INSTRUCTOR'S MANUAL (Lecture Notes Only) FOR An Introduction to Psychological Science. 1st Edition ( by digitaldownload87

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science LECTURE GUIDE MODULE 1.1: THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY (Text p. 3) I. ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives  Know the key terminology of the scientific method module. o See bold, italicized terms below.  Understand the steps of the scientific method. o The basic model is in figure 1.1. Basically, scientific theories generate hypotheses. If a hypothesis is confirmed, new hypotheses may stem from in, and the original theory receives added support. If a hypothesis is rejected, the original hypothesis may be modified and retested, or the original theory may be modified or rejected.  Understand the concept of scientific literacy. o Scientific literacy refers to the process of how we thinking about and understand scientific information (figure 1.3). Working the model involves answering a set of questions:  What do we know about the phenomenon?  How can science explain it?  Can we critically evaluate the evidence?  Why is this relevant?  Apply the biopsychosocial model to behaviour. o Psychologists examine behaviour through three main perspectives: biological (e.g., brain and genetics), psychological (e.g., thinking, learning, and emotion), and sociocultural (e.g., family, gender, and social context).  Apply the steps in critical thinking. o It is important learn how to use and apply these steps, versus just memorizing them. Remember, critical thinking involves (1) being curious, (2) examining evidence, (3) examining assumptions and biases, (4) avoiding emotional thinking, (5) tolerating ambiguity, and (6) considering alternative viewpoints.  Analyze the use of the term scientific theory. o The term theory is often used interchangeably with opinion in casual talk, but not in science. A scientific theory is an explanation for a broad range of observations, integrating numerous findings into a coherent whole. 1) Many of students’ assumptions will be challenged in this course. i) Many people envision psychologists in lab coats watching rats run through mazes. ii) Others assumptions are based on “pop” psychology (e.g., self-help gurus on TV, books, etc.). 2) Psychology is a collection of disciplines, composed of many overlapping fields of study. Two qualities allow us to group these fields into one category: i) Psychology involves the study of behaviour, including perceptions, thoughts, and emotions. ii) Psychologists use the scientific method in their work. Psychology (p. 3) is the scientific study of behaviour, thought, and experience and how they can be affected by physical, mental, social and environmental factors..

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science

The Scientific Method 1) A field of study is considered a science based on the use of the scientific method. i) This involves a dynamic interaction between hypothesis testing and the construction of theