................................................... 71 Plate 11: Forest - Habitat 1 ................................................................................................................... 79 Plate 12: Grassland – Habitat 2 ............................................................................................................ 81 Plate 13: Streams - Habitat 3 ................................................................................................................ 83 Plate 14: Birds and Birdwatching ......................................................................................................... 89 Plate 15: On Road cycling route and views on the way...................................................................... 102 Plate 16: Off-road cycling route and views ........................................................................................ 103 Plate 17: Views during mountain climbing......................................................................................... 105 Plate 18: Recommended location for swimming ................................................................................ 106 Plate 19: Coffee plantation.................................................................................................................. 111 Plate 20: Observed signages of the Department of Forest Conservation ............................................ 116 Plate 21: Pinus uprooted areas ............................................................................................................ 120 Plate 22: Impact of fire ....................................................................................................................... 123 Plate 23: Habit and distribution of Clusia rosea.................................................................................. 129 Plate 24: Other Alien Invasive plant species ...................................................................................... 130

Copyright © 2025 MJF Group Extracting information of this publication for educational, conservation or other noncommercial purposes is authorized with prior written consent from the copyright holder. Providing the source is fully acknowledged. Any kind of modification and republishing is strictly prohibited. Any use of this for commercial purposes could not be done without prior written consent of the copyright holder. Contact Email of the copyright holder: info@dilmahconservation.org Website: www.dilmahconservation.org Telephone: +94 11 4822139 Address: Dilmah Conservation & Sustainability, Dilmah Ceylon Tea Company PLC, 111, Negombo Road, Peliyagoda. Citation: Dilmah Conservation & Sustainability, Dilmah Ceylon Tea Company PLC.2025. Biodiversity Assessment Study in the Windsor Forest Division, Galamuduna Estate.

Ecological survey conducted and report produced by: Nature Conservation by Rukmal (NCR), BR # 01/8844 Contact details : biologistrukmal@gmail.com, +94 71 1315024 Photographs: Rukmal Ratnayake (RR) Nuwan Chathuranga (NC), Narmadha Dangampola (ND), Sanoj Wijayasekara (SW), Tharindu Ranasinghe (TR) Maps created by: Rukmal Ratnayake Acknowledgements: We extend our sincere gratitude to Dr.Tharaka Kusuminda for providing information on potential bat species.

THE STUDY TEAM Name

Qualifications and expertise

1.R.M.R. Rukmal Ratnayake (Team leader)

BSc. Biological Science (University of Colombo), Wildlife Biologist and Ecologist, Biodiversity Specialist, Wildlife Documentary Filmmaker, Natural History Artist, Wildlife Photographer, Nature Educator, Resource Person/Naturalist for Nature Exploration Field Visits/Wildlife Tours.

2.Dr.Himesh D. Jayasinghe

Ph.D. Plant Science, (University of Colombo), BSc.Engineering-University of Moratuwa, Fauna and Flora Specialist, Ecologist, Former Irrigation Engineer, Nature Educational Program Conductor, Wildlife Photographer

3.Ms.Narmada Dangampola

BSc. (Hons) in Zoology (University of Colombo), wetland management expert, Former Manager of Beddagana Wetland Park, Ecologist, Nature Educator

4.Mr.Nuwan C. Jayawardhana

Wildlife Guard – Department of Wildlife Conservation, Fauna and flora specialist, Field Ecologist, Wildlife Photographer

5.Mr.Sanoj Wijayasekara

B. Health Science (University of Colombo), Field ecologist, biodiversity specialist, Co-author of the book, "Snakes of Sri Lanka, 2023". Expert Committee Member of IUCN Red List Assessments of Amphibians And Reptiles.

6.Mr.Tharindu Ranasinghe

Field ecologist, biodiversity specialist, Commission Member, IUCN SSC Grasshopper Specialist Group South and East Asia 2021-2025 Researchgate profile. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/TharinduRanasinghe-2

ABBREVIATIONS AI

- Alien invasive

- Critically Endangered

- Data deficient

- Endemic

- Endangered

- Least Concern

- Native

NCS

- National Conservation Status

NCR

- Nature Conservation by Rukmal

- Not evaluated

- Near Threatened

- Vagrant

- Vulnerable

vii

1. Introduction and Objective of the Study

1.1. Study Area The Windsor Forest Division belongs to the Galamuduna Estate of the MJF Group. It is located in the Kegalle District of the Sabaragamuwa Province (7.082470°, 80.443082°) and is accessible via the Dedugala–Dolosbage road. Palampitiya Viewpoint, a well-known attraction, is situated near the study location. The elevation of the study area ranges from approximately 900 to 1150 meters above sea level. The area falls within the wet climatic zone of Sri Lanka, with an average annual temperature of around 25.2°C and an annual precipitation of approximately 2306 mm.

Map 1: Study area

Map 2: Survey plan of Windsor Forest Division and Surrounding. (The study area is marked in yellow border)

1.2. Dilmah Conservation: A Commitment to Environmental Stewardship Established in 2007, Dilmah Conservation was initiated as an environmental extension of the MJF Charitable Foundation, which primarily focuses on social justice. Rooted in the philosophy of “Business as a Matter of Human Service,” the initiative is guided by six core pillars: Quality, Tradition, Our Customer, Ethics, Integrity, and Sustainability. These principles are central to Dilmah’s approach to responsible enterprise and reflect its commitment to serving both society and the environment. Since its inception, Dilmah Conservation has actively promoted the sustainable use and protection of natural resources, working in collaboration with a wide range of partners. These include the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka (FOGSL), the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science (SLAAS), and several academic and professional institutions, including local universities. Source: https://www.dilmahconservation.org/ 2

The primary objective of conducting this biodiversity assessment study was to gather information for marketing purposes in tourism-related projects planned to be implemented in the study area by the MJF Group. Additionally, the findings of this study are useful for planning biodiversity conservation projects, habitat enrichment projects, reforestation projects, and alien invasive species management projects for the area, as well as for identifying other existing and potential threats and implementing mitigation measures. The findings will also support taxonomical and ecological studies.

2. Methodology A total of 8 major taxonomic groups were selected for the survey. They were birds, mammals, amphibians, reptiles, fish, butterflies, dragonflies, and flowering plants, which were well known and of general interest to scientists, relatively easy to survey systematically and identify, potentially valuable for long-term monitoring, and valuable as indicators of the status of biodiversity. As an additional taxa group, moths were studied, which were not that popular among ecological surveys, as the literature on distribution status and conservation status was still not adequate at the time of conducting this survey. The survey team was composed of 6 experts in each selected taxa group. The total effort of the survey was around 46 man-days, including both field work (46 man-days) and report writing (20 man-days). A pilot visit was conducted on 22.01.2025 to plan the survey. After planning, the field survey was conducted from 5th to 9th March 2025. Both daytime and night sampling sessions were conducted. Butterflies, dragonflies, fish, diurnal birds, and plants were the main focus of daytime sampling sessions. The main focus of the night sampling session was recording amphibians, reptiles, nocturnal birds, moths, and nocturnal mammals. All the major habitats were investigated and studied in detail. The species richness of the selected taxa was recorded. Visual encounter surveys were the practiced technique. The team walked along accessible paths covering all the visible habitats. The species encountered within the vicinity along the transects were taken into consideration. Both direct and indirect (scat, footprints, calls, fur, bones, etc.) observations were recorded. Any other observations of interest during the field visit were also recorded. Fish were captured with hand nets, observed, photographed, and released back to the same location.

Map 3: Sampled paths during the field study and other important observation locations

The blue lines in the below map show the paths which the team walked during the field study. These paths were recorded with the mobile Application ‘Geotracker’ using MI Redmi Note 10 Pro mobile phone. Not all the recorded fauna species in this report were directly or indirectly observed during the field visits. Some were recorded as ‘Potential species’ in the annexures/tables. The species recorded as ‘Potential species’ were those which were not observed directly or indirectly during the study, but there was a high possibility of their existence in the study area according to previous records in nearby similar habitats with similar elevations and the experience of the study team. Information gathered by interviewing local people and staff of the MJF Group was also considered. The potential species were marked separately in the species lists and tables. The ‘Potential species’ were taken into consideration when interpreting the findings. A Nikon Z8 camera with 180–600mm lens, 24–200mm lens, and 105mm macro lens, and two Canon R7 cameras with 100mm macro lenses were used for photography. Nikon Prostaff S7 binoculars and Nikon Monarch binoculars were used for observations. A Land Rover Series III station wagon was used for transport.

Capturing fish

Plant Survey

Photographing fish

Night Survey

Field Team

During the pilot visit conducted before the study.

Plate 1: Field Work and Team

3. Findings of The Study 3.1. Descriptions on studied taxa groups 3.1.1 Summary of the species richness in each taxa group

A total of 407 fauna species were recorded, including 277 vertebrates and 130 invertebrates. Among them, 185 species were recorded through direct or indirect observations, and 222 were recorded as potential species. The vertebrate species included 40 amphibians, 6 fish, 60 reptiles, 122 birds, and 48 mammals. The invertebrate species included 88 butterflies, 28 odonates (damselflies and dragonflies), and 14 moths. Considering their distribution status, among the recorded 407 fauna species, 140 were endemic to Sri Lanka, 229 were native species, 16 were introduced or migrant species, 7 had both native and migrant populations in Sri Lanka, 1 was an alien invasive species, and the distribution of 14 species (all recorded moths) was unknown. Birds were the taxonomic group with the highest number of species recorded (122), while fish had the lowest number of species recorded (6). A total of 275 flowering plant species were recorded, including 84 endemic species, 171 native species, and 20 introduced/exotic species. Table 1 shows the summary of recorded species.

Figure 1: Species Richness in each taxa group

Table 1: Summary of Recorded Species

(E-Endemic, N-Native, I/M - Introduced or Migrant, V-Vagrant, AI - Alien Invasive, U-Unknown) No. of Species #

Taxa Group

Total Observed Potential recorded species species species (A) (B) (A+B)

Distribution

I/M

N,M

U Total Vertebrates

Amphibians

Fish

Reptiles

Birds

122

Mammals

Butterflies

Moths

Odonates

185

222

407

140

229

Flowering Plants

275

171

Totals of fauna and flora

682

224

400

1 0 277

Total Invertebrates

14 130

Total Fauna 9

7 8

407 275

682

3.1.2. Comparison of the number of recorded species in the study site with the number of species in Sri Lanka of each taxa group. The number of species recorded in each well-known taxonomic group at the study site was compared with the total number of species recorded in Sri Lanka for each respective group, as shown in Table 2. The number of recorded moth species was excluded from this calculation. Although a total of six fish species were recorded, only five—those that were native and freshwater-dwelling—were included in the calculation. The remaining species were introduced and therefore omitted. This exclusion was due to the fact that the total number of inland brackish water and/or introduced fish species in Sri Lanka is still unknown. Only the total number of inland, freshwater-dwelling, native and endemic fish species (98) is accurately documented. Among the taxa groups, mammals had the highest percentage recorded at the study site (38.7%), while fish had the lowest (5.1%).

Table 2: Number of recorded species in each taxa group, as a percentage of the total number of species recorded in each taxa group in the country.

Taxa group

Approximate total Total number of number of species B as a percentage species recorded in of A (%) recorded in Sri the study location (B) Lanka (A)

Amphibians

112

35.7

Fish (Excluding NCS - NE species)

5.1

Reptiles

245

24.5

Birds

480

122

25.4

Mammals

124

39.5

Butterflies

248

35.5

Odonates

132

21.2

Total Fauna

1439

392

27.2

Total Flora

4400

275

6.3

Total

7278

1059

14.6

Vertebrates

Invertebrates

3.1.3. National Conservation States of Recorded Species Among the 407 recorded fauna species, 137 species (33.7%) were nationally threatened (classified as Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered) according to the latest National Conservation Status assessments for each taxonomic group. One amphibian species, Pseudophilautus hypomelas, was listed as Extinct (EX) in the 2012 national red list of amphibians but was rediscovered in 2013. Therefore, it is also considered a threatened species for the purposes of this report.

Of the 137 nationally threatened fauna species recorded, 51 were classified as Vulnerable (VU), 62 as Endangered (EN), 23 as Critically Endangered (CR), and 1 as Extinct (EX). In addition, 32 species were Near Threatened (NT), 205 were Least Concern (LC), 15 were Not Evaluated (NE), and 18 were Data Deficient (DD). All NE species were exotic, migrant, or alien invasive species.

Further studies are needed to determine the actual conservation status of the Data Deficient species, as some of them may qualify as threatened. The National Conservation Status of moth species in Sri Lanka has not been evaluated due to a lack of data. When analyzing the recorded species of each taxonomic group, amphibians had the highest percentage of nationally threatened species (82.5%), while butterflies had the lowest (13.6%). Amphibians (33 species) and reptiles (32 species) were the groups with the highest number of nationally threatened species recorded. Among the 275 flowering plant species recorded, 81 species (29.5%) were nationally threatened, including 49 Vulnerable species, 30 Endangered species, and 2 Critically Endangered species. Additionally, 37 were Near Threatened, 125 were Least Concern, 20 were Not Evaluated (all exotic species, including one alien invasive species), and 12 were Data Deficient.

Figure 2: Number of Nationally Threatened Species recorded.

Table 3: Summary of National Conservation Status of recorded species.

(DD - Data Deficient, NE - Not Evaluated, LC - Least Concern, NT - Near Threatened, VU Vulnerable, EN - Endangered, CR - Critically Endangered, EX - Extint)

# EX (as # Threatened Threatened mentioned in sp in each taxa # Recorded sp of each X as a % species Taxa group DD NE LC NT the last IUCN group taxa group of Y (NCS) National red (VU+EN+CR= (Y) list) X) VU EN CR

1 Amphibians

12 12

2 Fish

3 Reptiles

4 Birds

5 Mammals

82.5

33.3

10 17

50.0

14 75 14

122

15.6

53.1

6 Butterflies

13.6

7 Moths

8 Dragonflies

53.6

137

407

33.7

275

29.5

Total (Fauna 30 35 330 69 100 92 25 and Flora

218

682

63.1

0 0

Totals Fauna 18 15 205 32 51 62 23 Flowering 9 plants

12 20 125 37 49 30

3.2. Fauna

3.2.1. Amphibians A total of 40 amphibian species were recorded during the study. Of these, 22 species were recorded through direct and indirect observations, while 18 were identified as potential species. Among all recorded species, 36 were endemic and 4 were native. A total of 33 species were nationally threatened (including one species that had been considered Extinct [EX] in the 2012 National Red List of Amphibians). Two species were classified as Near Threatened (NT), four as Least Concern (LC), and one as Data Deficient (DD). A total of 34 species were recorded in Habitat 1 (Forest), 6 in Habitat 2 (Grassland), and 13 in Habitat 3 (Streams). However, not all species were restricted to a single habitat; some were recorded in more than one. Further details are available in the full checklist in Annexure 1. The recorded amphibians include: ● 2 species of toads (Family: Bufonidae), ● 4 species of fork-tongued frogs (Family: Dicroglossidae), ● 2 species of narrow-mouthed frogs (Family: Microhylidae), ● 1 species of wrinkled frog (Family: Nyctibatrachidae), ● 2 species of true frogs (Family: Ranidae), ● 28 species of Afro-Asian tree frogs (Family: Rhacophoridae), including 2 tree frogs of the genus Taruga and 26 shrub frogs of the genus Pseudophilautus, ● 1 species of Asiatic tailed caecilian (Family: Ichthyophiidae). The full checklist is provided in Annexure 1. The recorded endemic and nationally threatened species, along with their habitat associations, are listed in Table 4.

Table 4: Recorded Endemic and Nationally Threatened Amphibian Species

Habitat 1 #

Family

Scientific Name

Common English Name

Distribution

NCS 2012

GCS

Habitat 3

Observed Potential Observed Potential Observed Potential species species species species species species

1 Bufonidae

Adenomus kelaartii

Kelaart's dwarf toad

2 Dicroglossidae

Minervarya kirtisinghei

Kirtisinghe's frog

3 Dicroglossidae

Nannophrys ceylonensis

Sri Lankan rock frog

4 Microhylidae

Microhyla zeylanica

Sri Lanka Narrow mouthed frog

5 Microhylidae

Uperodon obscurus

Ceylonese Narrow-mouthed Frog

6 Nyctibatrachidae

Lankanectes corrugatus

Corrugated water frog

7 Ranidae

Indosylvirana temporalis

Günther's Golden-Backed Frog

8 Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus alto Horton Plains shrub frog

9 Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus asankai

Asanka's shrub frog

10 Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus auratus

Golden shrub frog

11 Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus caeruleus

Blue thigh shrub frog

Habitat 2

1 1 1

1 1

1 1 1

Habitat 1 #

Family

Scientific Name

Common English Name

Distribution

NCS 2012

GCS

Habitat 3

Observed Potential Observed Potential Observed Potential species species species species species species

12 Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus cavirostris

Hollow-snouted shrub frog

13 Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus femoralis

Leaf-nesting shrub

14 Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus fergusonianus

Ferguson's shrub

15 Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus folicola

Leaf dwelling shrub

16 Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus fulvus

Knuckles shrub frog

17 Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus hypomelas

Webless shrub frog

18 Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus microtympanum

Small eared shrub frog

19 Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus mittermeieri

Mittermeier's shrub frog

20 Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus nemus

Whistling shrub frog

21 Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus pleurotaenia

Side-striped shrub frog

22 Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus popularis

Common shrub frog

Habitat 2

1 1

Habitat 1 #

Family

Scientific Name

Common English Name

Distribution

NCS 2012

GCS

Reticulated thigh shrub frog

Habitat 3

Observed Potential Observed Potential Observed Potential species species species species species species

23 Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus reticulatus

24 Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus rus Kandian shrub frog

25 Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus sarasinorum

Muller's shrub frog

26 Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus schmarda

Schmarda's shrub frog

27 Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus schneideri

Schneider's shrub frog

28 Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus semiruber

Annandale's shrub frog

29 Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus singu

Horned shrub frog

30 Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus sordidus

Grubby shrub frog

31 Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus stictomerus

Orange canthal shrub frog

32 Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus viridis

Dull-green shrub frog

33 Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus zorro

Gannoruwa shrub frog

34 Rhacophoridae

Taruga eques

Mountain hourglass tree frog

Habitat 2

1 1

1 1 1

Habitat 1 #

Family

Scientific Name

Common English Name

Distribution

NCS 2012

GCS

35 Rhacophoridae

Taruga longinasus

Long-snouted tree frog

36 Ichthyophiidae

Ichthyophis glutinosus

Ceylon caecilian

Habitat 3

Observed Potential Observed Potential Observed Potential species species species species species species

1 1 18

Habitat 2

1 4

Plate 2: Recorded Amphibian Species

Long-snouted tree frog (RR)

Pseudophilautus femoralis (SW)

Nannophrys ceylonensis (SW)

Pseudophilautus sarasinorum (SW)

Minervarya kirtisinghei (RR)

Pseudophilautus cavirostris (RR)

Pseudophilautus auratus (SW)

Pseudophilautus reticulatus (SW)

Uperodon obscurus (SW)

Pseudophilautus sordidus (SW)

3.2.2. Fish

A total of six freshwater fish species were recorded during the study. All were captured using hand nets, photographed inside a glass tank, and safely released back into the same location. Among the recorded species, four were endemic, one was native, and one was an exotic, alien invasive species. Two species were nationally threatened, two were classified as Near Threatened (NT), and one was listed as Least Concern (LC). All these species were recorded in streams (Habitat 3) located below 1,000 m elevation, outside the designated study area. Specifically, all the fish were observed in Digolanda Oya and a few others in several smaller streams labeled as Small Stream 1, 2, 3, and 4 in Map 4. Although these habitats lie outside the main study area, they are relevant for fish observations, as the streams are fed by rainwater runoff from the forest within the study area. This 20

establishes a direct ecological connection between the habitat quality of the study area and the adjacent stream systems. The recorded fish species and their habitats are included in Table 6.

Map 4: Fish Observation Locations

Table 5: Fish Observation Locations

No. of the Fish Observation Location

Lat

Long

Location

7.079260°

80.457844°

Digolanda Oya

7.095268°

80.451304°

Small stream 3

7.081601°

80.453598°

Small stream 1

7.079945°

80.454516°

Small stream 1

7.085195°

80.431320°

Small stream 2

Common English name

NCS Distribution 2020

Table 6: The Recorded Fish Species and their Habitats

Family

Scientific Name

Channidae

Channa orientalis

Smooth-breasted snakehead

Danionidae

Devario malabaricus

Giant danio

Cyprinidae

Garra ceylonensis

Stone sucker

Banded mountain loach

Osphronemidae Belontia signata

Combtail

Poeciliidae

Guppy

Nemacheilidae

5 6

Schistura notostigma

Poecilia reticulata

Photographing captured fish at the same location. (ND)

Plate 3: Observed Freshwater Fish Species

Belontia signata (NC)

Channa orientalis (RR)

Devario malabaricus (RR)

Schistura notostigma (RR)

Garra ceylonensis (RR)

Poecilia reticulata (SW)

3.2.3. Reptiles A total of 60 reptile species were recorded during the study. Of these, 8 species were recorded through direct and indirect observations, while 52 were identified as potential species. Among all recorded species, 44 were endemic and 16 were native. Thirty species were nationally threatened, 2 were Near Threatened (NT), 25 were classified as Least Concern (LC), and 3 were Data Deficient (DD). A total of 43 species were recorded in Habitat 1 (Forest), 15 in Habitat 2 (Grassland), and 4 in Habitat 3 (Streams). However, not all species were restricted to a single habitat—some were observed in more than one. Further details can be found in the full checklist in Annexure 3.

The recorded reptiles include: ● 7 species of agamid/dragon lizards (Family: Agamidae), ● 5 species of typical geckos (Family: Gekkonidae), ● 11 species of skinks across several families: Scincidae (1 species), Mabuyidae (3 species), Ristellidae (6 species), and Lygosomidae (1 species), ● 2 species of monitor lizards (Family: Varanidae), ● 35 species of snakes from the following families: ○ Pythonidae (1 species), ○ Cylindrophiidae (1 species), ○ Colubridae (22 species), ○ Elapidae (2 species), ○ Typhlopidae (1 species), ○ Uropeltidae (3 species), ○ Viperidae (5 species).

The recorded endemic and nationally threatened species, along with their associated habitats, are presented in Table 7.

Table 7: Recorded Endemic, Nationally Threatened and Near Threatened Reptile Species.

Habitat 1 Habitat 2 Habitat 3 NCS GCS Observed Potentia Observed Potentia Observed Potentia 2012 species l species species l species species l species

Scientific Name

Common English Name

Agamidae

Calotes liocephalus

Crestless lizard

Agamidae

Ceratophora stoddartii

Rhinohorn lizard

Agamidae

Cophotis ceylanica Pygmy lizard

Agamidae

Lyriocephalus scutatus

Lyre head lizard / Hump snouted lizard

Agamidae

Otocryptis wiegmanni

Sri Lankan kangaroo lizard

Gekkonidae

Cnemaspis pava

Little day gecko

Gekkonidae

Cyrtodactylus fraenatus

Great forest gecko

Gekkonidae

Cyrtodactylus triedra

Spotted bowfinger gecko

Gekkonidae

Hemiphyllodactylus Slender gecko typus

10 Scincidae

Nessia monodactylus

Toeless snakeskink

11 Mabuyidae

Eutropis lankae

Common skink

12 Mabuyidae

Eutropis greeri

Greer's skink

13 Mabuyidae

Eutropis madaraszi

Spotted skink

Family

Distribution

DD VU

1 1

1 1 1

Habitat 1 Habitat 2 Habitat 3 NCS GCS Observed Potentia Observed Potentia Observed Potentia 2012 species l species species l species species l species

Scientific Name

Common English Name

14 Ristellidae

Lankascincus dorsicatenatus

Catenated litter skink

15 Ristellidae

Lankascincus fallax

Common lankaskink

16 Ristellidae

Lankascincus gansi

Gans’s lankaskink

17 Ristellidae

Lankascincus sripadensis

Sripada forest skink

18 Ristellidae

Lankascincus taprobanensis

Smooth lanka skink

19 Ristellidae

Lankascincus taylori

Taylor’s lanka skink

20 Cylindrophidae

Cylindrophis maculata

Pipe snake

21 Colubridae

Ahaetulla nasuta

Green vine snake

22 Colubridae

Boiga barnesii

Barnes’s cat snake

23 Colubridae

Boiga ceylonensis

Sri Lanka cat snake

24 Colubridae

Boiga ranawanei

Ranawan's cat snake

25 Colubridae

Dendrelaphis caudolineolatus

Gunther’s bronze back

26 Colubridae

Dendrelaphis schokari

Schokari’s bronze back

Family

Distribution

1 1 1

Scientific Name

Common English Name

Distribution

27 Colubridae

Dendrelaphis wickrorum

Wickramasinghe's bronze back

28 Colubridae

Lycodon carinata

Sri Lanka wolf snake

29 Colubridae

Oligodon calamarius

Templeton’s kukri snake

30 Colubridae

Oligodon sublineatus

31 Colubridae

Family

Habitat 1 Habitat 2 Habitat 3 NCS GCS Observed Potentia Observed Potentia Observed Potentia 2012 species l species species l species species l species NE

Dumerul’s kuki snake

Aspidura brachyorrhos

Boie’s roughside

32 Colubridae

Aspidura ceylonensis

Black spine snake / Mould snake

33 Colubridae

Aspidura copei

Cope’s roughside

34 Colubridae

Aspidura drummondhayi

Drummond – Hay’s roughside

35 Colubridae

Aspidura trachyprocta

Common roughside

36 Colubridae

Fowlea asperrima

Sri Lanka keelback watersnake

37 Colubridae

Fowlea unicolor

Tikiri Keelback

38 Colubridae

Rhabdophis ceylonensis

Sri Lanka Blossom Krait

39 Elapidae

Bungarus ceylonicus

Sri Lanka krait / Ceylon krait

40 Uropeltidae

Rhinophis blythii

Blyth’s earth snake

Habitat 1 Habitat 2 Habitat 3 NCS GCS Observed Potentia Observed Potentia Observed Potentia 2012 species l species species l species species l species

Scientific Name

Common English Name

Distribution

41 Uropeltidae

Rhinophis homolepis

Kelaarts earth snake

42 Uropeltidae

Rhinophis melanogaster

Black shield tail

43 Viperidae

Hypnale nepa

Millard’s humpnosed viper

44 Viperidae

Hypnale zara

Stripe-necked humpnosed viper

45 Viperidae

Peltopelor trigonocephalus

Green pit viper

Family

1 1 7

Plate 4: Observed Reptile Species

Cyrtodactylus triedra (RR)

Hypnale zara (SW)

Cnemaspis sp (RR)

Indotyphlops braminus (SW)

Lyriocephalus scutatus (RR)

Otocryptis wiegmanni (RR) 29

3.2.4. Mammals

A total of 49 mammal species were recorded during the study. Of these, 15 species were observed directly or indirectly, while 34 were identified as potential species. Among all recorded species, 15 were endemic and 33 were native. Twenty-six species were nationally threatened, 3 were Near Threatened (NT), and 19 were classified as Least Concern (LC). A total of 47 species were recorded in Habitat 1 (Forest), 22 in Habitat 2 (Grassland), and 2 in Habitat 3 (Streams). However, not all species were confined to a single habitat; some were observed in more than one. Further details can be found in the full checklist in Annexure 4. The recorded mammals include: ● Indian Pangolin (Family: Manidae), ● 5 shrew species (Family: Soricidae), ● 5 insectivorous bat species from the families: ○ Hipposideridae (2 species), ○ Rhinolophidae (1 species), ○ Miniopteridae (1 species), ○ Vespertilionidae (1 species), ● 4 fruit bat species (Family: Pteropodidae), ● 2 monkey species (Family: Cercopithecidae), ● Red Slender Loris (Family: Lorisidae), ● 3 Cat species (Family: Felidae), ● 4 Mongoose species (Family: Herpestidae), ● Otter (Family: Mustelidae), ● 3 Civet species (Family: Viverridae), ● 2 Deer species (Family: Cervidae), ● Wild Boar (Family: Suidae), ● Sri Lanka Pygmy Mouse-Deer / Yellow-striped Chevrotain (Family: Tragulidae), ● Indian Crested Porcupine (Family: Hystricidae), ● 8 species of rats and mice (Family: Muridae), ● 6 squirrel species (Family: Sciuridae), ● Indian Hare (Family: Leporidae).

The full checklist is provided in Annexure 4. The recorded endemic and nationally threatened species, along with their habitats, are listed in the Table 8.

Table 8: Recorded Endemic, Nationally Threatened and Near Threatened Mammal Species.

Family

Scientific Name

Common English Name

Habitat 1 Habitat 2 Habitat 3 NCS Distribution GCS Observed Potential Observed Potential Observed Potential 2012 species species species species species species

Manidae

Manis crassicaudata

Indian Pangolin

Soricidae

Crocidura miya

Sri Lanka long-tailed shrew

CR EN

Soricidae

Feroculus feroculus

Kelaart’s long-clawed shrew

Soricidae

Solisorex pearsoni

Sri Lanka Pearson’s long-clawed shrew

CR EN

Soricidae

Suncus fellowesgordoni

Sri Lanka pigmy shrew

Soricidae

Suncus montanus

Sri Lanka Highland shrew

EN VU

Hipposideridae

Hipposideros srilankaensis

Sri Lanka leaf-nosed bat

VU LC

Pteropodidae

Cynopterus brachyotis

Lesser dog-nosed fruit bat

Vespertillionidae

Pipistrellus ceylonicus

Kelaart’s pipistrel

Toque Macaque

10 Cercopithecidae Macaca sinica 11 Cercopithecidae

Semnopithecus Purple-faced Langur vetulus

Habitat 1 Habitat 2 Habitat 3 NCS Distribution GCS Observed Potential Observed Potential Observed Potential 2012 species species species species species species

Scientific Name

Common English Name

12 Lorisidae

Loris tardigradus

Red Slender Loris

VU CR

13 Felidae

Panthera pardus

Leopard

EN VU

14 Felidae

Prionailurus rubiginosus

Rusty-spotted cat

15 Felidae

Prionailurus viverrinus

Fishing cat

EN VU

16 Herpestidae

Urva vitticolla

Stripe-necked or badger mongoose

17 Mustelidae

Lutra lutra

Otter

VU NT

18 Viverridae

Paradoxurus zeylonensis

Golden Palm Civet

19 Cervidae

Rusa unicolor

Sambur

NT VU

20 Cervidae

Muntiacus muntjak

Barking deer/Southern Red Muntjac

21 Tragulidae

Moschiola kathygre

Sri Lanka pygmy mouse-deer/Yellowstriped Chevrotain

VU LC

22 Muridae

Golunda ellioti

Indian Bush-rat

23 Muridae

Rattus montanus

Sri Lankan Mountain Rat

CR EN

24 Muridae

Srilankamys ohiensis

Ohiya Rat

EN VU

Family

1 1 1

Habitat 1 Habitat 2 Habitat 3 NCS Distribution GCS Observed Potential Observed Potential Observed Potential 2012 species species species species species species

Scientific Name

Common English Name

25 Muridae

Vandeleuria nolthenii

Sri Lankan Highland Tree Mouse

CR EN

26 Muridae

Vandeleuria oleracea

Asiatic Long-tailed Climbing Mouse

27 Sciuridae

Petaurista philippensis

Indian Giant Flying Squirrel

28 Sciuridae

Petinomys fuscocapillus

Small flying squirrel

29 Sciuridae

Funambulus layardi

Layard's Palm Squirrel

VU VU

30 Sciuridae

Funambulus obscurus

Dusky-striped jungle squirrel

VU VU

Family

1 9

Plate 5: Sightings of Mammals (RR)

Signs of sambar deer

Purple-faced leaf monkey

Scat of Otter

Scat of palm civet species (Golden palm civet or Common Palm Civet)

Scat of a small wild cat species (Fishing cat or rusty spotted cat)

Scat of fishing cat

Pellets of barking deer

A den of Pangolin

3.2.5. Birds A total of 122 bird species were recorded during the study. Of these, 70 were observed directly or indirectly, while 52 were identified as potential species. Among all recorded bird species, 20 were endemic, 81 were native, 14 were pure migrants, and 7 had both native and migrant populations. Nineteen species were nationally threatened, 14 were Near Threatened (NT), 75 were Least Concern (LC), and 14 were Not Evaluated (NE). A total of 109 species were recorded in Habitat 1 (Forest), 21 in Habitat 2 (Grassland), and 8 in Habitat 3 (Streams). However, not all species were confined to a single habitat; some were recorded in more than one. Full details are provided in the checklist in Annexure 5. The recorded bird species included both terrestrial and wetland-associated birds. Eight wetland-associated bird species were recorded in Habitat 3, including the White-breasted Waterhen, Black Bittern, Little Cormorant, Oriental Dwarf Kingfisher, and Grey Wagtail. 36

The remaining 101 bird species were terrestrial and inhabited forests and grasslands. These included: ● 2 Fowl species (Family: Phasianidae), ● 11 Diurnal raptors (Family: Falconidae – 1 species; Accipitridae – 10 species), ● 5 Pigeon species (Family: Columbidae), ● 1 Parrot and 4 parakeet species (Family: Psittacidae), ● 6 Cuckoo species (Family: Cuculidae), ● 6 Owl species (Family: Strigidae), ● 4 Swift species (Family: Apodidae), ● Malabar Trogon (Family: Trogonidae), ● 3 Kingfisher species (Family: Alcedinidae), ● Blue-tailed Bee-eater (Family: Meropidae), ● Sri Lanka Grey Hornbill (Family: Bucerotidae), ● 3 Barbet species (Family: Megalaimidae), ● 4 Woodpecker species (Family: Picidae), ● Ashy Woodswallow (Family: Artamidae), ● Common Iora (Family: Aegithinidae), ● Bar-winged Flycatcher-shrike (Family: Vangidae), ● 2 Minivet species and Black-headed Cuckooshrike (Family: Campephagidae), ● Brown Shrike (Family: Laniidae), ● Black-hooded Oriole (Family: Oriolidae), ● White-bellied Drongo (Family: Dicruridae), ● White-browed Fantail (Family: Rhipiduridae), ● 2 flycatcher species (Family: Monarchidae), ● Indian Jungle Crow (Family: Corvidae), ● Cinereous Tit (Family: Paridae), ● 2 Swallow species (Family: Hirundinidae), ● 5 Prinia species (Family: Cisticolidae), ● 5 Bulbul species (Family: Pycnonotidae), among others. The full checklist is provided in Annexure 5. The recorded endemic and nationally threatened species and their habitats are presented in Table 9.

Table 9: Recorded Endemic , Nationally Threatened and Near Threatened Bird Species

Habitat 1 Habitat 2 Habitat 3 NCS Distribution GCS Observed Potential Observed Potential Observed Potential 2012 species species species species species species

Family

Scientific Name Common English name

Phasianidae

Galloperdix bicalcarata

Sri Lanka Spurfowl

VU LC

Phasianidae

Gallus lafayettii

Sri Lanka Junglefowl

Falconidae

Falco peregrinus

Shaheen Falcon/Peregrine Falcon

N,M

Accipitridae

Pernis ptilorhyncus

Oriental Honey-buzzard

N,M

VU NA

Accipitridae

Accipiter trivirgatus

Crested Goshawk

Accipitridae

Accipiter virgatus

Besra

Accipitridae

Ictinaetus malayensis

Black Eagle

Accipitridae

Lophotriorchis kienerii

Rufous-bellied Eagle

Accipitridae

Nisaetus kelaarti

Legge's hawk-eagle, (AKA: Mountain Hawkeagle)

10 Columbidae

Columba torringtoniae

Sri Lanka Woodpigeon

VU VU

11 Columbidae

Treron pompadora

Sri Lanka Greenpigeon

1 1

Family

Scientific Name Common English name

Habitat 1 Habitat 2 Habitat 3 NCS Distribution GCS Observed Potential Observed Potential Observed Potential 2012 species species species species species species

12 Psittacidae

Loriculus beryllinus

Sri Lanka Hanging parrot

13 Psittacidae

Psittacula calthropae

Sri Lanka Emeraldcollared Parakeet

14 Cuculidae

Hierococcyx varius

Common Hawk-cuckoo

N,M

VU NA

15 Cuculidae

Cuculus micropterus

Indian Cuckoo

N,M

16 Strigidae

Otus sunia

Oriental Scops-owl

17 Strigidae

Bubo nipalensis

Spot-bellied Eagle-owl

18 Strigidae

Strix leptogrammica

Brown Wood-owl

19 Strigidae

Ninox scutulata

Brown Hawk-owl/ Brown Boobook

20 Apodidae

Aerodramus unicolor

Indian Swiftlet

21 Apodidae

Apus melba

Alpine Swift

22 Trogonidae

Harpactes fasciatus

Malabar Trogon

23 Alcedinidae

Ceyx erithaca

Oriental Dwarf kingfisher/ Blackbacked/Kingfisher

1 1

Family

Scientific Name Common English name

Habitat 1 Habitat 2 Habitat 3 NCS Distribution GCS Observed Potential Observed Potential Observed Potential 2012 species species species species species species

24 Meropidae

Merops philippinus

Blue-tailed Bee-eater

25 Bucerotidae

Ocyceros gingalensis

Sri Lanka Grey Hornbill

26 Megalaimidae

Psilopogon flavifrons

Sri Lanka Yellowfronted Barbet

27 Megalaimidae

Psilopogon rubricapillus

Sri Lanka Barbet

28 Picidae

Picus chlorolophus

Lesser Yellownape

29 Picidae

Dinopium psarodes

Sri Lanka Lesser Flameback

30 Picidae

Chrysocolaptes Sri Lanka Greater stricklandi Flameback

31 Artamidae

Artamus fuscus

Ashy Woodswallow

32 Hirundinidae

Cecropis hyperythra

Sri Lanka Swallow

33 Pycnonotidae

Pycnonotus melanicterus

Sri Lanka Blackcapped Bulbul

34 Pellorneidae

Pellorneum fuscocapillus

Sri Lanka Browncapped Babbler

35 Timaliidae

Pomatorhinus melanurus

Sri Lanka Scimitar babbler

36 Leiotrichidae

Turdoides rufes

Sri Lanka Orange billed Babbler

1 1

Family

Scientific Name Common English name

Habitat 1 Habitat 2 Habitat 3 NCS Distribution GCS Observed Potential Observed Potential Observed Potential 2012 species species species species species species

37 Zosteropidae

Zosterops ceylonensis

Sri Lanka White-eye

VU LC

38 Sturnidae

Gracula ptilogenys

Sri Lanka Myna

VU NT

39 Turdidae

Geocache spiloptera

Sri Lanka Spot-winged Thrush

VU NT

40 Turdidae

Turdus simillimus

Indian Blackbird

41 Stenostiridae

Culicicapa ceylonensis

Grey-headed Canaryflycatcher

42 Dicaeidae

Dicaeum vincens

Sri Lanka White throated Flowerpecker

43 Estrildidae

Lonchura kelaarti

Black-throated Munia

44 Estrildidae

Lonchura malacca

Tricoloured Munia

Totals

1 1 1 25

Migratory Bird Species The Table 10 lists the recorded migratory bird species. Some of these are pure migrants (M), while others are species that have both resident/native and migratory populations in Sri Lanka. Table 10: Recorded Migratory Bird Species and their Habitats.

Habitat 1- Forest #

Family

Scientific Name

Common English Name

1 Ardeidae

Ixobrychus flavicollis

Black Bittern

2 Falconidae

Falco peregrinus

3 Accipitridae

Distribution

NCS GCS 2021 2021

N,M

Shaheen Falcon/Peregrine Falcon

N,M

Pernis ptilorhyncus

Oriental Honeybuzzard

N,M

4 Accipitridae

Buteo buteo

Common/ Eurasian Buzzard

5 Cuculidae

Hierococcyx varius

Common Hawkcuckoo

N,M

6 Cuculidae

Cuculus micropterus

Indian Cuckoo

N,M

7 Cuculidae

Cacomantis passerinus

Grey-bellied Cuckoo

Observed during the study

Habitat 2-grassland

Previous records/ Observed Potential sp

Previous records/ Potential sp

Habitat 3-streams

Observed

Previous records/ Potential sp 1

1 1 1

Habitat 1- Forest #

Family

Scientific Name

Common English Name

Distribution

Blue-tailed Beeeater

8 Meropidae

Merops philippinus

9 Laniidae

Lanius cristatus Brown Shrike

10 Monarchidae

Terpsiphone paradisi

N,M

11 Hirundinidae

Hirundo rustica Barn Swallow

Asian Paradiseflycatcher

NCS GCS 2021 2021

Previous records/ Observed Potential sp

1 1

Acrocephalus 12 Acrocephalidae dumetorum

Blyth's Reedwarbler

Phylloscopus 13 Phylloscopidae trochiloides

Greenish Warbler

Phylloscopus 14 Phylloscopidae magnirostris

Large-billed Leafwarbler

15 Turdidae

Geokichla citrina

Orange-headed Thrush

16 Muscicapidae

Larvivora brunnea

Indian Blue Robin

17 Muscicapidae

Muscicapa dauurica

Asian Brown Flycatcher

18 Muscicapidae

Muscicapa muttui

Brown-breasted Flycatcher

19 Motacillidae

Dendronanthus indicus Forest Wagtail

20 Motacillidae

Motacilla

Grey Wagtail

Observed during the study

Habitat 2-grassland Previous records/ Potential sp

Habitat 3-streams

Observed

Previous records/ Potential sp

1 1 1 1 1 1

Habitat 1- Forest #

Family

Scientific Name

Common English Name

Distribution

NCS GCS 2021 2021

Observed during the study

Habitat 2-grassland

Previous records/ Observed Potential sp

Habitat 3-streams

Previous records/ Potential sp

Observed

Previous records/ Potential sp

cinerea 21 Pittidae

Pitta brachyura Indian Pitta

1 10

Plate 6: Recorded Bird Species (RR)

Square-tailed Bulbul/Asian Black Bulbul (RR)

Sri Lanka Blackcapped Bulbul (RR)

Oriental honey buzzard

Emerald dove nest

3.2.6. Butterflies A total of 88 butterfly species were recorded during the study. Of these, 37 were recorded through direct and indirect observations, while 51 were recorded as potential species. Among all the recorded species, 9 were endemic, 78 were native, and 1 species (the Orange Migrant)

was introduced. In terms of conservation status, 12 species were nationally threatened, 5 were Near Threatened (NT), and 71 were classified as Least Concern (LC). A total of 34 species were recorded in Habitat 1 (Forest), and 71 species were recorded in Habitat 2 (Grassland). Not all species were restricted to a single habitat—some were recorded in more than one. Further details can be found in the full checklist in Annexure 6. The recorded species include, ● 11 Swallowtail butterflies from the family Papilionidae, ● 10 species from the family Pieridae, ● 32 brush-footed butterflies from the family Nymphalidae, ● 23 species from the family Lycaenidae, ● Plum Judy from the family Riodinidae, ● and 11 skippers from the family Hesperiidae. The full checklist is provided in Annexure 6.

Table 11: Recorded Endemic , Nationally Threatened and Near Threatened Butterfly Species.

Habitat 1 Scientific Name

NCS Distribution 2012

Common English name

GCS

Habitat 2

Family

Papilionidae

Troides darsius

Sri Lankan Birdwing

Papilionidae

Pachliopta jophon

Sri Lankan Rose

Papilionidae

Papilio helenus

Red Helen

Pieridae

Appias galene

Sri Lankan Lesser Albatross

Nymphalidae

Idea iasonia

Sri Lankan Tree-Nymph

Nymphalidae

Vindula erota

Cruiser

Nymphalidae

Kallima philarchus

Sri Lankan Blue Oak Leaf

Nymphalidae

Pantoporia hordonia

Common Lascar

Nymphalidae

Charaxes psaphon

Tawny Rajah

Nymphalidae

Melanitis phedima

Dark Evening Brown

Nymphalidae

Ypthima singala

Sri Lankan Jewel Four-ring

Nymphalidae

Elymnias singhala

Sri Lankan Palmfly

Lycaenidae

Cheritra freja

Common Imperial

Lycaenidae

Deudorix epijarbas

Cornelian

Lycaenidae

Jamides lacteata

Sri Lankan Milky Cerulean

Lycaenidae

Acytolepis lilacea

Hampson's Hedge Blue

Hesperiidae

Baracus vittatus

Sri Lankan Hedge Hopper

Hesperiidae

Notocrypta curvifascia

Restricted Demon

Hesperiidae

Pelopidas agna

Little Branded Swift

Observed species

Potential species

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8

Potential species

Plate 7: Recorded Butterfly Species (NC)

Sri Lankan Jewel Four-ring

Sri Lankan Tree-Nymph

Yamfly

Sri Lankan Hedge Hopper

Common Imperial

Sri Lankan Birdwing

Narrow-banded Bluebottle

Red Helen

3.2.7. Odonates (Damselflies and Dragonflies) A total of 28 odonate species were recorded during the study. Of these, 13 species were observed directly or indirectly, while 15 were recorded as potential species. Among all the recorded species, 12 were endemic, 15 were native, and 1 species had both native and migrant populations. In terms of conservation status, 15 species were nationally threatened, 4 were Near Threatened (NT), and 9 were classified as Least Concern (LC). A total of 13 species were recorded in Habitat 1 (Forest), 15 in Habitat 2 (Grassland), and 18 in Habitat 3 (Streams). Not all species were restricted to a single habitat—some were recorded in more than one. Detailed information can be found in the full checklist in Annexure 7. The recorded species included 13 damselflies: ● 2 species from the family Calopterygidae, ● 1 from Chlorocyphidae, 1 from Euphaeidae, ● 1 from Lestidae, 1 from Coenagrionidae, ● 4 from Platycnemididae, ● 3 from Platystictidae. The remaining 15 species were dragonflies: ● 1 species from the family Gomphidae, ● 1 from Macromiidae ● 13 from Libellulidae. The full checklist is provided in Annexure 7.

Table 12: Recorded Endemic, Nationally Threatened and near Threatened Butterfly Species.

Habitat 1 #

Family

Calopterygidae

Scientific Name

Neurobasis chinensis chinensis

Common English name

NCS Distribution GCS 2012

Habitat 3

Observed Potential Observed Potential Observed Potential species species species species species species

Oriental Green-wing

Calopterygidae Vestails nigrescens

Black-tipped Flashwing

Chlorocyphidae Libellago finalis

Ultima Gem

Euphaeidae

Euphaea splendens

Shining Gossamerwing

Lestidae

Indolestes divisus

Metallic-backed Reedling

Platycnemididae Elattoneura caesia

Jungle Threadtail

Platycnemididae Elattoneura centralis

Dark-glittering Threadtail

Platycnemididae Elattoneura tenax

Red-striped Threadtail

Platystictidae

Ceylonosticta brincki

Brinck's Shadowdamsel

10 Platystictidae

Ceylonosticta lankanensis

Drooping Shadowdamsel

11 Platystictidae

Platysticta apicalis

Dark Forestdamsel

12 Gomphidae

Paragomphus henryi

Brook Hooktail

13 Macromiidae

Macromia zeylanica

Sri Lanka Cruiser

14 Libellulidae

Orthetrum chrysis

Spine-tufted Skimmer

15 Libellulidae

Orthetrum glaucum

Asian Skimmer

Habitat 2

1 1 1 1

1 1 1

Habitat 1 #

Family

Scientific Name

Common English name

NCS Distribution GCS 2012

Habitat 2

Habitat 3

Observed Potential Observed Potential Observed Potential species species species species species species

16 Libellulidae

Orthetrum luzonicum

Marsh Skimmer

17 Libellulidae

Orthetrum pruinosum neglectum

Pink Skimmer

18 Libellulidae

Trithemis festiva

Indigo Dropwing

19 Libellulidae

Zygonyx iris ceylonicus Sri Lanka Cascader

1 NT

1 6

1 5

Plate 8: Recorded Damselflies and Dragonflies (TR)

Asian skimmer

Dark Glittering Threadtail

Indigo Dropwing

Jungle Threadtail

Red striped Threadtail

Ultima Gem

3.2.8. Moths A total of 14 moth species were recorded during the study, all of which were directly observed. Of these, 6 species were recorded in the forest habitat and 8 in the grassland. Currently, information on the distribution and national conservation status of moth species in Sri Lanka is limited. Further studies are needed to investigate the diversity of moths both within the study area and across the country.

Table 13: Recorded Moth Species

Family

Common English name

Scientific name

Habitat Habitat 21-forest grassland Observed Observed sp sp

Crambidae

Nistra coelatalis

Crambidae

Pachynoa spilosomoides

Erebidae

Adites hilaris

Erebidae

Amata cyssea

Erebidae

Amata passalis

Erebidae

Chamaita nympha

Erebidae

Chiasmia emersaria

Erebidae

Mocis frugalis

Sugarcane Looper

Erebidae

Nyctemera coleta

Marbled White Moth

Erebidae

Ophiusa trapezium

Erebidae

Pterocyclophora pictimargo

Geomertidae

Timandra convectaria

Noctuidae

Haematosticta sanguiguttata

13 14

Pyralidae

Gold-banded Etiella Moth

Etiella zinckenella

1 6

Plate 9: Recorded Moth Species (NC)

Nyctemera coleta

Timandra convectaria

Chamaita nympha

Amata cyssea

Etiella zinckenella

Nistra coelatalis

3.3. Flowering Plants A total of 275 flowering plant species representing 80 families were observed during the study. These included 84 endemic species, 171 native species, and 20 introduced or exotic species. Among the recorded flowering plant species, 81 were nationally threatened, comprising 49 Vulnerable species, 30 Endangered species, and 2 Critically Endangered species. In addition, 37 species were classified as Near Threatened (NT), 125 as Least Concern (LC), 20 as Not Evaluated (NE) — all of which were exotic species including 7 alien invasive species — and 11 as Data Deficient (DD). In terms of habitat distribution, 223 species were recorded in Habitat 1 (Forest), 59 species in Habitat 2 (Grassland), and 13 species in Habitat 3 (Streams). Note that many species were observed in more than one habitat. Full details are provided in the species checklist in Annexure 9. Based on habit of growth form, the recorded species included 95 trees, 48 shrubs, 34 vines, 87 herbs, and 11 grasses. Among the recorded plant species, 45 were butterfly host plants and 32 were moth host plants.

Table 14: Recorded Endemic, Nationally Threatened and Near Threatened Plant Species

Family APG IV

Acanthaceae

Strobilanthes walkeri var. walkeri

Anacardiaceae

Mangifera zeylanica

Anacardiaceae

Semecarpus gardneri

Anacardiaceae

Anisophylleaceae

Anisophyllea cinnamomoides

Annonaceae

Species

Sinhala Name

Distribution NCS Habitat status 2020 1-forest

Habit Habitat Habitat 23grassland Streams Tree Vine Shrub Herb Grass

Atamba, Wal atamba, Wal Amba

Badulla

Semecarpus parvifolius Heen badulla

Weli-Penna, Weli-Piyana, Welipiyanna

Goniothalamus gardneri Heen kera

Annonaceae

Goniothalamus salicinus subsp. reticulatus

Annonaceae

Phoenicanthus coriacea Kelu. Keku

Annonaceae

Uvaria narum

Pangan

Distribution NCS Habitat status 2020 1-forest

Habit Habitat Habitat 23grassland Streams Tree Vine Shrub Herb Grass

Family APG IV

Apocynaceae

Gymnema sylvestre

Masbedde, Bim Nuga

Apocynaceae

Tabernaemontana dichotoma

Divi-Kaduru

Araceae

Pothos hookeri

Araceae

Pothos remotiflorus

Araceae

Remusatia vivipara

Araliaceae

Hydrocotyle javanica

Maha gotukola

Arecaceae

Calamus pseudotenuis

Heen-wewel, Kola-hangala

Arecaceae

Oncosperma fasciculatum

Katu-Kithul

Asteraceae

Blumea hieraciifolia var. flexuosa

Asteraceae

Cissampelopsis walkeri var. walkeri

Asteraceae

Strobocalyx arborea

Species

Sinhala Name

1 1

Family APG IV

Balsaminaceae

Impatiens acaulis

Balsaminaceae

Species

Sinhala Name

kudalu

Distribution NCS Habitat status 2020 1-forest

Habit Habitat Habitat 23grassland Streams Tree Vine Shrub Herb Grass

Impatiens arnottii

Balsaminaceae

Impatiens oppositifolia

Calophyllaceae

Calophyllum tomentosum

Tel Kina, Keena

Calophyllaceae

Calophyllum trapezifolium

Kina

Celastraceae

Salacia reticulata

Kotala-himbutu, Himbutu-wel, Himbutu

Clusiaceae

Garcinia echinocarpa

Madol

Clusiaceae

Garcinia cambogioides var. cambogioides

Gokatu, Kanna Goraka, Kokatiya

Clusiaceae

Garcinia quaesita

Goraka, Rat Gorka

1 1

Family APG IV

Commelinaceae

Cyanotis ceylanica

Connaraceae

Connarus championii

Convolvulaceae

Ipomoea thwaitesii

Cyperaceae

Species

Sinhala Name

Distribution NCS Habitat status 2020 1-forest

Habit Habitat Habitat 23grassland Streams Tree Vine Shrub Herb Grass

Wel-Radaliya

Ma Banda, Girithilla

Carex filicina

Cyperaceae

Carex indica var. indica

Cyperaceae

Carex spicigera

Cyperaceae

Cyperus sanguinolentus

Cyperaceae

Fimbristylis bisumbellata

Cyperaceae

Hypolytrum turgidum

Cyperaceae

Scleria levis

Dichapetalaceae

Dichapetalum zeylanicum

Goda-karawa, Goda karawu

1 1 1

Distribution NCS Habitat status 2020 1-forest

Habit Habitat Habitat 23grassland Streams Tree Vine Shrub Herb Grass

Family APG IV

Dioscoreaceae

Dioscorea koyamae

Gonala, Kahatagonala, Kirigonala

Droseraceae

Drosera burmanni

Wata-essa, Vatassa

Ebenaceae

Diospyros toposia

Kaluwelle, Kahakala

Elaeocarpaceae

Elaeocarpus glandulifer

Mal Veralu, Gal Veralu

Elaeocarpaceae

Elaeocarpus subvillosus Gal-Weralu

Fabaceae

Crotalaria walkeri

Fabaceae

Grona heterocarpos var. heterocarpos

Fabaceae

Grona jucunda

Gentianaceae

Species

Exacum trinervium

Sinhala Name

Binara, Ginihiriya, Bindara, Ginetta

Family APG IV

Gentianaceae

Fagraea ceilanica

Gesneriaceae

Species

Sinhala Name

Etamburu

Distribution NCS Habitat status 2020 1-forest

Habit Habitat Habitat 23grassland Streams Tree Vine Shrub Herb Grass

Henckelia communis

Gesneriaceae

Rhynchotechum permolle

Hypericaceae

Hypericum japonicum

Hypoxidaceae

Curculigo trichocarpa

Maha-bin-tal, Bu bim thal, Ma bim thal,

Icacinaceae

Mappia nimmoniana

Gonda-Pana

Lauraceae

Actinodaphne albifrons

Lauraceae

Actinodaphne ambigua

Lauraceae

Actinodaphne elegans

Lauraceae

Cinnamomum dubium

Sewl-kurundu, Wal-kurundu

Distribution NCS Habitat status 2020 1-forest

Habit Habitat Habitat 23grassland Streams Tree Vine Shrub Herb Grass

Family APG IV

Lauraceae

Cinnamomum litsaeifolium

Kudu Kurundu

Lauraceae

Cinnamomum verum

Kurundu

Lauraceae

Cryptocarya wightiana

Gal-Mora, Gulumora

Lauraceae

Litsea glaberrima

Lauraceae

Litsea longifolia

Rat-Keliya

Lauraceae

Litsea quinqueflora

Kosboda, Landittan, Wal kos ,Kosbada

Lauraceae

Neolitsea cassia var. cassia

Dawul-Kurundu, Kadu-dawula, Nika-Dawula, Wal-Kurundu

Lentibulariaceae Utricularia graminifolia

Loranthaceae

Species

Taxillus incanus

Sinhala Name

1 1

Family APG IV

Malvaceae

Species

Sinhala Name

Melastomataceae Kendrickia walkeri

Melastomataceae Memecylon revolutum

Melastomataceae Osbeckia octandra

Melastomataceae Sonerila silvatica

Meliaceae

Dysoxylum gotadhora

Meliaceae

Pseudocarapa championii

Gona-pana

Monimiaceae

Hortonia floribunda

Wawiya

Musaceae

Musa balbisiana

Eti-kehel

Myristicaceae

Horsfieldia iryaghedhi

Ruk, Ruk-gedi, Thalan, Malaboda

Cullenia rosayroana

Katuboda

Distribution NCS Habitat status 2020 1-forest

Bowitiya. Heenbovitiya

Habit Habitat Habitat 23grassland Streams Tree Vine Shrub Herb Grass 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

Family APG IV

Myristicaceae

Myristica dactyloides

Myrtaceae

Eugenia terpnophylla var. terpnophylla

Myrtaceae

Syzygium alubo

Myrtaceae

Syzygium amphoraecarpus

Myrtaceae

Syzygium batadamba

Myrtaceae

Syzygium cordifolium

Myrtaceae

Species

Sinhala Name

Malaboda, Perimavara Ruk / Thalan

Distribution NCS Habitat status 2020 1-forest

Habit Habitat Habitat 23grassland Streams Tree Vine Shrub Herb Grass

Alubo

Wal-Jambu

Syzygium lewisii

Nyssaceae

Mastixia arborea subsp. Diya-Talia macrophylla

Orchidaceae

Eulophia pulchra

Wal-Jambu, Dambu

Distribution NCS Habitat status 2020 1-forest

Habit Habitat Habitat 23grassland Streams Tree Vine Shrub Herb Grass

Family APG IV

Orchidaceae

Gastrochilus acaulis

Orchidaceae

Phaius luridus

Orchidaceae

Sirhookera lanceolata

Orchidaceae

Zeuxine regia

Orchidaceae

Zeuxine reginasilvae

Pandanaceae

Benstonea thwaitesii

Pandanaceae

Freycinetia pycnophylla Viyakeyya, Kolla

Pandanaceae

Freycinetia walkeri

Viyakeyya

Pentaphylacaceae Eurya acuminata

Wana Halu

Phyllanthaceae

Species

Antidesma pyrifolium

Sinhala Name

Iru-Raja, Ira raja, Sudu Raja

Dumu-Keyiya, Dunu-keiya

Family APG IV

Phyllanthaceae

Glochidion nemorale var. moonii

Phyllanthaceae

Species

Sinhala Name

Be-Hunukirilla, Bu-hunu-kirilla

Distribution NCS Habitat status 2020 1-forest

Habit Habitat Habitat 23grassland Streams Tree Vine Shrub Herb Grass

Glochidion nemorale var. nemorale

100 Piperaceae

Peperomia portulacoides

101 Poaceae

Cyrtococcum deccanense

102 Poaceae

Cyrtococcum oxyphyllum Deni-thana

103 Poaceae

Davidsea attenuata

104 Poaceae

Ochlandra stridula

105 Poaceae

Pseudechinolaena polystachya

106 Polygalaceae

Polygala glomerata

107 Primulaceae

Ardisia gardneri

Bata, Bata-li, Rana-bata

1 1

Family APG IV

Species

108 Primulaceae

Myrsine robusta

109 Rhizophoraceae

Carallia calycina

110 Rubiaceae

Sinhala Name

Distribution NCS Habitat status 2020 1-forest

Habit Habitat Habitat 23grassland Streams Tree Vine Shrub Herb Grass

Acranthera ceylanica

111 Rubiaceae

Gaertnera vaginans

112 Rubiaceae

Gaertnera walkeri

113 Rubiaceae

Hedyotis fumata

114 Rubiaceae

Hedyotis nodulosa

115 Rubiaceae

Ixora jucunda

116 Rubiaceae

Ophiorrhiza pectinata

Ubberiya

Goda Rathmal, Gora Ratambala, Wal Rathmal

1 1 1 1 1

Family APG IV

Species

Sinhala Name

Distribution NCS Habitat status 2020 1-forest

Habit Habitat Habitat 23grassland Streams Tree Vine Shrub Herb Grass

117 Rubiaceae

Psychotria dubia var. dubia

118 Rubiaceae

Psychotria plurivenia

119 Rubiaceae

Psychotria sarmentosa

120 Rubiaceae

Psychotria sordida

121 Rubiaceae

Saprosma foetens subsp. ceylanica

122 Rubiaceae

Urophyllum ellipticum

123 Sabiaceae

Meliosma arnottiana

Nika-Dawul, Wal-Bilin

124 Sabiaceae

Meliosma simplicifolia subsp. simplicifolia

Albadda-gas, Elbedda

125 Sapindaceae

Allophylus zeylanicus

Wal-Kobbe

Wal-gonica

Family APG IV

Species

126 Sapindaceae

Lepisanthes erecta

127 Sapotaceae

Donella lanceolata

128 Sapotaceae

Sinhala Name

Distribution NCS Habitat status 2020 1-forest

Habit Habitat Habitat 23grassland Streams Tree Vine Shrub Herb Grass

Heen-mol-pedda, Palaquium hinmolpedda Miriya, Kiri Miriya

129 Schisandraceae

Kadsura heteroclita

130 Smilacaceae

Smilax zeylanica

131 Stemonuraceae

Gomphandra coriacea

132 Symplocaceae

Symplocos coronata var. Ugudu hal, Galparre coronata

133 Symplocaceae

Symplocos macrophylla

134 Symplocaceae

Symplocos pulchra subsp. hispidula

Lawalu, Rata Lawulu

Kabarossa / Heen kabarossa

Family APG IV

Species

Sinhala Name

Distribution NCS Habitat status 2020 1-forest

Habit Habitat Habitat 23grassland Streams Tree Vine Shrub Herb Grass

135 Theaceae

Polyspora elliptica

136 Urticaceae

Elatostema acuminatum

137 Urticaceae

Elatostema lineolatum var. bidentatum

138 Urticaceae

Elatostema lineolatum var. lineolatum

139 Zingiberaceae

Cyphostigma pulchellum

140 Zingiberaceae

Meistera echinocarpa

141 Zingiberaceae

Meistera masticatorium

142 Zingiberaceae

Zingiber cylindricum

Bu Kiriya, Niya

Wal Inguru,

Total

131

Plate 10: Flora (RR)

Exacum trinervium

Osbeckia octandra

Impatiens acaulis

Cyphostigma pulchellum

Scutellaria violacea var. violacea

Zeuxine reginasilvae

Oncosperma fasciculatum

Cinnamomum dubium

Memecylon sp.2

Memecylon sp.1

Polyspora elliptica

Mangifera zeylanica

Oberonia sp.

Remusatia vivipara

Pothos remotiflorus

Uvaria narum

Freycinetia pycnophylla

Syzygium cordifolium

Drosera burmanni

Callicarpa tomentosa

Arundina graminifolia subsp. graminifolia

Caryota urens

3.4. Identified Main Habitat Types Within the study area, three main natural habitat types were identified: Forest (Habitat 1), Grassland (Habitat 2), and Streams (Habitat 3). These habitat types are indicated in the Map 5.

Map 5: Habitats within and close to the study area

Habitat type

Forest

Grassland

Details

Area of each habitat in Ha

Area of each Total area of each habitat as % of habitat in Ha the study area 41.1

65.5

Grassland 1

18.1

Grassland 2

3.57

21.67

34.5

Total Study Area

62.77

100

Map 6: Surrounding of the study area and habitats

Table 15: Number of species recorded in each habitat Habitat 1- Forest #

Taxa group

Amphibians

Habitat 2-grassland

Habitat 3-streams

Observed during the study

Previous records/Potential sp

Observed

Previous records/Potential sp

Observed

Previous records/Potential sp

1 Total

13 6

Fish 2 Total Reptiles

6 7

3 Total Mammals

43 13

15 35

4 18

4 Total Birds

48 67

22 42

2 7

5 Total Butterflies

109 15

21 19

8 49

6 Total Odonates

34 7

71 6

0 8

7 Total

Total fauna species

281

150

223

504

209

Flowering plants

Total fauna and flora species

3.4.1. Forest (Habitat 1) The habitat identified as “Forest” was primarily located at elevations above 1000 meters above sea level, though in certain areas it extended down to approximately 900 meters, but not lower. The highest elevation recorded within this habitat was approximately 1150 meters. The total area of the forest habitat was estimated to be around 41 hectares. This forest developed along a mountain with steep, straight slopes and exhibited characteristics of both lowland rainforests and sub-montane rainforests. The flora and fauna recorded in this habitat included species typical of both lowland and montane ecosystems. Species composition varied across different slopes and elevation gradients, likely due to microclimatic conditions influenced by wind direction and altitude. Unlike typical rainforests, vertical stratification (layering) of vegetation was not clearly observed. Tree height was generally low, possibly as an adaptation to withstand strong winds. Several plant species previously recorded in the foothills of the Sripada Mountain Range were also found here. Notably, some potentially undescribed flora species may have been present in this habitat. Anthropogenic disturbances were minimal in the higher elevations compared to lower areas, likely due to the inaccessibility created by the steep terrain. This forest habitat recorded the highest number of both fauna (281 species) and flora (223 species) across all surveyed habitats. The recorded fauna included: ● 34 amphibian species ● 43 reptile species ● 48 mammal species ● 109 bird species ● 34 butterfly species ● 13 odonate (dragonflies and damselflies) species

This habitat also supported the highest number of endemic and nationally threatened species. Detailed information on endemic, nationally threatened, and near-threatened species can be

found in the corresponding taxonomic group tables. Comprehensive species lists for this habitat are available in the annexures. Adjacent to this forest habitat, two Pinus plantations were observed, some of which had already experienced tree uprooting. It is recommended that these Pinus lands be restored using native forest plant species. The spread of the invasive alien plant species Clusia rosea (locally known as Gal Goraka) posed a significant threat to this habitat. Immediate management action is necessary to control its spread. Additionally, fire was identified as another major threat, likely due to human activities such as intentional burning of grasslands and forest areas.

Plate 11: Habitat 1- Forest (RR)

3.4.2. Grassland (Habitat 2) The grassland habitat was observed at elevations ranging between 980 and 850 meters above sea level and covered an area of approximately 21.7 hectares. Two distinct grassland patches are marked on Map 6. Grassland 2 showed signs of significant disturbance, with the presence of several exotic and invasive plant species, and was more susceptible to anthropogenic activities such as fire. In contrast, Grassland 1 was relatively undisturbed and retained more of its native composition. The following native grass species were recorded within the grassland habitat: ● Cymbopogon nardus (Pengiri Mana) ● Cyrtococcum deccanense ● Cyrtococcum oxyphyllum (Deni Thana) ● Lophatherum gracile (recorded twice, likely due to multiple populations) ● Pogonatherum crinitum ● Pseudechinolaena polystachya 80

● Themeda triandra Two endemic grass species—Davidsea attenuata and Ochlandra stridula—were also recorded. Among the introduced or exotic species, Axonopus compressus and Megathyrsus maximus (also classified as an invasive species) were present. In addition to grasses, various shrubs, herbs, trees, and vines were also recorded within the grassland areas. Biodiversity recorded from this habitat included: ● 6 amphibian species ● 15 reptile species ● 22 mammal species ● 21 bird species ● 71 butterfly species ● 15 odonate (dragonfly and damselfly) species ● 59 species of flowering plants

Plate 12: Grassland Habitat (RR)

Grassland 1

Grassland 2

Grassland 1

Grassland 2

3.4.3. Streams (Habitat 3) The streams studied were located both within the main study area and in nearby locations. Streams outside the designated study area were included in the assessment due to their direct ecological connection with the primary habitats and their potential use in nature-based tourism activities such as fish watching and bathing. Three main types of streams were identified and are marked on Map 7. 1. Small Streams 2. Seasonal Streams 3. Digolanda Oya

A total of 13 amphibian species, 6 fish species, 4 reptile species, 2 mammal species, 8 bird species, 18 odonate (dragonfly and damselfly) species, and 11 flowering plant species were 82

recorded in and around the stream habitats. No aquatic plant species were observed; all plant species associated with this habitat were found growing along the edges of the small streams and Digolanda Oya. Plant species surrounding the seasonal streams located above 1000 meters were similar to those recorded in the forest habitat, indicating ecological continuity. The elevation at Fish Observation Point 1 along Digolanda Oya was recorded at 790 meters above sea level, while the lowest point of Digolanda Oya, as indicated on map #, was at 520 meters. The seasonal streams, marked in dark blue on map #, were located within the forest habitat at elevations above 1000 meters and flowed gradually toward Digolanda Oya. The small streams were distributed as follows: ● Small Stream 3: Located between 1000–900 meters ● Small Stream 2: Located between 900–800 meters ● Small Stream 1: Located between 900–750 meters ● Small Stream 4: Located between 850–750 meters

Plate 13: Streams (Habitat 3)

Small stream 3 (RR)

Small stream 2 (RR)

Seasonal stream inside the forest (RR)

Digolanda oya (RR)

Small stream 2 (RR)

Seasonal streams (RR)

Digolanda oya (ND)

Map 7: Stream habitats

4. Recommendations 4.1. Developing for Tourism Windsor Forest presents a unique blend of ecological richness, elevation diversity, and cultural heritage, making it an ideal location for carefully managed, sustainable eco-tourism. The forest's distinct ecological zones include sub-montane forest, grasslands, and stream networks. Each holds exceptional potential for diverse nature-based, adventure, leisure, and cultural tourism activities typically combine accessibility, visual appeal, educational value, and opportunities for unique experiences. These initiatives must prioritize low-impact tourism models that contribute to conservation, community empowerment, and environmental education. Based on global and regional trends, the following are the most popular wildlife activities that can be emphasized.

4.1.1. Potential for Wildlife Observation Tourism 4.1.1.1. Taxa group with Highest Potential for Promoting Wildlife Watching Tourism Birds - Birdwatching Birdwatching is among the most popular and accessible wildlife activities worldwide. Birding appeals to both casual nature lovers and serious ornithologists. Among the taxa surveyed, birds emerged as the most diverse and observable group, with 122 species recorded - 20 endemics out of 35 endemic birds found in Sri Lanka and 21 migratory species - making birdwatching the flagship wildlife activity. Seasonal migrations will also increase interest during specific months. Endemic and migratory species, the presence of canopy dwellers, species in grassland fringes, forest-floor species, and stream-associated birds offers a diverse and rewarding experience for both amateur and seasoned birders. Strategically placed bird hides and observation decks overlooking forest canopies and grasslands can offer quiet spots for birdwatching. The mountainous terrain of Windsor Forest offers a unique advantage for birdwatchers—the opportunity to observe canopy-dwelling bird species at eye level while ascending the slopes. This natural elevation allows for closer and more rewarding encounters with species that are typically hidden high in the forest canopy.

To further support avian diversity and enhance bird watching experiences, habitat enrichment through native tree planting is recommended. Increasing the structural complexity of vegetation can attract a wider range of bird species, thereby improving opportunities for observation and wildlife photography. Artificial nesting structures, such as clay pots, can be installed to encourage breeding of selected bird species. In addition, bird baths can be placed around bungalows or visitor areas at safe locations approximately two meters above ground on single poles, reducing the risk of predation by domestic cats. However, providing artificial bird feeders is not advised, as feeding can lead to health issues in wild birds and may attract problematic animals, including toque macaques, potentially disrupting the ecological balance and causing human-wildlife conflicts. ●

Specific Target group: International and local birders, ornithologists, wildlife photographers, students, researchers, families, and general nature tourists.

Plate 14: Birds - Birdwatching

An image of watching canopy dwelling bird at eye level, from a mountain

Artificial structures for nesting made with wood (Source of the image https://www.1buy.co.uk/product/kingfisherwooden-bird-nesting-box-for-trees-wallsfences 89

Artificial structures for nesting made with clay

Recommended design for bird bath, to avoid domestic cats climbing (Source of the image - https://www.amazon.com/Amoyls32-Bird-BathTurquoise/dp/B0CRNLJQGM)

Butterflies and Moths Butterflies are abundant during the day, and require relatively short trails to observe and can be attracted to the gardens easily by enriching habitat. With 88 species recorded, including many vibrant forest specialists and 9 endemics out of 31 endemic butterfly species found in Sri Lanka, butterfly watching is both educational and photogenic. These species found across grasslands and forest edges, are ideal for Guided Butterfly Trails, and Designated Butterfly Trails or Gardens could enhance the tourist experience adding aesthetic and educational value to the experience. To promote the diversity and abundance of butterfly species, habitat enrichment can be implemented through the planting of butterfly larval host plants, nectar-bearing flora, and fruiting species that support fruit-juice-feeding butterflies. Creating moist patches for mudpuddling, an essential behavior for many butterfly species to obtain minerals, is also recommended. A butterfly garden can be established in close proximity to the proposed bungalows or tourism-related buildings. Situating the garden near these facilities not only enhances the aesthetic appeal of the site but also facilitates easier and more consistent maintenance. Comprehensive guidelines for the design and establishment of a butterfly garden— including plant selection, layout, and maintenance—can be provided upon request as part of a separate consultancy. Moth observation is a unique and underexplored wildlife activity that can greatly enrich the eco-tourism experience in Windsor Forest. With 14 recorded moth species—and the potential for more to be discovered—this nocturnal activity offers fascinating insights into a lesserknown group of insects. Moth watching can be organized at night in suitable locations, particularly in the forest and grassland edges. These sessions can be both scientific and recreational, appealing to insect enthusiasts, photographers, and students. Moths often display a stunning variety of colors, patterns, and behaviors, and promoting this activity can also contribute to long-term species documentation and awareness about their ecological roles as pollinators and prey species. Moths also consist of similar behaviors and ecology as butterflies. Habitat enrichment can be applied to increase the diversity and abundance of species.

●

Specific Target Groups: Entomologists, Families, Children, wildlife photographers, general nature tourists.

Herpetofauna (Amphibians and Reptiles) Windsor Forest’s herpetofaunal richness—40 species of amphibians including 36 endemic species and 60 reptiles including 4 endemic species —makes it a hotspot for researchers, herping enthusiasts, and eco-tourists. Endemic and range-restricted frogs, lizards, snakes, and geckos are major highlights. Among the studied taxonomic groups, amphibians and reptiles recorded the highest number of endemic species. Amphibian observation is best conducted at night, as most species are nocturnal and become active after dusk. In contrast, some reptiles are diurnal, while others are primarily nocturnal, requiring both day and night field excursions for optimal observation. Night-time herpetology walks provide thrilling, immersive experiences and opportunities to encounter rare or endangered species in their natural habitats, especially in the less-disturbed forest areas. Night walks also provide a chance to see nocturnal insects, owls, and small mammals. These species are observable with proper guidance which offer unique appeal for night safaris and macro photography. To minimize disturbance to nocturnal wildlife, it is recommended to establish specifically designated trails for night-time amphibian and reptile observation. Rather than walking indiscriminately with lights, these controlled access routes will help reduce habitat disruption, light pollution, and potential stress to sensitive species, while also enhancing visitor safety and interpretive experiences. ● Specific Target Groups: Herpetologists, Herpetofauna enthusiasts, researchers, wildlife photographers

Flora – Observation Trails The floral diversity—275 flowering plant species including 84 endemics and several possibly undescribed species—offers unique value for botanical tourism. Visitors with interests in plant ecology, photography, or traditional medicinal knowledge would find the region’s flora captivating. Interpretive nature walks focusing on rare and endemic plants, as well as flowering seasons, could be promoted as a niche attraction. ● Specific Target Groups: Botanists, plant ecologists, researchers, and practitioners of traditional medicine. Mammals - Mammal Tracking and Camera Trap Observation Though generally elusive, 48 species of mammals have been recorded, including endemic and forest-dwelling species. These species suitable for camera trap tourism and quiet hide-based observation offering opportunities to track signs or view camera trap footage can create an interactive and educational experience. Mammal watching during early morning, dusk and night can be rewarding, especially in lessdisturbed areas. Hide-based observation points also allow silent and ethical watching. With proper guidance and quiet observation strategies, sightings of small carnivores, rodents, or primates can be achieved, enhancing the wildlife-watching portfolio. Leopard, fishing cat, and otter are three charismatic mammal species recorded in the area. Their presence offers excellent potential for wildlife-based tourism and research. By using camera traps, it is possible to identify the regular movement routes of these species. Based on this data, wildlife observation hides can be strategically constructed at safe distances to ensure minimal disturbance. Additionally, night vision binoculars may be used to observe these nocturnal mammals discreetly, enhancing visitor experiences while prioritizing animal welfare and safety. 

Specific Target Groups: Mammologists, conservationists, researchers, and wildlife photographers.

Fish & Odonates - Stream and Aquatic Life Exploration Dragonflies and damselflies (Odonates) near Digolanda Oya and other streams are vibrant and can be observed up-close. Coupled with freshwater fish watching, this can be a unique experience that is rarely offered elsewhere. Snorkelling is possible at one designated location, as marked on map #. However, visitor safety must be ensured at all times. Snorkelling is not recommended during the rainy season due to the risk of flash floods. A qualified naturalist with certified life-saving skills should always supervise snorkelling sessions. Additionally, the cleanliness and safety of the water must be verified prior to each activity, as there is a potential risk of contamination from sewage discharged by nearby households. Regular water quality monitoring is essential before promoting this activity to visitors ● Specific Target Groups: Entomologists, Ichthyologists, Wildlife Enthusiasts, and underwater wildlife photographers.

4.1.2. Sessions on Wildlife Photography and Wildlife Art Windsor Forest, with its rich biodiversity, is an ideal setting for offering sessions on wildlife photography and art as special packages with guidance of professionals or naturalists. Several options for wildlife photography are available such as macro photography (for insects, herpetofauna, and plants), underwater photography (for fish) , bird and mammal photography, landscape photography. There may be a potential for Night sky photography too. Wildlife art and field sketching sessions can encourage mindful engagement with nature, fostering a deeper appreciation of wildlife through art. This can enhance the overall visitor experience, promote citizen science, and contribute to nature documentation efforts. These creative and educational sessions can cater to both beginners and enthusiasts, helping participants hone their observational skills while engaging deeply with biodiversity.

4.1.3. Recommended Packages and Areas for Wildlife Observation Walks

Map 8: Map - Recommended areas/locations/trails for wildlife observation tours

Package 1 – Overall Wildlife Observation Tour

This full-day guided walk covers all major taxa groups in Windsor Forest, except fish. The trail, marked in red on map #, follows the route taken during the study, spanning approximately 2 km. Starting from the Assistant Manager’s bungalow at 6:00 AM, the walk passes through grassland and forest habitats, concluding at the coffee plantation around 8:30 PM. The tour includes a night walk segment along the trail. Visitors should have an early breakfast before departure and carry packed lunch and snacks. The designated ‘Lunch Location’ on map # provides access to a seasonal stream with potable water. Dinner can be arranged outdoors at the trail’s end or served upon return to the resort or bungalow. Transportation from the trail endpoint (7.082632°, 80.446319°) back to the resort is essential, requiring an off-road-capable vehicle via the road starting at the Hindu shrine (Rathu Devalaya), also proposed for off-road cycling. Key observation zones along the trail include: Red-marked areas: Ideal for herpetofauna observation, ‘DH’ for diurnal herpetofauna species, dragonflies and damselflies ‘NH’ for nocturnal herpetofauna species, mammals and moths. Blue-outlined area: Suitable for diurnal bird, butterfly, and mammal observation. Dark green outline: Best for plant observation.

Package 2 - Herpetofauna Observation For the guest who are interested in observing only herpetofauna, the are marked as NH is ideal, considering the accessibility. They can reach the coffee plantation area by vehicle and climb into the forest towards NH and observe herpetofauna till around 10pm and return to the coffee plantation. The vehicle should stay at the coffee plantation standby for any emergency. Apart

from these areas, amphibian species can be observed in the bungalow garden and along the small streams as well. Designed for guests focused solely on reptiles and amphibians, this package targets the ‘NH’ area, accessible via vehicle to the coffee plantation. Visitors can then trek into the forest to observe herpetofauna until approximately 10:00 PM before returning to the coffee plantation, where the vehicle remains on standby for emergencies. Additional amphibian sightings are possible in the bungalow garden and along nearby small streams. Package 3 – Bird, Butterfly, and Diurnal Mammal Observation Ideal for visitors interested in birds, butterflies, and diurnal mammals, this half-day morning walk covers the blue-outlined area. The walk starts and ends at the bungalow, from 6:00 AM to around 10:00 AM. The bungalow garden also provides excellent opportunities for observing these taxa. Package 4 – Mammal and Nocturnal Bird Observation This evening and night session focuses on mammals and nocturnal birds within the blueoutlined area. The activity runs from 4:30 PM to approximately 8:00 PM. Walking beyond the estate boundary (marked in orange) is not recommended. Instead, fixed observation hides or towers can be constructed at key locations identified through camera trap studies to observe charismatic species such as leopard, fishing cat, and otter with minimal disturbance. To facilitate this, purpose-built observation huts or towers may be constructed at a safe distance from regular wildlife movement paths. Identifying such hotspots should be guided by a dedicated camera trapping study to monitor animal activity patterns and determine suitable placement of observation structures. Package 5 - Fish and Odonate Observation Digolanda Oya and several other streams, as marked on Map #, are ideal for observing freshwater fish and odonates (dragonflies and damselflies). Snorkelling can be practiced at the designated 'Snorkelling Location' (7.079164°, 80.457887°) to observe fish species in their natural habitats.

In addition, the locations marked as P1 (7.079838°, 80.455599°) on Small Stream 4, P2 (7.079969°, 80.454516°) on Small Stream 1, and P3 (7.085274°, 80.431350°) on Small Stream 2 are also suitable for both fish and odonate observation. Transport by a vehicle is required to access these observation sites due to their spread-out nature. The optimal time for observing fish and odonates is between 8:00 AM and 11:00 AM. However, for dedicated fish enthusiasts, night-time observations using appropriate lighting equipment can be conducted at the snorkelling location.

Map 9: Recommended locations for fish and odonate observations

4.1.4. Special Instructions for Wildlife Observation Walks The following safety measures and guidelines are essential to ensure that wildlife observation walks are conducted safely for visitors while minimizing disturbance to the natural environment. Adhering to these precautions helps protect both participants and the integrity of the ecosystems being explored. 1. Guided Walks Only: Wildlife observation tours must be conducted strictly under the supervision of trained, experienced naturalists who are knowledgeable about local wildlife and terrain. 2. Ethics and Respecting the law: It is essential that both naturalists (guides) and guests uphold ethical standards and comply with all relevant laws to ensure the welfare of wildlife. Guides must have a thorough understanding of Sri Lanka’s legal framework, including the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance. Prior to any wildlife walk, guests should be briefed on ethical wildlife viewing practices and legal responsibilities. During the walk, guides are responsible for closely monitoring guest behavior to prevent any actions that could harm the environment or violate the law. 3. Group Size Control: Keep group sizes small (ideally under 6 participants per group) to reduce disturbance to wildlife and ensure better management of safety and visibility. 4. Using headlamps and Torches: For night walks, each participant should carry a headlamp or flashlight with sufficient battery backup. Use red filters or dim lights to avoid startling wildlife. UV lights will be helpful to observe animals like scorpions. 5. Silent Movement and Low Voices: Participants should move slowly and quietly, minimizing talking to avoid scaring animals or alerting predators. 6. Stay on Designated Trails: Wandering off-trail can be dangerous due to uneven ground, venomous animals, or the risk of getting lost. 7. Proper Footwear and Clothing: Wear closed shoes/boots with good grip, leech socks and long clothing to protect against leeches, insects, and thorny vegetation. 8. Insect Protection: Apply eco-friendly insect repellent to avoid mosquito or tick bites. 9. Preparing for Rain and Cold: Visitors are advised to be well-prepared for sudden changes in weather, particularly rain and cold temperatures. It is recommended to carry raincoats, umbrellas, and hats or caps for protection against rain. Waterproof covers or dry bags should be used to safeguard valuables such as cameras and electronic devices.

As the cold climate in the area can be uncomfortable for some individuals, wearing insulated or layered clothing is advisable to maintain warmth and comfort during the excursion. 10. Avoid direct flashes for Photography: Flash can disorient nocturnal animals and damage their sensory organs. Only use photography gear with dimmable lights and diffusers. And minimize the use of any kind of flash. 11. Emergency Communication and Taking Immediate Action: Snake bites, large animal attacks (wild boar, leopard), drowning, falling, strokes, and heart attacks are some of the potential threats that can occur during wildlife walks. Naturalists should carry a first-aid kit, whistle, and a working communication device (such as a mobile phone or walkie-talkie) to use in case of emergencies. A vehicle with a driver should be kept on standby to provide transport during an emergency. 12. Carry Personal Medications: Visitors must be instructed to carry their personal medications with them and to inform the staff in advance if they have any special health conditions relevant to the walk. 13. Walking Sticks and Supportive Equipment: Carrying walking sticks can be helpful, especially for elderly visitors or those who may need extra support while climbing. 14. Snacks and Water: Visitors should be instructed to carry their own snacks and drinking water (or have them provided by the bungalow/resort) in reusable containers. 15. Pre-awareness for Guests Before Accepting Reservations for Wildlife Walks: Guests must be informed of the packages suitable for them according to their interests and age, and be made aware of the nature of each walk—including the terrain, climate, current weather conditions, potential difficulties and risks, and the behavioural guidelines to follow. This allows them to make an informed decision when confirming their reservation, helping to avoid accidents, health issues during the walk, or negative feedback. 16. Pre-walk Briefing: Before starting a confirmed walk, a short safety and behavioural briefing should be conducted at least one hour in advance. This is essential to inform

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participants about expected hazards and emergency protocols and gives them adequate time to prepare.

4.1.5. Potential Adventure Tourism Activities 4.1.5.1. Cycling (On- and Off-Road) The estate’s internal roads, undulating slopes, and tea trails provide excellent routes for mountain biking. Both on-road and off-road cycling experiences can be curated for different fitness levels. These routes can integrate forest borders, grasslands, and viewpoints, creating a wholesome mix of physical activity and scenic exploration. Interpretation signposts can provide educational content about local ecology and conservation challenges along the way. Off-roading with motorbikes or vehicles must be strictly prohibited to prevent potential damage to the environment. Cycling Trail: Dolosbage–Dedugala Road to Diyagiri Ella Falls A highly rewarding cycling trail can be developed along the Dolosbage–Dedugala Road, extending towards the Palampitiya Viewpoint, covering a total distance of approximately 4 km. This trail offers a gentle to moderately challenging ride through lush greenery, misty hills, and serene landscapes. One of the first highlights along the way is the Palampitiya Viewpoint, a natural vantage point offering expansive, breathtaking views of rolling hills, lush valleys, and distant mountain peaks. Along the route, cyclists can enjoy a scenic stopover at Ihala Pelempitiya

Temple, a peaceful Buddhist shrine perched on an elevated site that provides panoramic views of the surrounding hills and Sri Pada (Adam’s Peak) in the distance. The trail then continues through tea-draped slopes and forest edges, eventually leading to the Diyagiri Ella Falls, a refreshing and photogenic waterfall. The route can be enhanced with interpretive signboards, rest points with natural seating, and safety guidance, encouraging nature appreciation, cultural immersion, and physical well-being. This integrated trail is ideal for eco-conscious tourists, families, and adventure seekers looking to experience the tranquil charm and layered biodiversity of the Dolosbage region.

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Palampitiya view point

Plate 15: On Road cycling route and views on the way (RR)

Cycling Towards the Coffee Plantation An off-road cycling route can be established from the Hindu Shrine (‘Rathu Devalaya’ at 7.080626°, 80.444456°) to the Coffee Plantation (7.082640°, 80.446283°). The total length of this route is approximately 1.1 km, with an elevation range from 880 m to 1020 m. The minimum width of the route is about 8 feet, and the surface is rocky. Therefore, only mountain bicycles are suitable for this trail.

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Coffee plantation Plate 16: Off-road cycling route and views (RR)

Specific Safety Instructions for Cycling The brakes and tires of the bicycles must be in good condition. It is recommended to wear long pants, long-sleeve tops, along with elbow and knee guards, and helmets for safety. Individual guests should not be allowed to cycle alone. Cycling should be permitted only in pairs or with one guest accompanied by a naturalist to ensure effective communication in case of any hazard.

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Map 10: Cycling routes

4.1.5.2. Trekking Through the Jungle and Connecting to Pekoe Trail Trekking is one of the most immersive ways to experience Windsor Forest’s layered biodiversity and changing habitats. Treks within Windsor Forest can be designed to traverse ecological transition zones (from grassland to forest, for example), offering tourists glimpses of different ecosystems. The trails can be mapped and maintained. Trained guides can enhance the experience through ecological storytelling and safe trail navigation. Each stage should vary in length and difficulty, catering to a range of hiking preferences—from leisurely walks to more challenging treks. The trail not only showcases natural beauty but also provides hikers with opportunities to engage with local cultures and traditions. Forest trails that wind through varying altitudes and can be connected to the national Pekoe Trail network which is managed by the Pekoe Trail Organization (TPTO). The Pekoe Trail is a 300-kilometer long-distance hiking route that traverses’ Sri Lanka's Central Highlands, offering an immersive journey through lush tea plantations, misty forests, and vibrant local

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communities. Divided into 22 stages, the trail connects the historic city of Kandy to the scenic Pedro Tea Estate near Nuwara Eliya, passing through renowned destinations like Ella and Horton Plains. Further studies should be conducted to identify possible pathways to connect the Pekoe Trail to Windsor Forest. 4.1.5.3. Mountain Climbing The highest elevation of approximately 1150 meters presents an opportunity for guided mountain climbing experiences. Trails can be developed to lead to the summit, offering panoramic views of the forest landscape, the tea estates, and potentially even the foothills of Sri Pada. These experiences will appeal to hikers and adventure seekers and can be promoted alongside sunrise or sunset climbs for an added visual reward.

Plate 17: Views during mountain climbing (RR)

4.1.5.4. Swimming and Snorkeling Selected calm and clean areas of Digolanda Oya can be designated for swimming activities. With proper safety measures and eco-sensitive infrastructure (such as mobile changing rooms and signage), these zones can provide a refreshing nature experience. A location at Digolanda Oya (7.079164°, 80.457887°), near Muttukumari Amman Kovil, is recommended as a safe spot for snorkeling and swimming. At the time of the study, the water level was insufficient for swimming. It is necessary to determine the ideal season when the

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water level is both sufficiently high and safe for swimming. The maximum water depth at this location should be around one meter, which is considered safe for adults. Although snorkeling opportunities are limited, shallow stream pools can offer fish watching activities using glass-bottom viewing equipment, providing a freshwater analogue to marine snorkeling.

Plate 18: Recommended location for swimming (RR)

4.1.5.5. Waterfall Expedition The Windsor Forest area is enriched by the presence of nearby waterfalls such as Diyagiri Ella Falls (3.6 km), Dethiri Ella Falls (4.7 km), and several seasonal waterfalls like Windsor Forest Fall that come alive during the monsoon. These natural features offer excellent opportunities for waterfall watching, a highly attractive activity for eco-tourists, photographers, and mindfulness seekers. Designated viewing points can be developed with natural seating, safe access paths, and interpretive boards that highlight the ecological, geological, and hydrological 106

significance of these waterfalls. The cascading water, lush surroundings, and ambient sounds provide a serene experience that blends relaxation with environmental appreciation. During the rainy season, seasonal falls add dynamic beauty to the landscape and can be promoted as part of a seasonal tourism experience. 4.1.5.6. Camping Eco-campsites can be established near the forest edge or open grassland zones, offering overnight stays in nature. These campsites should follow strict low-impact guidelines, including the use of biodegradable products, zero-waste policies, and minimal lighting to preserve nocturnal wildlife behavior. Interpretive programs such as night walks or storytelling can be integrated into the camping experience. Camp fire, noise generating activities like singing and playing music instruments, speakers are not recommended while camping.

View of Ihala Pelempitiya Temple and distant mountain ranges from Dolosbage–Dedugala Road @ Google Maps

Ihala Pelempitiya Temple @ Google Maps

Western view from Palampitiya view point (RR)

Diyagiri Ella Falls @ Google Maps (cropped, not good to set tents under waterfalls)

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Dethiri Ella Falls @ Google Maps

Windsor Forest Fall @ Google Maps

4.1.6. Potential for Leisure and Mindfulness-Related Tourism Activities 4.1.6.1. Yoga Designated open spaces in grasslands or forest glades can be prepared for yoga sessions, especially at sunrise or sunset. Practicing yoga surrounded by misty hills, bird calls, and fresh forest air would offer a deeply revitalizing experience, attracting wellness tourists and urban dwellers seeking nature therapy. 4.1.6.2. Meditation Silent zones can be marked within forest clearings or beside gently flowing streams for guided or personal meditation sessions. The natural ambiance supports mindfulness and mental restoration, making it a perfect setting for short retreats or weekend escapes. These spaces should be kept free of artificial noise and visitor overcrowding. 4.1.6.3. Landscape, and Human Portrait Art Art retreats, painting sessions, and workshops with local or visiting artists can be organized, allowing participants to depict landscapes, animals, and community life. This activity bridges nature and culture, offering a creative platform for conservation advocacy and emotional connection with the landscape. The Palampitiya View Point, located just adjacent to the Windsor Forest study area, presents a significant opportunity as a tourist attraction due to its breathtaking panoramic views of the 108

surrounding mountain ranges, tea estates, and valleys. This natural vantage point offers a serene and visually stunning experience, especially during sunrise and sunset, making it an ideal stop for landscape photography, mindfulness activities like relaxation after trekking, cycling or forest walks. Its close proximity to the forest habitat also means that visitors can easily combine scenic viewing with biodiversity experiences such as birdwatching or nature interpretation. Developing minimal, eco-sensitive infrastructure like resting benches, safety railings, and interpretive signage at Palampitiya View Point could enhance the visitor experience while preserving its natural charm.

4.1.7. Potential for Cultural Tourism 4.1.7.1. Kithul Tapping, Jaggery and Honey Making Local communities around Windsor Forest possess traditional knowledge and skills in tapping the Kithul palm (Caryota urens) to produce jaggery and forest honey, which are integral to Sri Lankan heritage and rural livelihoods. These time-honored practices offer valuable opportunities for cultural tourism, where visitors can engage with the process in an authentic, educational, and respectful manner. Tourists can observe or participate in activities such as tree tapping, collecting sap, and boiling and moulding jaggery, while learning about the sustainability and seasonality of these methods. Demonstrations can be conducted by trained community members, creating both a source of income and a platform for cultural preservation. Promoting such activities not only supports community-based tourism but also fosters deeper connections between visitors and local traditions. 4.1.7.2. Traditional Hindu Festivals The estate communities surrounding Windsor Forest often celebrate vibrant Hindu festivals tied to local temples and cultural traditions. These events—such as Thai Pongal, Deepavali, and various kovil processions—offer immersive experiences that can be thoughtfully integrated into cultural tourism calendars. With proper coordination and cultural sensitivity, visitors can witness or participate in rituals, traditional music and dance, devotional offerings, and temple decorations, gaining insight into the spiritual life and community bonds that shape the region. These experiences not only enhance the depth of the tourist journey but also promote intercultural understanding and 109

respectful engagement. Partnering with community leaders ensures that such tourism remains non-intrusive, while supporting cultural preservation and generating economic benefits for local residents involved in organizing the festivities. 4.1.7.3. Cooking Village Food Traditional Sri Lankan village cuisine offers a sensory-rich experience that can be transformed into a popular and educational tourism activity. Visitors can be welcomed into local households or community cooking spaces to learn, prepare, and enjoy authentic dishes made from locally sourced, seasonal ingredients—many of which are harvested from surrounding forests, home gardens, or plantations. These sessions can include hands-on experience in traditional cooking techniques such as clay pot cooking, open-fire preparation, pounding spices with a miris gala, and coconut scraping. Guests gain insight into local food heritage, sustainable culinary practices, and the stories and cultural meanings behind each dish. This interactive format supports culinary tourism, promotes community empowerment, and creates meaningful connections between visitors and local lifestyles.

4.1.8. Potential for Agro-tourism 4.1.8.1. Coffee Plantation Given the suitable altitudinal range and the potential interest from local communities, promoting shade-grown coffee agroforestry within or near the Windsor Forest area presents a promising avenue for agro-tourism. This sustainable coffee cultivation method not only produces high-quality beans but also supports biodiversity conservation by preserving bird habitats and maintaining forest canopy cover. Tourists can immerse themselves in the coffee journey—from plucking ripe coffee cherries, participating in traditional roasting methods, to tasting freshly brewed coffee—gaining a deeper appreciation for the ecological and cultural significance of coffee farming in the region. Integrating conservation messaging within these activities highlights the environmental benefits of shade-grown coffee, fostering awareness and support for sustainable agriculture. Such interactive tours can enhance visitor experience, provide alternative livelihoods for local farmers, and contribute to the region’s eco-tourism appeal.

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Plate 19: Coffee plantation (RR)

4.1.8.2. Tea Plantation Surrounded by extensive tea estates, Windsor Forest offers a unique opportunity to develop these plantations into interactive learning zones where visitors can explore the heritage and practices of responsible tea production. Tourists can observe the delicate art of tea plucking during peak seasons and even participate under the guidance of experienced estate workers, gaining firsthand knowledge of the skill and care involved. Complementing this hands-on experience, tea tasting sessions led by tea experts provide insights into the different varieties, flavor profiles, and processing methods that make Sri Lankan tea world-renowned. These activities promote agro-tourism, support the local economy, and raise awareness about sustainable agricultural practices. Integrating tea plantation visits with forest conservation narratives can deepen visitors’ appreciation for the region’s cultural and ecological richness.

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4.1.8.3. Other Agro-Based Initiatives To further enrich agro-tourism in the Windsor Forest area, introducing community-managed spice gardens, forest home gardens, and organic vegetable farming can provide diverse and engaging experiences for visitors. These initiatives showcase traditional and sustainable agricultural practices that are closely linked with the region’s natural environment and cultural heritage. Tourists can explore aromatic spice plantations—such as cinnamon, cardamom, and pepper—participate in harvesting activities, and learn about the medicinal and culinary uses of native plants. Forest home gardens and organic vegetable plots highlight nature-integrated lifestyles that prioritize biodiversity, soil health, and eco-friendly cultivation methods. These activities not only offer hands-on learning opportunities but also promote awareness of sustainable agriculture, support community livelihoods, and encourage healthier living, making them attractive additions to the eco-tourism portfolio. 4.1.8.4. Visiting Tea and Coffee Factories Tourists can be taken on guided tours inside functioning tea or coffee factories to learn about post-harvest processes. These visits could include tastings, product purchases, and interactive Q&A sessions with factory staff, promoting local value chains.

4.1.9. Potential for other Types of Tourism Beyond the conventional tourism activities, Windsor Forest offers significant potential for educational tourism by serving as a living laboratory for university research programs, biodiversity documentation workshops, and school field trips. These initiatives can foster scientific inquiry, environmental awareness, and youth engagement with nature conservation. Volunteer tourism is another promising avenue, inviting visitors to actively participate in hands-on projects such as habitat restoration, control of invasive species (notably Clusia rosea, ‘Gal goraka’), and stream cleanups, which directly contribute to ecosystem health while providing meaningful visitor experiences. Additionally, interpretive tourism can be enhanced through the use of mobile apps, informative signage, and guided storytelling, enriching visitor understanding and encouraging responsible environmental behavior.

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Finally, Windsor Forest can become a showcase for climate adaptation tourism, highlighting efforts in ecological restoration, sustainable management of water resources, and the incorporation of indigenous knowledge systems that bolster the area’s resilience to climate change. These innovative tourism types not only diversify visitor offerings but also align with conservation goals and community empowerment.

4.2. Common Safety Measures for All Types of Tourism Activities Safety measures should be taken for tourists visiting Windsor Forest for eco-tourism and wildlife-

related activities. These measures aim to ensure visitor well-being, minimize the disturbance to wildlife, and uphold environmental integrity.

4.2.1. Trail and Terrain Safety ●

Marked and Maintained Trails: All trekking, cycling, and wildlife trails should be clearly marked with direction signs, elevation warnings, and resting points. Trails must be regularly maintained to prevent slips and falls.

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Guide Requirements: Tourists should always be accompanied by trained local guides, especially on forest trails, mountain climbs, and night walks.

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Weather Precaution: Avoid hiking or outdoor activities during heavy rain or misty conditions. Real-time weather updates should be available at tourist entry points.

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Restricted Areas: Hazard-prone zones (e.g., steep cliffs, landslide-prone slopes, snake-active zones) should be clearly marked and restricted.

4.2.2. Wildlife Interaction Safety To ensure a safe and responsible wildlife experience for all visitors, several safety measures must be strictly followed during any nature-based activity:

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No Feeding or Touching Wildlife: Feeding or attempting to touch wild animals is strictly prohibited. Such interactions can lead to disease transmission between humans and wildlife, alter animal behavior, and provoke aggressive encounters.

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Maintain Safe Distances: Observers must always maintain an appropriate distance from animals, particularly during sensitive periods such as breeding, nesting, or nursing. Sudden movements or encroachment can stress or provoke animals.

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Guided Observation Only: Activities such as night walks, amphibian spotting, and birdwatching should only take place under the supervision of trained field guides. These experts can ensure species are observed without disturbance and provide crucial information for safety.

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Wear Earthy-Colored and Protective Clothing: Visitors are advised to wear longsleeved shirts and pants in muted, earthy tones (greens, browns, greys) to blend with the environment and avoid attracting insects. Such clothing also provides protection against leeches, ticks, and thorny vegetation.

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Awareness of Potential Wildlife Encounters: Although rare, encounters with potentially dangerous animals such as leopards, wild boars, venomous snakes, and giant bees (Apis dorsata, locally known as ‘Bambara’) are possible o

To avoid leopard attacks, visitors should stay on designated trails, remain in groups, follow guide instructions closely, and avoid bringing or feeding dogs during walks or camping. Leopards are attracted to dogs, which can increase the risk of accidental encounters since dogs tend to stay close to humans. Special attention must be given to small children, even when they are in the bungalow or resort garden. According to estate staff, leopards have been known to visit the Assistant Manager’s bungalow garden.

To prevent wild boar attacks, visitors should also avoid straying off-trail and adhere to guide directions. Garbage should be properly managed and never left in ways that attract wild boars, as this can cause them to become habituated and roam near the bungalow area searching for food.

For protection against snake bites, appropriate clothing and footwear are essential. Visitors are recommended to wear ankle-high shoes or boots, long trousers (avoiding shorts), and long-sleeve tops. Each guest must carry a personal torch during night activities.

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To reduce the risk of giant bee attacks, safety cages made of wire mesh can be constructed around known beehive locations. No bee hives were recorded during the study, but their presence elsewhere cannot be ruled out.

Trained staff and a standby vehicle must be available to provide immediate assistance in case of any emergency.

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Risk of Illegal Hunting Devices: Visitors may be vulnerable to dangers posed by illegally set up firearms or traps intended for wild animals by poachers. These devices, often hidden along forest footpaths, pose serious threats to both wildlife and unsuspecting hikers. Therefore, all trails must be regularly monitored, and guides should remain vigilant and report any suspicious objects or setups immediately to the authorities. Tourists must be briefed on staying on marked trails and avoiding touching any unfamiliar objects.

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Respect Forest Boundaries: Tourists must never enter protected zones or cross boundaries established by the Department of Forest Conservation or other relevant conservation authorities such as the Department of Wildlife Conservation and the Central Environmental Authority. Guides should be fully familiar with these boundary lines and ensure that their groups remain within permitted areas to prevent human-wildlife conflicts and avoid habitat disturbance. During the study, a signboard marked ‘Keliwatta Reserved Forest’ (7.080853°, 80.441043°) and a Department of Forest Conservation (DFC) boundary post at the northeastern edge of the study area (7.084964°, 80.452502°) were observed. It is recommended to coordinate with the Department of Forest Conservation to confirm the exact demarcated boundaries.

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Sign board of ‘Keliwatta Reserved

A post of DFC (7.084964°, 80.452502°)

Forest’( 7.080853°, 80.441043°)

Plate 20: Observed signages of the Department of Forest Conservation

4.2.3. Health & Emergency Preparedness ●

First Aid Kits: All guides and activity stations (e.g., campsites, viewpoints) must be equipped with basic first aid kits. Emergency medicines should include allergy medication, antiseptics, bandages, and treatment for insect bites.

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Emergency Contact System: Clear instructions and signboards displaying emergency numbers (Regional offices of the Department of forest conservation and Department of wildlife Conservation, local hospital, ambulance services, police) should be present at visitor entry points and campsites.

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Medical Access Plan: A system for quick transportation to the nearest medical facility should be in place for handling injuries, heat stroke, dehydration, or allergic reactions.

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4.2.4. Fire and Invasive Species Risk Management ●

Fire-Free Policy: Open flames, campfires, and fireworks must be banned to prevent forest fires. Cooking must be allowed only in designated, controlled environments.

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Visitor Education on Invasive Species: Tourists should be informed about the impact of invasive species like Clusia rosea and asked not to disturb local vegetation or unknowingly introduce seeds or plant material, also not to take away any plant or part of plants, animals or animal parts.

4.2.5. Water Safety ●

Supervised Swimming Zones: Swimming should only be allowed in clearly marked, shallow, and safe sections of Digolanda Oya. Lifeguards or guides trained in water rescue should be present during activity hours. Visitors must not be allowed to enter the water during rainy days or when the water level is high. Life jackets should be provided whenever entering the water is necessary, as snorkeling safely with life jackets is possible.

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Estate Settlements: Waterways running through or adjacent to tea estates often become contaminated due to household waste and runoff from common latrines in estate communities. These factors can significantly impact water quality. Therefore, it is essential to identify and regularly monitor safe, clean zones for any water-based activities like swimming or snorkeling. Public awareness signage and local collaboration will be critical in maintaining water hygiene standards for tourists.

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Flash Flood Risks During Monsoon: During the monsoon season, streams, rivers, and waterfall areas are highly vulnerable to sudden increases in water volume due to upstream rainfall. These flash floods can pose serious risks to tourists engaged in water-related or nearby activities. It is crucial to install early warning systems, restrict access to high-risk zones during heavy rainfall periods, and ensure guides are trained to monitor weather updates and respond quickly to emergencies. There is a potential to occur a flash flood,

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4.2.6. Waste Management and Hygiene ●

Carry-In Carry-Out Policy: Tourists should be required to carry back all non-biodegradable waste (plastic bottles, wrappers, etc.). Eco-guides should monitor compliance.

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Sanitation Facilities: Campsites and activity hubs must include composting or dry toilets, and handwashing stations to ensure hygiene in remote areas.

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No Soap or Detergents in Streams: Washing or bathing with chemical products in natural water sources should be strictly prohibited.

4.2.7. Cultural Sensitivity and Community Safety ●

Dress Code and Behavior: Tourists visiting village areas or participating in cultural activities (e.g., temple visits, kithul tapping) must follow respectful dress codes and behavior.

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Interaction Guidelines: Tourist–local interactions should be respectful and supervised by community guides to prevent miscommunication or unintentional disrespect.

4.2.8. Risk Waivers and Orientation ●

Pre-Activity Briefings: Before all activities (e.g., trekking, cycling, wildlife walks), tourists must be briefed on safety, expected behavior, and emergency protocols.

●

Consent and Waivers: Tourists participating in moderate-risk activities (e.g., trekking, mountain climbing, cycling, swimming) should be required to sign informed risk acknowledgment forms when necessary.

118

4.3 Conservation, Restoration, and Habitat Enrichment 4.3.1. Conserving Existing Natural Habitats The existing natural forest, grasslands, and streams must be conserved in their current state. These ecosystems are already in ecological balance and should be preserved without alteration. Importantly, grasslands should not be replaced with trees, as they represent a distinct and equally valuable habitat type, comparable to forests. Grasslands support unique wildlife species that are specially adapted to open environments and cannot survive in forested ecosystems. Therefore, their ecological integrity must be maintained.

4.3.2 Habitat Enrichment Habitat enrichment is not recommended for the existing forest and grassland areas, as any artificial enhancement efforts may disrupt their natural equilibrium. However, management of invasive alien plant species is necessary to maintain habitat health. Detailed guidelines for managing these invasive species are provided under the relevant section of this report. Habitat enrichment can, however, be strategically implemented around built infrastructure, such as a future resort or bungalow intended for nature tourism. In such areas, native, endemic, and threatened plant species may be planted, along with fruit-bearing plants that attract birds and nectar-producing plants that support butterflies. Additional enrichment strategies may include: ● Establishing a butterfly garden ● Creating artificial nesting and roosting sites for birds and small mammals

These interventions can enhance the aesthetic and ecological value of the tourism zone without disturbing core habitats. Detailed recommendations for enrichment planning can be provided as a separate consultancy upon request.

4.3.3. Restoring Degraded Habitats There is a clear opportunity to restore areas where Pinus trees have been uprooted, using native forest plant species identified in the existing forest habitat. Restoration is a long-term ecological process, typically requiring a minimum of five years for meaningful results. A comprehensive restoration program involves multiple phases, including: ● Site assessment and detailed planning 119

● Selection of ecologically appropriate native plant species ● Establishment and operation of a plant nursery for sapling production ● Recruitment and training of long-term field staff ● Sequential planting (pioneer species followed by secondary species) ● Management of invasive species, pest control, and watering regimes ● Replacement of dead saplings ● Regular monitoring and adaptive management

Due to the complexity of ecological restoration, ongoing expert support is critical to ensure long-term success. A detailed restoration plan and technical guidance can be provided upon request as part of a separate consultancy service.

Plate 21: Pinus uprooted areas (RR)

120

Map 11: Existing and uprooted pinus plantations

4.4. Existing and Potential Threats and Mitigation Measures 4.4.1. Fire During the study, fire was observed in several locations, including the eastern side of the forest, within the grassland habitat, and in disturbed areas near the Assistant Manager’s bungalow. Fire poses a severe risk to both wildlife and infrastructure, including the bungalow and the adjacent plant nursery. It was recorded that approximately 5 hectares of land were destroyed due to fire during the survey period. Fire is especially destructive to slow-moving animals and plants, which are unable to escape rapidly advancing flames. Even insect species such as butterflies and bees, though not directly in the fire-affected zone, are vulnerable to the harmful effects of smoke, which can impact areas far beyond the burn site. Due to limited resources, the estate staff are currently unable to control fires effectively, highlighting the need for proactive fire prevention measures.

121

Recommended Mitigation Measures 1. Identify the Cause of Fire The first step in mitigation is to investigate the underlying causes of fire. Possible causes include: ● Natural forest fires ● Intentional burning by individuals ● Accidental ignition from careless activities, such as discarding cigarette butts

A combination of field investigations and interviews with local residents and estate staff is recommended to determine the root cause.

2. If the Cause Is Anthropogenic If human activity is found to be the primary cause, the following measures are recommended: ● Awareness programs for local communities and estate workers regarding fire risks ● Strict disciplinary measures, such as enforcing a no-smoking policy within sensitive zones ● Legal enforcement to deter intentional fire-setting

3. If the Cause Is Natural If the fire is determined to be a natural occurrence, mitigation is more challenging. However, the following actions can reduce damage: ● Establish fire belts or fire breaks in strategically selected locations to contain fire spread ● Install fire extinguishers and fire alarms in all existing and future buildings ● Construct large water storage tanks in suitable locations using naturally flowing water sources ● Install water pumps near each tank to allow rapid response and spraying during fire incidents

4. Fire Risk Management in Tourism Activities If campsites or other nature-based tourism activities are introduced: ● Campfires must be strictly prohibited ● All guests should be informed in advance about fire risks and safety regulations 122

● Smoking must be prohibited during outdoor activities in or near fire-prone areas

Effective fire prevention and response require long-term planning, appropriate infrastructure investment, and community engagement. Additional technical advice and a detailed fire risk management plan can be developed upon request as part of a separate consultancy.

Plate 22: Impact of fire (RR)

4.4.2. Poaching Although no direct signs of poaching were observed during the study period, there remains a potential risk of illegal hunting activities. Local communities may resort to using traps to hunt species such as wild boar, sambar deer, and barking deer. To address this potential threat, the following measures are recommended: ● Conducting awareness programs for local residents to educate them on the ecological importance of wildlife and the legal implications of poaching

123

● Enforcing wildlife protection laws through collaboration with local authorities, and taking legal action against any confirmed incidents of poaching

Preventive measures, combined with consistent monitoring and community engagement, will be essential to ensure long-term wildlife conservation in the area.

4.4.3. Alien Invasive Species During the study, a total of seven alien invasive plant species and one alien invasive animal species were recorded within the study area.

4.4.3.1. Invasive Animal Species The only alien invasive animal species observed was the Guppy (Poecilia reticulata), a small freshwater fish widely distributed in the streams. Due to its tiny size and extensive spread, it is not feasible to propose an eradication strategy at this stage. Moreover, the guppy's ecological impact in this context is considered minor.

4.4.3.2. Main Invasive Plant Species Among the recorded invasive plant species, Clusia rosea (Gal Goraka) poses the greatest threat to the local ecosystem. This species was found widely spread across grasslands, rock surfaces, and along stream banks. Its rapid growth and invasive nature allow it to: ●

Outcompete native vegetation

●

Alter habitat structures

●

Negatively impact associated fauna

If immediate eradication measures are not taken, it is anticipated that within five years, Clusia rosea will dominate grasslands, rock surfaces, and other open habitats, resulting in a significant decline in biodiversity and degradation of the scenic landscape.

4.4.3.3. Other Invasive Plant Species While their populations are currently limited, other alien invasive (AI) plant species observed during the study are also considered ecologically damaging. Early eradication at this stage is feasible and strongly recommended. These species include: ●

Miconia crenata – Observed spreading rapidly in areas where Pinus trees have been uprooted

●

Chromolaena odorata – Found in Grassland 2 and disturbed zones

●

Sphagneticola trilobata – Present around the Assistant Manager’s bungalow and estate worker residences

●

Megathyrsus maximus – Detected in disturbed grasslands

124

●

Lantana camara – Also noted in disturbed areas and grassland edges

Recommendations 1. Immediate removal of Clusia rosea from all accessible locations 2. Targeted eradication programs for other invasive species while their populations remain manageable 3. Ongoing monitoring to detect new invasions or regrowth 4. Community awareness campaigns to prevent the intentional or accidental spread of invasive species 5. If required, technical guidance and a site-specific invasive species management plan can be developed through a dedicated consultancy service

4.4.3.4. Instructions for Eradication of Alien Invasive Plant Species To effectively control alien invasive (AI) plant species and prevent their re-establishment, the following guidelines are recommended: 1. Method of Removal ● Mechanical and selective removal is advised for all identified AI plant species. Complete uprooting is essential—no roots, fruits, seeds, twigs, or any vegetative part should be left behind, as even the smallest remnants may regenerate. ● Free-floating aquatic invasive herbs should be removed using hand nets.

2. On-Site Destruction ● All removed plant materials must be destroyed on-site. Do not transport any part of the invasive plants to other locations, as propagative parts (e.g., seeds, fruits, or twigs) may fall and spread during transit. ● Burial in a deep pit is the recommended disposal method. This technique is environmentally friendly and effectively prevents regrowth. ● Burning is discouraged, as it can cause uncontrolled fires, destroy native habitats, and release harmful pollutants into the atmosphere.

125

3. Hygiene and Biosecurity Measures ● Seeds or fruits of invasive plants can easily cling to clothing, shoes, tools, and vehicles. All equipment and attire used in eradication efforts must be thoroughly cleaned on-site before being moved elsewhere. ● This minimizes the risk of accidental dispersal of invasive species to new locations.

4. Handling Propagative Parts ● If AI plants carry mature seeds or fruits, these should be carefully collected and contained before the plant is uprooted. ● The collected propagative parts must also be buried in a designated deep pit to ensure complete destruction.

5. Use of Chemicals ● Weedicides may be used, but only under the guidance and supervision of a qualified invasive species specialist to avoid collateral damage to native flora and fauna.

6. Monitoring and Follow-Up ● Post-removal monitoring is critical. Weekly inspections should be conducted by trained personnel or an expert to detect any signs of regrowth or new germination. ● Monitoring should continue until it is confirmed that the invasive population has been successfully eliminated.

7. Awareness and Prevention ● Awareness campaigns must be implemented to educate estate staff and the general public on: ○ The risks associated with alien invasive species ○ How to avoid introducing new invasive species into natural habitats ● Signboards with clear instructions and visuals should be installed at key entry points and vulnerable areas.

126

8. Tourism-Related Measures ● With the development of eco-tourism in the area, there is an increased risk of tourists collecting and spreading invasive plant seeds—often due to their attractive flowers. ● All visitors must be briefed beforehand on the environmental threats posed by alien invasive species. ● Tour guides and naturalists should remain alert during outdoor excursions to ensure no seeds, saplings, or parts of invasive species are collected by guests.

Asteraceae

Chromolaena Podi-singnomaran, odorata Lokkan-nattan I

Sphagneticola Udaya kumari, Kaha karabu, trilobata Arunadevi I

Clusia rosea

Gal Goraka, Gal Pilila I

Dilleniaceae

Dillenia suffruticosa

Para, Diyapara, Godapara I

Miconia crenata

KatakaluBovotiya, Japan-bovitya, Nylonbovitiya I

Megathyrsus maximus

Gini tana / Rata tana, Ginikeeressa I

Lantana camara

Ganda-pana, Garda-pana, Katu-hinguru, Rata-hinguru, Ton-kinna I

Poaceae

Verbenaceae

127

grass

Clusiaceae

Melastomataceae

Herb

Shrub

Distribution NCS status 2020

Vine

Asteraceae

Sinhala name

Tree

Species

Habit

Habitat 3-Streams

Family APG IV

Habitat 2-Grassland

Habitat 1-Forest

Table 16: Alien Invasive Flora observed during the study

Table 17: Alien Invasive Fauna observed during the study

Family Poeciliidae

Scientific Name Poecilia reticulata

Common English name Guppy

Distribution

NCS 2012

Flower, bud, young fruit

Ripen fruits

Opened mature fruit with seeds. (ND)

Seedlings

Spread

128

Spread Plate 23: Habit and distribution of Clusia rosea (RR)

129

Miconia crenata

Miconia crenata spread in pinus uprooted area , a the top of the forest ( 7.084051°, 80.447861°)

Chromolaena odorata

Lantana camara

Megathyrsus maximus

Dillenia suffruticosa

Plate 24: Other Alien Invasive plant species (RR)

130

4.4.4. Environmental Pollution There is a potential risk of sewage water from nearby households being released into the streams. It is recommended to conduct an investigation to determine whether such discharges are occurring. If confirmed, appropriate actions must be taken to prevent further pollution. One of the most effective approaches is to raise awareness among the local community about the harmful impacts of improper waste disposal and to support them in adopting better household waste management practices. Contamination of streams not only poses a serious threat to aquatic biodiversity, but also negatively affects the potential for water-based tourism activities, such as fish watching and nature bathing, which rely on clean and healthy freshwater ecosystems.

131

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12. Jayasuriya A.H.M. A taxonomic note on the genus Mimosa (Fabaceae) and the potential invasiveness of M. diplotricha in Sri Lanka (Giant sensitive plant). 13. Jayawardana, N. C. and Jayawardana A. (2020) A Handbook to the Moths of Sri Lanka. Vol 1. Department of Wildlife Conservation. XXVIII + 194pp 14. Kusuminda, Tharaka & Mannakkara, Amani & Gamage, Rajika & Patterson, Bruce & Yapa, Wipula. (2021). Roosting Ecology of Insectivorous Bats in A Tropical Agricultural Landscape. Mammalia. 86. 10.1515/mammalia-2021-0056. 15. Kusuminda, Tharaka & Mannakkara, Amani & Patterson, Bruce & Yapa, Wipula. (2019). Bats in Tea Plantations in Sri Lanka: Species Richness and Distribution. Barbastella. 11. 2018. 16. Manamendra-Arachchi, K. and Rohan Pethiyagoda, R. (2006) Y%S% ,xldfõ WNhÔùka (Amphibians of Sri Lanka). WHT Publications (Pvt) Ltd. 17. Pethiyagoda, R. (1991) Freshwater fishes of Sri Lanka. Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka. 18. Somaweera, R. (2006) Snakes of Sri Lanka. Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka. 19. Somaweera, R. and Somaweera, N. (2009) Lizards of Sri Lanka. Chaimaira publications, Germany. 20. Srinivasulu, Bhargavi & Kusuminda, Tharaka & Srinivasulu, Aditya & Ukuwela, Kanishka & Amarasinghe, Chamara & Siriwardana, Sahan & Kaur, Harpreet & Mannakkara, Amani & Soisook, Pipat & Kamalakannan, Manokaran & Yapa, Wipula & Srinivasulu, Chelmala. (2025). Taxonomic revision of the South Asian allies of Hipposideros

galeritus

Cantor,

1846.

Zootaxa.

5590.

507-530.

10.11646/zootaxa.5590.4.3. 21. Sumanapala, A.P. (2017) A Field Guide to the Dragonflies and Damselflies of Sri Lanka. Colombo, Sri Lanka. Ceylon Tea Services PLC. 22. The National Red List (2020) Conservation status of flora of Sri Lanka. Biodiversity Secretariat of the Ministry of Environment and the National Herbarium, Department of National Botanical Gardens, Peradeniya. 23. The National Red List (2021) Conservation Status of the Birds of Sri Lanka. Biodiversity Secretariat, Ministry of Environment, Sri Lanka 24. Van der Poorten, G. M. and Van der Poorten, N. E. (2016) The Butterfly Fauna of Sri Lanka. Lepodon Books.

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25. Vlas, J. and Vals J. D. J. (2008) Illustrated Field Guide to the flowers of Sri Lanka. Vol 2. Mark Booksellers and Distributors (Pvt) Ltd. 26. Vlas, J. and Vals J. D. J. (2008) Illustrated Field Guide to the flowers of Sri Lanka. Vol 3. Mark Booksellers and Distributors (Pvt) Ltd. 27. Vlas, J. D. and Vals J. D. J. (2008) Illustrated Field Guide to the flowers of Sri Lanka. Vol 1. Mark Booksellers and Distributors (Pvt) Ltd. 28. Warakagoda, D., Inskipp, C., Inskipp, T. and Grimmet, R. (2012) Birds of Sri Lanka. Christopher Helm. London 29. Weerakoon, D.K. & S. Wijesundara Eds. (2012) Conservation Status of the Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka. In: The National Red List. Ministry of Environment, Colombo, Sri Lanka. 30. Wickramasinghe, L.J.M., D.R. Vidanapathirana, M.D.G. Rajeev & N. Wickramasinghe (2013). Rediscovery of Pseudophilautus hypomelas (Günther, 1876) (Amphibia: Anura: Rhacophoridae) from the Peak Wilderness, Sri Lanka, a species thought to be extinct.

Journal

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5(17):

5181–5193;

http://dx.doi.org/10.11609/JoTT.o3547.5181-93 31. Wijeratne, G. S. (2020) A Naturalists Guide to the Mammals of Sri Lanka. John Beaufoy Publisher 32. Yapa, A. and Ratnavira, G. (2013) The Mammals of Sri Lanka. Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka.

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Annexures DD - Data Deficient, NE - Not Evaluated, LC - Least Concern, NT - Near Threatened, VU - Vulnerable, EN - Endangered, CR - Critically Endangered, EX Extint

Annexure 1 - List of all the Recorded Amphibian Species

Bufonidae

Adenomus kelaartii

Bufonidae

Kelaart's dwarf toad

Distrib NCS 2012 ution

GCS

Duttaphrynus melanostictus Common toad

Dicroglossidae

Euphlyctis mudigere

Mudigere skipper frog

Dicroglossidae

Minervarya agricola

Common paddy field frog

Dicroglossidae

Minervarya kirtisinghei

Kirtisinghe's frog

135

1 1

Previous records/Potent ial sp

Common English name

Common list for all habitats

Previous records/Potent ial sp Observed

Scientific Name

Habitat 3streams

Previous records/Potent ial sp Observed

Family

Observed during the study Previous

Habitat 2grassland

records/Potent ial sp Observed

Habitat 1Forest

1 1

Distrib NCS 2012 ution

GCS

Dicroglossidae

Nannophrys ceylonensis

Sri Lankan rock frog

Microhylidae

Microhyla zeylanica

Sri Lanka Narrow mouthed frog

Ceylonese Narrowmouthed Frog

Microhylidae

Uperodon obscurus

Corrugated water frog

Ranidae

Gravenhorst's Frog/Sri Lanka Woodfrog

Günther's GoldenBacked Frog

Ranidae

Indosylvirana temporalis

Nyctibatrachidae Lankanectes corrugatus

Hylarana gracilis

1 NT

VU 1

Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus alto

Horton Plains shrub frog

Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus asankai

Asanka's shrub frog

Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus auratus

Golden shrub frog

Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus caeruleus Blue thigh shrub frog

136

Previous records/Potent ial sp

Common English name

Common list for all habitats

Previous records/Potent ial sp Observed

Scientific Name

Habitat 3streams

Previous records/Potent ial sp Observed

Family

Observed during the study Previous

Habitat 2grassland

records/Potent ial sp Observed

Habitat 1Forest

1 1

Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus cavirostris

Rhacophoridae

Hollow-snouted shrub frog

Distrib NCS 2012 ution

GCS

Pseudophilautus femoralis Leaf-nesting shrub

Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus fergusonianus

Ferguson's shrub

Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus folicola

Leaf dwelling shrub

Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus fulvus

Knuckles shrub frog

Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus hypomelas

Webless shrub frog

Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus microtympanum

Small eared shrub frog

Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus mittermeieri

Mittermeier's shrub frog

Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus nemus

Whistling shrub frog

Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus pleurotaenia

Side-striped shrub frog

Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus popularis Common shrub frog

137

1 1

Previous records/Potent ial sp

Common English name

Common list for all habitats

Previous records/Potent ial sp Observed

Scientific Name

Habitat 3streams

Previous records/Potent ial sp Observed

Family

Observed during the study Previous

Habitat 2grassland

records/Potent ial sp Observed

Habitat 1Forest

1 1

Distrib NCS 2012 ution

GCS

Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus reticulatus

Reticulated thigh shrub frog

Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus rus

Kandian shrub frog

Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus sarasinorum

Muller's shrub frog

Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus schmarda Schmarda's shrub frog

Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus schneideri

Schneider's shrub frog

Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus semiruber

Annandale's shrub frog

Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus singu

Horned shrub frog

1 1

1 34

Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus sordidus Grubby shrub frog

VU 1

Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus stictomerus

Orange canthal shrub frog

Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus viridis

Dull-green shrub frog

138

Previous records/Potent ial sp

Common English name

Common list for all habitats

Previous records/Potent ial sp Observed

Scientific Name

Habitat 3streams

Previous records/Potent ial sp Observed

Family

Observed during the study Previous

Habitat 2grassland

records/Potent ial sp Observed

Habitat 1Forest

1 1

Distrib NCS 2012 ution

GCS

Rhacophoridae

Pseudophilautus zorro

Gannoruwa shrub frog

Rhacophoridae

Taruga eques

Mountain hourglass tree frog

Previous records/Potent ial sp

Common English name

Common list for all habitats

Previous records/Potent ial sp Observed

Scientific Name

Habitat 3streams

Previous records/Potent ial sp Observed

Family

Observed during the study Previous

Habitat 2grassland

records/Potent ial sp Observed

Habitat 1Forest

Rhacophoridae

Taruga longinasus

Long-snouted tree frog

Icthyophiidae

Ichthyophis glutinosus

Ceylon caecilian

Totals Totals

139

1 1

16 34

1 5

1 6

4 13

1 22

18 40

Annexure 2 - List of all the Recorded Fish Species

Habitat 3-streams

Distribution

NCS 2020

Smooth-breasted snakehead

Devario malabaricus

Giant danio

Cyprinidae

Garra ceylonensis

Stone sucker

Nemacheilidae

Schistura notostigma

Banded mountain loach

Osphronemidae

Belontia signata

Combtail

Poeciliidae

Poecilia reticulata

Guppy

Family

Channidae

Channa orientalis

Danionidae

Scientific Name

Common English name

GCS

Totals

140

Observed Previous during records/Potential the study sp

Annexure 3 - List of all the Recorded Reptile Species

Common Habitat 1- Habitat 2- Habitat 3list for all Forest grassland streams habitats Distributio NCS 2012 n

Calotes calotes

Green garden lizard

Agamidae

Calotes liocephalus

Crestless lizard

Agamidae

Calotes versicolor

Common garden lizard

Agamidae

Ceratophora stoddartii

Rhinohorn lizard

Agamidae

Cophotis ceylanica

Pygmy lizard

Agamidae

Lyriocephalus scutatus

Lyre head lizard / Hump snouted lizard

Agamidae

Otocryptis wiegmanni

Sri Lankan kangaroo lizard

Gekkonidae

Cnemaspis pava

Little day gecko

Gekkonidae

Cyrtodactylus fraenatus

Great forest gecko

Gekkonidae

Cyrtodactylus triedra

Gekkonidae

Gehyra mutilata

GCS

1 1

Spotted bowfinger gecko

Four-claw gecko

141

1 1

Previous records/Poten tial sp

Agamidae

Common English name

Previous records/Poten tial sp Observed

Scientific Name

Previous records/Poten tial sp Observed

Family

Observed during the study Previous records/Poten tial sp Observed

1 1

Common Habitat 1- Habitat 2- Habitat 3list for all Forest grassland streams habitats Distributio NCS 2012 n

Gekkonidae

Hemiphyllodactylus typus

Slender gecko

Scincidae

Nessia monodactylus

Toeless snakeskink

Mabuyidae

Eutropis lankae

Common skink

Mabuyidae

Eutropis greeri

Greer's skink

Mabuyidae

Eutropis madaraszi

Spotted skink

Ristellidae

Lankascincus dorsicatenatus

Catenated litter skink

Ristellidae

Lankascincus fallax

Common lankaskink

Ristellidae

Lankascincus gansi

Gans’s lankaskink

Ristellidae

Lankascincus sripadensis

Sripada forest skink

Ristellidae

Lankascincus taprobanensis

Smooth lanka skink

Ristellidae

Lankascincus taylori

Taylor’s lanka skink

Lygosomidae Riopa punctata

Dotted skink

Varanidae

Land monitor

Varanus bengalensis

142

GCS

Previous records/Poten tial sp

Common English name

Previous records/Poten tial sp Observed

Scientific Name

Previous records/Poten tial sp Observed

Family

Observed during the study Previous records/Poten tial sp Observed

1 1

Common Habitat 1- Habitat 2- Habitat 3list for all Forest grassland streams habitats Distributio NCS 2012 n

Varanus salvator

Water monitor

Pythonidae

Python molurus

Indian python

Cylindrophid Cylindrophis maculata ae

Pipe snake

Colubridae

Ahaetulla nasuta

Green vine snake

Colubridae

Boiga barnesii

Barnes’s cat snake

Colubridae

Boiga ceylonensis

Sri Lanka cat snake

Colubridae

Boiga ranawanei

Ranawan's cat snake

Colubridae

Coeloganthus helena

Trinket snake

Colubridae

Dendrelaphis caudolineolatus

Gunther’s bronze back

Colubridae

Dendrelaphis schokari

Schokari’s bronze back

Colubridae

Dendrelaphis wickrorum

Wickramasinghe's bronze back

Colubridae

Lycodon aulicus

Wolf snake

Colubridae

Lycodon carinata

Sri Lanka wolf snake

143

GCS

Previous records/Poten tial sp

Varanidae

Common English name

Previous records/Poten tial sp Observed

Scientific Name

Previous records/Poten tial sp Observed

Family

Observed during the study Previous records/Poten tial sp Observed

1 1

Common Habitat 1- Habitat 2- Habitat 3list for all Forest grassland streams habitats Distributio NCS 2012 n

Colubridae

Oligodon calamarius

Templeton’s kukri snake

Colubridae

Oligodon sublineatus

Dumerul’s kuki snake

Colubridae

Ptyas mucosa

Rat snake

Colubridae

Aspidura brachyorrhos

Boie’s roughside

Colubridae

Aspidura ceylonensis

Black spine snake / Mould snake

Colubridae

Aspidura copei

Cope’s roughside

Colubridae

Aspidura drummondhayi

Drummond – Hay’s roughside

Colubridae

Aspidura trachyprocta

Common roughside

Colubridae

Atretium schistosum

Olive keelback water-snake

Colubridae

Fowlea asperrima

Sri Lanka keelback watersnake

Colubridae

Fowlea unicolor

Tikiri Keelback

Colubridae

Rhabdophis ceylonensis

Sri Lanka Blossom Krait

Elapidae

Bungarus ceylonicus

Sri Lanka krait / Ceylon krait

144

GCS

Previous records/Poten tial sp

Common English name

Previous records/Poten tial sp Observed

Scientific Name

Previous records/Poten tial sp Observed

Family

Observed during the study Previous records/Poten tial sp Observed

Common English name

Distributio NCS 2012 n

GCS

Previous records/Poten tial sp

Scientific Name

Previous records/Poten tial sp Observed

Family

Previous records/Poten tial sp Observed

Observed during the study Previous records/Poten tial sp Observed

Common Habitat 1- Habitat 2- Habitat 3list for all Forest grassland streams habitats

Elapidae

Naja naja

Indian cobra

Typhlopidae

Indotyphlops braminus

Common blind snake

Uropeltidae

Rhinophis blythii

Blyth’s earth snake

Uropeltidae

Rhinophis homolepis

Kelaarts earth snake

Uropeltidae

Rhinophis melanogaster

Black shield tail

Viperidae

Daboia russelii

Russell’s viper

Viperidae

Hypnale hypnale

Merrem’s Hump nose viper

Viperidae

Hypnale nepa

Millard’s hump-nosed viper

Viperidae

Hypnale zara

Stripe-necked hump-nosed viper

Viperidae

Peltopelor trigonocephalus Green pit viper

Totals Totals

145

1 1

36 43

1 3

12 15

4 4

52 60

Annexure 4 - List of all the Recorded Mammal Species

Common English name Distribution NCS 2012

GCS

Previous records/Pote ntial sp

Scientific Name

Previous records/Pote ntial sp Observed

Family

Previous records/Pote ntial sp Observed

Observed during the study Previous records/Pote ntial sp Observed

Common Habitat 1- Habitat 2- Habitat 3list for all forest grassland streams habitats

1 Manidae

Manis crassicaudata

Indian Pangolin

2 Soricidae

Crocidura miya

Sri Lanka long-tailed shrew

3 Soricidae

Feroculus feroculus

Kelaart’s long-clawed shrew

4 Soricidae

Solisorex pearsoni

Sri Lanka Pearson’s long-clawed shrew

5 Soricidae

Suncus fellowes-gordoni

Sri Lanka pigmy shrew

6 Soricidae

Suncus montanus

Sri Lanka Highland shrew

7 Hipposideridae

Hipposideros srilankaensis

Sri Lanka leaf-nosed bat

8 Hipposideridae

Hipposideros speoris

Schneider’s leaf-nosed bat

9 Pteropodidae

Cynopterus brachyotis

Lesser dog-nosed fruit bat

10 Pteropodidae

Pteropus medius

Flying fox

146

Common Habitat 1- Habitat 2- Habitat 3list for all forest grassland streams habitats GCS

11 Pteropodidae

Rousettus leschenaulti

Fulvous fruit bat

12 Pteropodidae

Cynopterus sphinx

Short-nosed fruit bat

13 Rhinolophidae

Rhinolophus rouxii

Rufous horse-shoe bat

14 Miniopteridae

Miniopterus philipsi

Bent-winged bat

15 Vespertillionidae

Pipistrellus ceylonicus

Kelaart’s pipistrel

16 Cercopithecidae

Macaca sinica

Toque Macaque

17 Cercopithecidae

Semnopithecus vetulus

Purple-faced Langur

18 Lorisidae

Loris tardigradus

Red Slender Loris

19 Felidae

Panthera pardus

Leopard

20 Felidae

Prionailurus rubiginosus

Rusty-spotted cat

21 Felidae

Prionailurus viverrinus

Fishing cat

22 Herpestidae

Urva fuscus

Brown mongoose

23 Herpestidae

Urva edwardsii

Grey mongoose

24 Herpestidae

Urva smithii

Black-tipped or Ruddy mongoose

147

Previous records/Pote ntial sp

Common English name Distribution NCS 2012

Previous records/Pote ntial sp Observed

Scientific Name

Previous records/Pote ntial sp Observed

Family

Observed during the study Previous records/Pote ntial sp Observed

1 1

Common English name Distribution NCS 2012

GCS

Previous records/Pote ntial sp

Scientific Name

Previous records/Pote ntial sp Observed

Family

Previous records/Pote ntial sp Observed

Observed during the study Previous records/Pote ntial sp Observed

Common Habitat 1- Habitat 2- Habitat 3list for all forest grassland streams habitats

25 Herpestidae

Urva vitticolla

Stripe-necked or badger mongoose

26 Mustelidae

Lutra lutra

Otter

27 Viverridae

Paradoxurus hermaphroditus

Palm cat/ Common Palm Civet

28 Viverridae

Paradoxurus zeylonensis

Golden Palm Civet

29 Viverridae

Viverricula indica

Small Indian Civet

30 Cervidae

Rusa unicolor

Sambur

31 Cervidae

Muntiacus muntjak

Barking deer/Southern Red Muntjac

32 Suidae

Sus scrofa

Wild boar

33 Tragulidae

Moschiola kathygre

Sri Lanka pygmy mouse-deer/Yellowstriped Chevrotain

34 Hystricidae

Hystrix indica

Indian Crested Porcupine

35 Muridae

Bandicota bengalensis

Mole rat/Lesser Bandicoot Rat

36 Muridae

Golunda ellioti

Indian Bush-rat

148

1 1

Common English name Distribution NCS 2012

GCS

37 Muridae

Mus booduga

Field mouse

38 Muridae

Rattus montanus

Sri Lankan Mountain Rat

39 Muridae

Rattus rattus

Common rat/ House rat

40 Muridae

Srilankamys ohiensis

Ohiya Rat

41 Muridae

Vandeleuria nolthenii

Sri Lankan Highland Tree Mouse

42 Muridae

Vandeleuria oleracea

Asiatic Long-tailed Climbing Mouse

43 Sciuridae

Petaurista philippensis

Indian Giant Flying Squirrel

44 Sciuridae

Petinomys fuscocapillus

Small flying squirrel

45 Sciuridae

Funambulus layardi

Layard's Palm Squirrel

46 Sciuridae

Funambulus palmarum

Common Palm Squirrel

47 Sciuridae

Funambulus obscurus

Dusky-striped jungle squirrel

48 Sciuridae

Ratufa macroura

Sri Lankan Giant Squirrel

149

Previous records/Pote ntial sp

Scientific Name

Previous records/Pote ntial sp Observed

Family

Previous records/Pote ntial sp Observed

Observed during the study Previous records/Pote ntial sp Observed

Common Habitat 1- Habitat 2- Habitat 3list for all forest grassland streams habitats

1 1

49 Leporidae

Lepus nigricollis

Common English name Distribution NCS 2012

GCS

Indian Hare

Totals Totals

150

Previous records/Pote ntial sp

Scientific Name

Previous records/Pote ntial sp Observed

Family

Previous records/Pote ntial sp Observed

Observed during the study Previous records/Pote ntial sp Observed

Common Habitat 1- Habitat 2- Habitat 3list for all forest grassland streams habitats

1 13

35 48

18 22

1 2

0 2

34 49

Annexure 5 - List of all the Recorded Bird Species Habitat 1Forest NCS GCS 2021 2021

Habitat 3streams

Common list for all habitats

Galloperdix bicalcarata

Sri Lanka Spurfowl

Phasianidae

Gallus lafayettii

Sri Lanka Junglefowl

Rallidae

Amaurornis phoenicurus

White-breasted Waterhen

Ardeidae

Ixobrychus flavicollis

Black Bittern

N,M

Ardeidae

Ardeola grayii

Indian Pond-heron

Phalacrocoraci Microcarbo niger dae

Little Cormorant

Falconidae

Falco peregrinus

Shaheen Falcon/Peregrine Falcon

N,M

Accipitridae

Pernis ptilorhyncus

Oriental Honey-buzzard

N,M

Accipitridae

Spilornis cheela

Crested Serpent-eagle

Accipitridae

Accipiter trivirgatus

Crested Goshawk

Accipitridae

Accipiter badius

Shikra

Accipitridae

Accipiter virgatus

Besra

Accipitridae

Ictinaetus malayensis

Black Eagle

Accipitridae

Lophotriorchis kienerii

Rufous-bellied Eagle

151

Observed

Previous records/Poten tial sp

Phasianidae

Previous records/Poten tial sp Observed

Observed

Common English Name

Previous records/Poten tial sp

Scientific Name

records/Poten tial sp

Family

Observed during the study Previous

Distribution

Habitat 2grassland

1 1 1

1 1

Accipitridae

Nisaetus cirrhatus

Changeable Hawk-eagle, Crested Hawk-eagle

Accipitridae

Nisaetus kelaarti

Legge's hawk-eagle, (AKA: Mountain Hawkeagle)

Accipitridae

Buteo buteo

Common/ Eurasian Buzzard

Columbidae

Columba torringtoniae

Sri Lanka Woodpigeon

Columbidae

Spilopelia suratensis

Western Spotted Dove/Spotted Dove

Columbidae

Chalcophaps indica

Grey-capped EmeraldDove/ Emerald Dove

Columbidae

Treron pompadora

Sri Lanka Greenpigeon

Columbidae

Ducula aenea

Green Imperial-pigeon

Psittacidae

Loriculus beryllinus

Sri Lanka Hangingparrot

Psittacidae

Psittacula eupatria

Alexandrine Parakeet

Psittacidae

Psittacula krameri

Rose-ringed Parakeet

Psittacidae

Psittacula cyanocephala

Plum-headed Parakeet

Psittacidae

Psittacula calthropae

Sri Lanka Emeraldcollared Parakeet

Cuculidae

Hierococcyx varius

Common Hawk-cuckoo

N,M

Cuculidae

Cuculus micropterus

Indian Cuckoo

N,M

Cuculidae

Surniculus dicruroides

Fork-tailed Drongo Cuckoo/ Drongo Cuckoo

Cuculidae

Eudynamys scolopaceus

Western Koel/ Asian Koel

Cuculidae

Centropus sinensis

Greater Coucal

Cuculidae

Cacomantis passerinus

Grey-bellied Cuckoo

152

1 1

Strigidae

Otus sunia

Oriental Scops-owl

Strigidae

Otus bakkamoena

Indian Scops Owl/Collared Scopsowl

Strigidae

Bubo nipalensis

Spot-bellied Eagle-owl

Strigidae

Ketupa zeylonensis

Brown Fish-owl

Strigidae

Strix leptogrammica

Brown Wood-owl

Strigidae

Ninox scutulata

Brown Hawk-owl/ Brown Boobook

Apodidae

Aerodramus unicolor

Indian Swiftlet

Apodidae

Cypsiurus balasiensis

Asian Palm-swift

Apodidae

Apus melba

Alpine Swift

Apodidae

Apus affinis

Little Swift/ House Swift

Trogonidae

Harpactes fasciatus

Malabar Trogon

Alcedinidae

Pelargopsis capensis

Stork-billed Kingfisher

Alcedinidae

Halcyon smyrnensis

White-throated Kingfisher

Alcedinidae

Ceyx erithaca

Oriental Dwarfkingfisher/ Blackbacked/Kingfisher

Meropidae

Merops philippinus

Blue-tailed Bee-eater

Bucerotidae

Ocyceros gingalensis

Sri Lanka Grey Hornbill

Megalaimidae Psilopogon zeylanicus

Brown-headed Barbet

Megalaimidae Psilopogon flavifrons

Sri Lanka Yellowfronted Barbet

Megalaimidae Psilopogon rubricapillus Sri Lanka Barbet

Picidae

Yungipicus nanus

Brown-capped Woodpecker/ Indian Pygmy / Woodpecker

153

1 1

Picidae

Picus chlorolophus

Lesser Yellownape

Picidae

Dinopium psarodes

Sri Lanka Lesser Flameback

Picidae

Chrysocolaptes stricklandi

Sri Lanka Greater Flameback

Artamidae

Artamus fuscus

Ashy Woodswallow

Aegithinidae

Aegithina tiphia

Common Iora

Vangidae

Hemipus picatus

Bar-winged Flycatchershrike

Campephagida Coracina melanoptera e

Black-headed Cuckooshrike

Campephagida Pericrocotus e cinnamomeus

Small Minivet

Campephagida Pericrocotus flammeus e

Orange/ Scarlet Minivet

Laniidae

Lanius cristatus

Brown Shrike

Oriolidae

Oriolus xanthornus

Black-hooded Oriole

Dicruridae

Dicrurus caerulescens

White-bellied Drongo

Rhipiduridae

Rhipidura aureola

White-browed Fantail

Monarchidae

Hypothymis azurea

Black-naped Monarch

Monarchidae

Terpsiphone paradisi

Asian Paradiseflycatcher

N,M

Corvidae

Corvus macrorhynchos

Indian Jungle Crow/ Large-billed Crow

Paridae

Parus cinereus

Cinereous Tit/ AKA: Great Tit

Hirundinidae

Cecropis hyperythra

Sri Lanka Swallow

Hirundinidae

Hirundo rustica

Barn Swallow

154

Cisticolidae

Cisticola juncidis

Zitting Cisticola

Cisticolidae

Prinia hodgsonii

Grey-breasted Prinia

Cisticolidae

Prinia socialis

Ashy Prinia

Cisticolidae

Prinia inornata

Plain Prinia

Cisticolidae

Orthotomus sutorius

Common Tailorbird

Pycnonotidae Pycnonotus melanicterus Sri Lanka Blackcapped Bulbul

Pycnonotidae

Pycnonotus cafer

Red-vented Bulbul

Pycnonotidae

Iole indica

Yellow-browed Bulbul

Pycnonotidae

Pycnonotus luteolus

White-browed Bulbul

Pycnonotidae

Hypsipetes ganeesa

Square-tailed Bulbul/Asian Black Bulbul

Acrocephalida Acrocephalus dumetorum Blyth's Reed-warbler e

Phylloscopida Phylloscopus trochiloides Greenish Warbler e

Phylloscopida Phylloscopus e magnirostris

Large-billed Leaf-warbler

Pellorneidae

Pellorneum fuscocapillus

Sri Lanka Brown-capped Babbler

Timaliidae

Pomatorhinus melanurus Sri Lanka Scimitarbabbler

Timaliidae

Dumetia hyperythra

Tawny-bellied Babbler

Timaliidae

Rhopocichla atriceps

Dark-fronted Babbler

Sylviidae

Chrysomma sinense

Yellow-eyed Babbler

Leiotrichidae Turdoides rufes

Sri Lanka Orangebilled Babbler

Leiotrichidae

Yellow-billed Babbler

Argya affinis

155

1 1

Turdidae

Geokichla citrina

Orange-headed Thrush

Zosteropidae Zosterops ceylonensis

Sri Lanka White-eye

Zosteropidae

Zosterops palpebrosus

Indian White-eye/Oriental Whiteeye

Sittidae

Sitta frontalis

Velvet-fronted Nuthatch

Sturnidae

Gracula ptilogenys

Sri Lanka Myna

Sturnidae

Gracula indica

Southern Hill Myna

Sturnidae

Acridotheres tristis

Common Myna

100

Turdidae

Geokichla spiloptera

Sri Lanka Spot-winged Thrush

101

Turdidae

Turdus simillimus

Indian Blackbird

102

Muscicapidae Copsychus saularis

Oriental Magpie-robin

103

Muscicapidae Saxicoloides fulicatus

Indian Robin

104

Muscicapidae Cyornis tickelliae

Tickell's Blue-flycatcher

105

Muscicapidae Larvivora brunnea

Indian Blue Robin

106

Muscicapidae Muscicapa dauurica

Asian Brown Flycatcher

107

Muscicapidae Muscicapa muttui

Brown-breasted Flycatcher

108

Stenostiridae

Grey-headed Canaryflycatcher

109

Chloropseidae Chloropsis jerdoni

Jerdon’s Leafbird/ Bluewinged Leafbird

110

Chloropseidae Chloropsis aurifrons

Golden-fronted Leafbird

111

Dicaeidae

Dicaeum vincens

Sri Lanka Whitethroated Flowerpecker

112

Dicaeidae

Dicaeum erythrorhynchos Pale-billed Flowerpecker

113

Nectariniidae

Leptocoma zeylonica

Culicicapa ceylonensis

Purple-rumped Sunbird

156

1 1

114

Nectariniidae

Cinnyris asiatica

Purple Sunbird

115

Nectariniidae

Cinnyris lotenius

Long-billed Sunbird

116

Estrildidae

Lonchura striata

White-rumped Munia

117

Estrildidae

Lonchura kelaarti

Black-throated Munia

118

Estrildidae

Lonchura punctulata

Scaly-breasted Munia

119

Estrildidae

Lonchura malacca

Tricoloured Munia

120

Motacillidae

Dendronanthus indicus

Forest Wagtail

121

Motacillidae

Motacilla cinerea

Grey Wagtail

122

Pittidae

Pitta brachyura

Indian Pitta

Totals

1 1 67

Totals

42 109

157

1 1

7 21

8 8

52 122

Annexure 6 - List of all the Recorded Butterfly Species

Papilionidae

Troides darsius

Papilionidae

Common English name

Distribution

NCS_ 2012

Pachliopta jophon Sri Lankan Rose

Papilionidae

Pachliopta aristolochiae

Common Rose

Papilionidae

Papilio demoleus

Lime Butterfly

Papilionidae

Papilio helenus

Red Helen

Papilionidae

Papilio polytes

Common Mormon

Papilionidae

Papilio polymnestor

Blue Mormon

Papilionidae

Papilio clytia

Mime

Papilionidae

Graphium teredon

Narrow-banded Bluebottle

Papilionidae

Graphium doson

Common Jay

Sri Lankan Birdwing

158

GCS

1 1

Previous records/Potential sp

Scientific name

Common list for all habitats

Previous records/Potential sp Observed

Family

Habitat 2grassland

Previous records/Potential sp Observed

Observed during the study

Habitat 1forest

1 1 1

Papilionidae

Graphium agamemnon

Pieridae

Common English name

Distribution

NCS_ 2012

Tailed Jay

Leptosia nina

Psyche

Pieridae

Delias eucharis

Jezebel

Pieridae

Cepora nerissa

Common Gull

Pieridae

Appias albina

Common Albatross

Pieridae

Appias galene

Sri Lankan Lesser Albatross

Pieridae

Catopsilia pyranthe Mottled Emigrant

Pieridae

Catopsilia pomona Lemon Emigrant

Pieridae

Catopsilia scylla

Orange Migrant

Pieridae

Eurema hecabe

Common Grass Yellow

Pieridae

Eurema blanda

Three-Spot Grass Yellow

Nymphalidae

Idea iasonia

Sri Lankan Tree-Nymph

Nymphalidae

Tirumala limniace

Blue Tiger

159

GCS

1 1

Previous records/Potential sp

Scientific name

Common list for all habitats

Previous records/Potential sp Observed

Family

Habitat 2grassland

Previous records/Potential sp Observed

Observed during the study

Habitat 1forest

1 1

Nymphalidae

Parantica aglea

Nymphalidae

Euploea core

Nymphalidae

Common English name

Distribution

NCS_ 2012

Glassy Tiger

Common Crow

Phalanta phalantha Common Leopard

Nymphalidae

Vindula erota

Cruiser

Nymphalidae

Cirrochroa thais

Tamil Yeoman

Nymphalidae

Cethosia nietneri

Lace Wing

Nymphalidae

Acraea terpsicore

Tawny Coster

Nymphalidae

Kaniska canace

Blue Admiral

Nymphalidae

Junonia lemonias

Lemon Pansy

Nymphalidae

Junonia atlites

Grey Pansy

Nymphalidae

Junonia iphita

Chocolate Soldier

Nymphalidae

Junonia almana

Peacock Pansy

Nymphalidae

Hypolimnas bolina Great Eggfly

Nymphalidae

Kallima philarchus Sri Lankan Blue Oak Leaf

160

GCS

Previous records/Potential sp

Scientific name

Common list for all habitats

Previous records/Potential sp Observed

Family

Habitat 2grassland

Previous records/Potential sp Observed

Observed during the study

Habitat 1forest

1 1

1 1 1

Nymphalidae

Pantoporia hordonia

Nymphalidae

Common English name

Distribution

NCS_ 2012

Common Lascar

Neptis hylas

Common Sailor

Nymphalidae

Neptis jumbah

Chestnut Streaked Sailor

Nymphalidae

Moduza procris

Commander

Nymphalidae

Euthalia aconthea

Baron

Nymphalidae

Charaxes psaphon Tawny Rajah

Nymphalidae

Melanitis leda

Nymphalidae

Melanitis phedima Dark Evening Brown

Nymphalidae

Orsotriaena medus Medus Brown

Nymphalidae

Mycalesis mineus

Dark-Brand Bushbrown

Nymphalidae

Mycalesis perseus

Common Bushbrown

Nymphalidae

Mycalesis patnia

Gladeye Bushbrown

Nymphalidae

Ypthima ceylonica

White Four-ring

Common Evening Brown

161

GCS

Previous records/Potential sp

Scientific name

Common list for all habitats

Previous records/Potential sp Observed

Family

Habitat 2grassland

Previous records/Potential sp Observed

Observed during the study

Habitat 1forest

1 1

Common English name

Nymphalidae

Ypthima singala

Nymphalidae

Elymnias hypermnestra

Nymphalidae

Distribution

NCS_ 2012

Sri Lankan Jewel Fourring

Common Palmfly

Elymnias singhala Sri Lankan Palmfly

Lycaenidae

Spalgis epeus

Apefly

Lycaenidae

Zesius chrysomallus

Redspot

Lycaenidae

Loxura atymnus

Yamfly

Lycaenidae

Rathinda amor

Monkey-puzzle

Lycaenidae

Cheritra freja

Common Imperial

Lycaenidae

Tajuria cippus

Peacock Royal

Lycaenidae

Deudorix epijarbas Cornelian

Lycaenidae

Anthene lycaenina

Pointed Ciliate Blue

Lycaenidae

Prosotas nora

Common Lineblue

Lycaenidae

Jamides bochus

Dark Cerulean

162

GCS

Previous records/Potential sp

Scientific name

Common list for all habitats

Previous records/Potential sp Observed

Family

Habitat 2grassland

Previous records/Potential sp Observed

Observed during the study

Habitat 1forest

1 1

Lycaenidae

Jamides lacteata

Lycaenidae

Jamides celeno

Lycaenidae

Common English name

Distribution

NCS_ 2012

Sri Lankan Milky Cerulean

Common Cerulean

Lampides boeticus Pea Blue

Lycaenidae

Castalius rosimon

Lycaenidae

Discolampa ethion Banded Blue Pierrot

Lycaenidae

Zizeeria karsandra Dark Grass Blue

Lycaenidae

Zizina otis

Lesser Grass Blue

Lycaenidae

Zizula hylax

Tiny Grass Blue

Lycaenidae

Everes lacturnus

Oriental Cupid

Lycaenidae

Acytolepis lilacea

Hampson's Hedge Blue

Lycaenidae

Acytolepis puspa

Common Hedge Blue

Lycaenidae

Chilades pandava

Plains Cupid

Lycaenidae

Chilades lajus

Lime Blue

Riodinidae

Abisara echerius

Plum Judy

Common Pierrot

163

GCS

Previous records/Potential sp

Scientific name

Common list for all habitats

Previous records/Potential sp Observed

Family

Habitat 2grassland

Previous records/Potential sp Observed

Observed during the study

Habitat 1forest

Common English name

Distribution

NCS_ 2012

Hesperiidae

Tagiades japetus

Common/Ceylon Snow Flat

Hesperiidae

Caprona ransonnettii

Golden Angle

Hesperiidae

Spialia galba

Grizzled Skipper

Hesperiidae

Baracus vittatus

Hesperiidae

GCS

Previous records/Potential sp

Scientific name

Common list for all habitats

Previous records/Potential sp Observed

Family

Habitat 2grassland

Previous records/Potential sp Observed

Observed during the study

Habitat 1forest

Sri Lankan Hedge Hopper

Ampittia dioscorides

Bush Hopper

Hesperiidae

Suastus gremius

Oriental Palm Bob

Hesperiidae

Iambrix salsala

Chestnut Bob

Hesperiidae

Udaspes folus

Grass Demon

Hesperiidae

Notocrypta curvifascia

Restricted Demon

Hesperiidae

Taractrocera maevius

Common Grass Dart

Hesperiidae

Pelopidas agna

Little Branded Swift

Totals Totals

164

19 34

49 71

51 88

Annexure 7 - List of all the Recorded Odonate Species

Oriental Green-wing

2 Calopterygidae Vestails nigrescens

Black-tipped Flashwing

3 Chlorocyphidae Libellago finalis

Ultima Gem

4 Euphaeidae

Euphaea splendens

Shining Gossamerwing

5 Lestidae

Indolestes divisus

Metallic-backed Reedling

6 Coenagrionidae

Agriocnemis pygmaea

Wandering Wisp

7 Platycnemididae Copera marginipes

Yellow Featherleg

8 Platycnemididae Elattoneura caesia

Jungle Threadtail

9 Platycnemididae Elattoneura centralis

Dark-glittering Threadtail

1 1

Previous records/Potential sp

Neurobasis chinensis chinensis

Common list for all habitats

Observed

1 Calopterygidae

165

GCS 2021

Potential sp

NCS 2012

Habitat 3streams

Observed

Distribution

Potential sp

Common English name

Habitat 2grassland

Observed

Scientific Name

Observed

# Family

Potential sp

Habitat 1forest

1 1 1

Previous records/Potential sp

Common list for all habitats

Observed

GCS 2021

Potential sp

NCS 2012

Habitat 3streams

Observed

Distribution

Potential sp

Common English name

Habitat 2grassland

Observed

Scientific Name

Potential sp

# Family

Observed

Habitat 1forest

10 Platycnemididae Elattoneura tenax

Red-striped Threadtail

11 Platystictidae

Ceylonosticta brincki

Brinck's Shadowdamsel

12 Platystictidae

Ceylonosticta lankanensis

Drooping Shadowdamsel

13 Platystictidae

Platysticta apicalis

Dark Forestdamsel

14 Gomphidae

Paragomphus henryi

Brook Hooktail

15 Macromiidae

Macromia zeylanica

Sri Lanka Cruiser

16 Libellulidae

Orthetrum chrysis

Spine-tufted Skimmer

17 Libellulidae

Orthetrum glaucum

Asian Skimmer

18 Libellulidae

Orthetrum luzonicum

Marsh Skimmer

19 Libellulidae

Orthetrum pruinosum neglectum

Pink Skimmer

20 Libellulidae

Orthetrum sabina

Green Skimmer

21 Libellulidae

Acisoma panorpoides

Asian Pintail

166

1 1

Habitat 3streams

Common list for all habitats

NCS 2012

22 Libellulidae

Brachythemis contaminata

Asian Groundling

23 Libellulidae

Diplacodes trivialis

Blue Percher

24 Libellulidae

Trithemis festiva

Indigo Dropwing

25 Libellulidae

Pantala flavescens

Wandering Glider

N,M

26 Libellulidae

Tramea limbata

Sociable Glider

27 Libellulidae

Tholymis tillarga

Foggy-winged Twister

28 Libellulidae

Zygonyx iris ceylonicus Sri Lanka Cascader

Observed

1 1

NT Totals Totals

167

Observed

Distribution

Potential sp

Common English name

Potential sp

Scientific Name

Potential sp

# Family

Observed

GCS 2021

Habitat 2grassland

Previous records/Potential sp

Habitat 1forest

1 7

6 13

1 7

8 15

1 1

11 18

15 28

Annexure 8 - List of all the Recorded Moth Species

Family

Scientific name

Habitat 1-forest

Habitat 2-grassland

Observed sp

Common English name

Crambidae

Nistra coelatalis

Crambidae

Pachynoa spilosomoides

Erebidae

Adites hilaris

Erebidae

Amata cyssea

Erebidae

Amata passalis

Erebidae

Chamaita nympha

Erebidae

Chiasmia emersaria

Erebidae

Mocis frugalis

Sugarcane Looper

Erebidae

Nyctemera coleta

Marbled White Moth

Erebidae

Ophiusa trapezium

Erebidae

Pterocyclophora pictimargo

Geomertidae

Timandra convectaria

Noctuidae

Haematosticta sanguiguttata

Pyralidae

Etiella zinckenella

Gold-banded Etiella Moth Totals

1 6

168

Annexure 9 - List of all the Recorded Flowering Plant Species

Anacardiaceae

Mangifera zeylanica

Anacardiaceae

Nothopegia beddomei

Anacardiaceae

Anisophylleacea Anisophyllea e cinnamomoides

Atamba, Wal atamba, Wal Amba

Bala, Andum Teageddi

Semecarpus gardneri Badulla

Semecarpus parvifolius

Heen badulla

Weli-Penna, Weli-Piyana, Welipiyanna

169

grass

Herb

Strobilanthes walkeri var. walkeri

Shrub

Acanthaceae

Vine

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

Annonaceae

Kalu Bambara Artabotrys zeylanicus wel, Petika var. zeylanicus wel, Yakada wel

Annonaceae

Goniothalamus gardneri

Annonaceae

Goniothalamus salicinus subsp. reticulatus

10 Annonaceae

Phoenicanthus coriacea

Kelu. Keku

11 Annonaceae

Uvaria narum

Pangan

12 Apiaceae

Centella asiatica

Gotukola, Hin-Gotukola

13 Apocynaceae

Aganosma cymosa var. elegans

Muwa kiri wel

Alstonia scholaris

Ruk-Attana, Eth-mada, Gas rukaththana, Eht Demata

14 Apocynaceae

Heen kera

1 1

grass

Herb

170

Shrub

Vine

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

16 Apocynaceae

Parsonsia alboflavescens

Kiri-Anguna, Wel-Anguna, Wal Anguna

17 Apocynaceae

Tabernaemontana dichotoma

Divi-Kaduru

18 Araceae

Pothos hookeri

19 Araceae

Pothos remotiflorus

20 Araceae

Remusatia vivipara

21 Araliaceae

Hydrocotyle javanica

Maha gotukola

22 Araliaceae

Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides

Podidel

23 Arecaceae

Calamus pseudotenuis

Heen-wewel, Kola-hangala

24 Arecaceae

Caryota urens

Kithul

25 Arecaceae

Oncosperma fasciculatum

Katu-Kithul

171

Herb

Masbedde, Bim Nuga

Species

Shrub

Gymnema sylvestre

Family APG IV

Vine

Moth host plant

15 Apocynaceae

Tree

Butterfly host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Habit

1 1

grass

Specialities

26 Aristolochiaceae Thottea siliquosa

Wisa-Kumba, Thapasara Bulath

27 Asparagaceae

Asparagus falcatus

Hatavariya, Maha hathavariya

28 Asparagaceae

Ophiopogon intermedius

29 Asphodelaceae

Dianella ensifolia

Monara-petan, Dutu Sathutu, Monara Pahuru, Atan Pahuru

30 Asteraceae

Acmella uliginosa

Heen akmella

31 Asteraceae

Ageratina riparia

32 Asteraceae

Ageratum conyzoides

33 Asteraceae

Austroeupatorium inulifolium

Hulan-tala, Hulantala

172

1 1

grass

Herb

Shrub

Vine

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

34 Asteraceae

Blumea hieraciifolia var. flexuosa

35 Asteraceae

Podi-singnoChromolaena odorata maran, Lokkan-nattan

36 Asteraceae

Cissampelopsis walkeri var. walkeri

37 Asteraceae

Crassocephalum crepidioides

38 Asteraceae

Cyanthillium cinereum

39 Asteraceae

Emilia alstonii

40 Asteraceae

Emilia exserta

MaugulKumburuvenna, Monorakudu mbiya, Watupalu

Hulanthala, Kadupahara

173

grass

Herb

Shrub

Vine

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

41 Asteraceae

Sphagneticola trilobata

42 Asteraceae

Strobocalyx arborea

43 Balsaminaceae

Impatiens acaulis

44 Balsaminaceae

Udaya kumari, Kaha karabu, Arunadevi

Impatiens arnottii

45 Balsaminaceae

Impatiens oppositifolia

46 Calophyllaceae

Calophyllum tomentosum

Tel Kina, Keena

47 Calophyllaceae

Calophyllum trapezifolium

Kina

Rasni, Wal dumkola

48 Campanulaceae Lobelia nicotianifolia 49 Campanulaceae Lobelia zeylanica 50 Celastraceae

Microtropis wallichiana

kudalu

1 1

174

1 1

grass

Herb

Shrub

Vine

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

Kotalahimbutu, Himbutu-wel, Himbutu

51 Celastraceae

Salacia reticulata

52 Chloranthaceae

Sarcandra glabra subsp. brachystachys

53 Clusiaceae

Clusia rosea

54 Clusiaceae

Garcinia echinocarpa Madol

55 Clusiaceae

Garcinia cambogioides var. cambogioides

Gokatu, Kanna Goraka, Kokatiya

56 Clusiaceae

Garcinia quaesita

Goraka, Rat Gorka

57 Commelinaceae Cyanotis ceylanica

58 Connaraceae

Gal Goraka, Gal Pilila

Connarus championii Wel-Radaliya

59 Convolvulaceae Ipomoea thwaitesii

Ma Banda, Girithilla

175

1 1 1

grass

Herb

Shrub

Vine

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

60 Cyperaceae

Carex filicina

61 Cyperaceae

Carex indica var. indica

62 Cyperaceae

Carex spicigera

63 Cyperaceae

Cyperus albescens

64 Cyperaceae

Cyperus brevifolius

65 Cyperaceae

Cyperus flavidus

66 Cyperaceae

Cyperus haspan

67 Cyperaceae

Cyperus melanospermus subsp. melanospermus

68 Cyperaceae

Cyperus sanguinolentus

69 Cyperaceae

Cyperus tenuispica

Hal-pan

176

grass

Herb

Shrub

Vine

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

70 Cyperaceae

Eleocharis retroflexa subsp. chaetaria

71 Cyperaceae

Fimbristylis bisumbellata

72 Cyperaceae

Fimbristylis cinnamometorum

73 Cyperaceae

Fimbristylis dichotoma subsp. dichotoma

74 Cyperaceae

Fimbristylis eragrostis

75 Cyperaceae

Hypolytrum turgidum

76 Cyperaceae

Scleria levis

77 Cyperaceae

Scleria lithosperma var. lithosperma

Goda-karawa, Goda karawu

177

grass

Herb

Shrub

Vine

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

Dillenia suffruticosa

80 Dilleniaceae

Para, Diyapara, Godapara

Dillenia triquetra

Diyapara

81 Dioscoreaceae

Dioscorea koyamae

Gonala, Kahatagonala, Kirigonala

82 Droseraceae

Drosera burmanni

Wata-essa, Vatassa

83 Ebenaceae

Diospyros insignis

Gona, Porawa-Mara, Wal-Mediriya

84 Ebenaceae

Diospyros toposia

Kaluwelle, Kahakala

85 Ebenaceae

Diospyros sp. 1

178

grass

79 Dilleniaceae

Herb

Dichapetalum zeylanicum

Shrub

78 Dichapetalaceae

Vine

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

86 Ebenaceae

Diospyros sp. 2

KadumBeriya, Kaluwelle, kallu, Hempenela / Kadambenya, Poro mara

87 Elaeagnaceae

Elaeagnus latifolia

Wel-Embilla, Katu-Embilla, Katu-welanga

88 Elaeocarpaceae

Elaeocarpus glandulifer

Mal Veralu, Gal Veralu

89 Elaeocarpaceae

Elaeocarpus subvillosus

Gal-Weralu

90 Eriocaulaceae

Eriocaulon truncatum

91 Erythroxylaceae

Erythroxylum obtusifolium

Dodam pana

92 Euphorbiaceae

Agrostistachys borneensis

Beru

93 Euphorbiaceae

Macaranga indica

Kenda

1 1 1 1

grass

Herb

Shrub

179

Vine

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

95 Euphorbiaceae

Hamparilla, Mallotus philippensis Molabe, Kampilla

96 Euphorbiaceae

Mallotus tetracoccus

Bu-kenda

97 Euphorbiaceae

Paracroton pendulus subsp. zeylanicus

Mawata, Olupetta, Wal jayapala

98 Fabaceae

Crotalaria leioloba

99 Fabaceae

Crotalaria walkeri

100 Fabaceae

Dalbergia rostrata

101 Fabaceae

Grona heterocarpos var. heterocarpos

Bambara-wel

180

1 1

grass

Kenda, PatKena, PatKenda

Species

Herb

Macaranga peltata

Family APG IV

Shrub

Tree

94 Euphorbiaceae

Butterfly host plant

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Habit

Vine

Specialities

102 Fabaceae

Grona heterophylla

103 Fabaceae

Grona jucunda

104 Fabaceae

Mimosa pudica

105 Fabaceae

Stylosanthes guianensis

Mahaundupiyaliya

Nidi-kumba

1 1

106 Gentianaceae

Exacum trinervium

Binara, Ginihiriya, Bindara, Ginetta

107 Gentianaceae

Fagraea ceilanica

Etamburu

108 Gesneriaceae

Henckelia communis

109 Gesneriaceae

Rhynchotechum permolle

110 Hypericaceae

Hypericum japonicum

111 Hypoxidaceae

Maha-bin-tal, Curculigo trichocarpa Bu bim thal, Ma bim thal,

181

grass

Herb

Shrub

Vine

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

Mappia nimmoniana

Gonda-Pana

113 Lamiaceae

Callicarpa tomentosa Eela-gas, Illa

114 Lamiaceae

Clerodendrum infortunatum

Gas-Pinna, Pinna,

115 Lamiaceae

Pogostemon heyneanus

GaskolanKola, Gankolon-kola, Kollankola

116 Lamiaceae

Scutellaria violacea var. violacea

117 Lauraceae

Actinodaphne albifrons

118 Lauraceae

Actinodaphne ambigua

119 Lauraceae

Actinodaphne elegans

120 Lauraceae

SewlCinnamomum dubium kurundu, Walkurundu

grass

Herb

Shrub

112 Icacinaceae

182

Vine

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

122 Lauraceae

Cinnamomum verum Kurundu

123 Lauraceae

Cryptocarya wightiana

124 Lauraceae

Litsea glaberrima

125 Lauraceae

Litsea longifolia

Rat-Keliya

Litsea quinqueflora

Kosboda, Landittan, Wal kos ,Kosbada

127 Lauraceae

Neolitsea cassia var. cassia

DawulKurundu, Kadu-dawula, Nika-Dawula, Wal-Kurundu

128 Lentibulariaceae

Utricularia graminifolia

129 Linderniaceae

Torenia crustacea

126 Lauraceae

Gal-Mora, Gulu-mora

183

grass

Kudu Kurundu

Herb

Cinnamomum litsaeifolium

Shrub

121 Lauraceae

Vine

Species

Tree

Family APG IV

Habit

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

130 Linderniaceae

Vandellia diffusa

131 Loranthaceae

Dendrophthoe neelgherrensis

132 Loranthaceae

Taxillus incanus

133 Malvaceae

Cullenia rosayroana

Katuboda

134 Malvaceae

Grewia rhamnifolia

135 Malvaceae

Sida rhombifolia subsp. rhombifolia

136

137

Melastomatacea Melastoma e malabathricum

Wel-keliya, Wel-mediya

KoticanBevila

Bovitiya, KatakaluBowitiya, MahaBowitiya, Katakaluwa

1 1

184

grass

Herb

Shrub

Melastomatacea Kendrickia walkeri e

Vine

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

Melastomatacea Memecylon e revolutum

139

Melastomatacea Memecylon sp. 1 e

140

Melastomatacea Memecylon sp. 2 e

141

Melastomatacea Memecylon sp. 3 e

Pinibaru

142

Melastomatacea Miconia crenata e

KatakaluBovotiya, Japan-bovitya, Nylonbovitiya

143

Melastomatacea Osbeckia octandra e

Bowitiya. Heen-bovitiya

144

Melastomatacea Sonerila silvatica e

145 Meliaceae

Aglaia apiocarpa

146 Meliaceae

Dysoxylum gotadhora

Wal Rambutan

185

1 1

grass

138

Species

Herb

Family APG IV

Tree

Shrub

Habit

Vine

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

147 Meliaceae

Melia azedarach

Kirikohomba, Lunumidella

148 Meliaceae

Pseudocarapa championii

Gona-pana

149 Menispermaceae Cissampelos sp.

Diya-Mitta, Yusa

150 Menispermaceae Cyclea peltata

Kaha-Pittan, Kehi-pittan, Kessi-pissan

151 Monimiaceae

Hortonia floribunda

Wawiya

152 Moraceae

Ficus callosa

Wal-Gona, Gonna

153 Moraceae

Ficus diversiformis

154 Moraceae

Ficus hispida

155 Moraceae

Ficus laevis

156 Moraceae

Ficus nervosa subsp. minor

Kota-Dimbula

KaluMaduwa, Kala-madu

186

1 1

grass

Herb

Shrub

Vine

Species

Tree

Family APG IV

Habit

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

157 Musaceae

Musa balbisiana

Eti-kehel

158 Myristicaceae

Horsfieldia iryaghedhi

Ruk, Rukgedi, Thalan, Malaboda

159 Myristicaceae

Malaboda, Myristica dactyloides Perimavara Ruk / Thalan

160 Myrtaceae

Eugenia mooniana

161 Myrtaceae

Eugenia terpnophylla var. terpnophylla

162 Myrtaceae

Syzygium alubo

Alubo

163 Myrtaceae

Syzygium amphoraecarpus

Wal-Jambu

164 Myrtaceae

Syzygium batadamba

165 Myrtaceae

Syzygium cordifolium

Wal-Jambu, Dambu

187

grass

Herb

Shrub

Vine

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

166 Myrtaceae

Syzygium lewisii

167 Nyssaceae

Mastixia arborea subsp. macrophylla

168 Oleaceae

Jasminum flexile

169 Orchidaceae

Arundina graminifolia subsp. graminifolia

170 Orchidaceae

Coelogyne imbricata

171 Orchidaceae

Dendrobium macrostachyum

172 Orchidaceae

Eulophia pulchra

173 Orchidaceae

Gastrochilus acaulis

174 Orchidaceae

Luisia zeylanica

175 Orchidaceae

Phaius luridus

Diya-Talia

Nari Ala

188

1 1

grass

Herb

Shrub

Vine

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

176 Orchidaceae

Polystachya concreta

177 Orchidaceae

Sirhookera lanceolata

178 Orchidaceae

Zeuxine regia

179 Orchidaceae

Zeuxine reginasilvae

180 Orchidaceae

Oberonia sp.

181 Orobanchaceae

Centranthera indica

Dutu-satutu

182 Pandanaceae

Benstonea thwaitesii

DumuKeyiya, Dunu-keiya

183 Pandanaceae

Freycinetia pycnophylla

Viyakeyya, Kolla

184 Pandanaceae

Freycinetia walkeri

Viyakeyya

185 Passifloraceae

Adenia hondala

Hondala, Potu-honda

Iru-Raja, Ira raja, Sudu Raja

189

grass

Herb

Shrub

Vine

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

Wana Halu

Et-pitawakka, Dunu-hunukeppetiya

Actephila excelsa

188 Phyllanthaceae

Antidesma pyrifolium

189 Phyllanthaceae

Breynia vitis-idaea

190 Phyllanthaceae

Glochidion candolleanum

191 Phyllanthaceae

BeGlochidion nemorale Hunukirilla, Bu-hunuvar. moonii kirilla

192 Phyllanthaceae

Glochidion nemorale var. nemorale

193 Phyllanthaceae

Phyllanthus debilis

Ela pitawakka, Niruri, Bim Nelli

1 1

190

grass

Herb

187 Phyllanthaceae

Gas-kayila

Shrub

Pentaphylacacea Eurya acuminata e

Vine

186

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

194 Phyllanthaceae

Phyllanthus urinaria subsp. urinaria

195 Piperaceae

Peperomia portulacoides

196 Piperaceae

Piper fallax

197 Plantaginaceae

Scoparia dulcis

198 Poaceae

Axonopus compressus Potu-tana

199 Poaceae

Cymbopogon nardus

200 Poaceae

Cyrtococcum deccanense

Rat-pitawakka

grass

Herb

Mala-Miriswel, WalGammiris

Wal koththamalli

Heen-pengiri, Lena-batu, Lena-batupengiri, Mana, Pengirimana, Watusevendara

Shrub

Vine

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

191

201 Poaceae

Cyrtococcum oxyphyllum

202 Poaceae

Deni-thana

grass

Herb

Shrub

Vine

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

Davidsea attenuata

203 Poaceae

Lophatherum gracile

204 Poaceae

Gini tana / Megathyrsus maximus Rata tana, Ginikeeressa

205 Poaceae

Ochlandra stridula

Bata, Bata-li, Rana-bata

206 Poaceae

Pogonatherum crinitum

207 Poaceae

Pseudechinolaena polystachya

208 Poaceae

Themeda triandra

209 Polygalaceae

Polygala glomerata

210 Polygalaceae

Polygala paniculata

1 1

192

211 Primulaceae

Ardisia gardneri

212 Primulaceae

Embelia ribes

213 Primulaceae

Maesa indica

214 Primulaceae

Myrsine robusta

Wel-Embilla, Walangasal

Matabimbiya, Mata-bimbiya

1 1

215 Rhizophoraceae Carallia calycina

Ubberiya

216 Rosaceae

Rubus ellipticus

Nara-bute

217 Rubiaceae

Acranthera ceylanica

218 Rubiaceae

Canthium coromandelicum

Kara

219 Rubiaceae

Exallage auricularia

Geta-kola

220 Rubiaceae

Gaertnera vaginans

193

1 1 1

1 1

grass

Herb

Shrub

Vine

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

221 Rubiaceae

Gaertnera walkeri

222 Rubiaceae

Hedyotis fruticosa

223 Rubiaceae

Hedyotis fumata

224 Rubiaceae

Hedyotis nodulosa

Ixora jucunda

Goda Rathmal, Gora Ratambala, Wal Rathmal

226 Rubiaceae

Mussaenda frondosa

Mussenda, Mus-Wenna, WelButsarana

227 Rubiaceae

Ophiorrhiza pectinata

228 Rubiaceae

Psychotria dubia var. dubia

225 Rubiaceae

Weraniya

194

1 1

1 1 1

grass

Herb

Shrub

Vine

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

229 Rubiaceae

Psychotria nigra var. nigra

230 Rubiaceae

Psychotria plurivenia

231 Rubiaceae

Psychotria sarmentosa

232 Rubiaceae

Psychotria sordida

233 Rubiaceae

Pana-Karaw, Gal-Karanda, Pandaru, Galseru, Psydrax dicoccos var. Maha-seru, dicoccos Peduru, Panduru, Porowa-mara, Panu-karaw

234 Rubiaceae

Saprosma foetens subsp. ceylanica

235 Rubiaceae

Spermacoce latifolia

Wal-gonica

195

grass

Herb

Shrub

Vine

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

236 Rubiaceae

Timonius flavescens

237 Rubiaceae

Peddimella, Angana

Uncaria elliptica

238 Rubiaceae

Urophyllum ellipticum

239 Rubiaceae

Wendlandia bicuspidata

Rawan-idala, Wana-idala

240 Rutaceae

Acronychia pedunculata

Ankenda

241 Rutaceae

Glycosmis mauritiana var. mauritiana

242 Rutaceae

Melicope lunuankenda

LunuAnkenda, Nonankenda

243 Rutaceae

Murraya paniculata

Etteriya

244 Rutaceae

Paramignya monophylla var. monophylla

Wellangiriya, Yaka bendi wel

196

1 1 1 1

1 1

grass

Herb

Shrub

Vine

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

245 Rutaceae

Zanthoxylum asiaticum

Kudu-Miris

246 Sabiaceae

Meliosma arnottiana

Nika-Dawul, Wal-Bilin

247 Sabiaceae

Meliosma simplicifolia subsp. simplicifolia

Albadda-gas, Elbedda

248 Salicaceae

Casearia zeylanica

Wal-Waraka, Wal Moonamal

249 Sapindaceae

Allophylus zeylanicus Wal-Kobbe

250 Sapindaceae

Lepisanthes erecta

251 Sapotaceae

Donella lanceolata

Lawalu, Rata Lawulu

252 Sapotaceae

Palaquium hinmolpedda

Heen-molpedda, Miriya, Kiri Miriya

253 Schisandraceae

Kadsura heteroclita

197

grass

Herb

Shrub

Vine

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

254 Smilacaceae

Smilax zeylanica

255 Stemonuraceae

Gomphandra coriacea

256 Symplocaceae

Symplocos acuminata

257 Symplocaceae

Symplocos coronata var. coronata

258 Symplocaceae

Kabarossa / Heen kabarossa

Bobu,Bombu, Wal bombu

Ugudu hal, Galparre

Symplocos macrophylla

259 Symplocaceae

Symplocos pulchra subsp. hispidula

260 Theaceae

Polyspora elliptica

261 Urticaceae

Debregeasia longifolia

262 Urticaceae

Elatostema acuminatum

Gas-Dul

198

1 1

grass

Herb

Shrub

Vine

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

263 Urticaceae

Elatostema lineolatum var. bidentatum

264 Urticaceae

Elatostema lineolatum var. lineolatum

265 Urticaceae

Procris crenata

266 Verbenaceae

Lantana camara

Ganda-pana, Garda-pana, Katu-hinguru, Rata-hinguru, Ton-kinna

267 Verbenaceae

Stachytarpheta jamaicensis

Balu-nakuta, Rata-nilnakuta

268 Vitaceae

Cyphostemma trilobatum

269 Vitaceae

Tetrastigma nilagiricum

270 Xyridaceae

Xyris pauciflora

271 Zingiberaceae

Cyphostigma pulchellum

1 1

199

1 1

grass

Herb

Shrub

Vine

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

273 Zingiberaceae

Meistera echinocarpa

274 Zingiberaceae 275 Zingiberaceae

Shrub

Meistera masticatorium

Zingiber cylindricum Wal Inguru,

Bu Kiriya, Niya

Totals

223

200

grass

Elettaria floribunda

Herb

272 Zingiberaceae

Vine

Species

Habit

Tree

Family APG IV

Moth host plant

Habitat Habitat Distribution NCS Habitat 2Sinhala name 3status 2020 1-forest grasslan Streams d

Butterfly host plant

Specialities

1 95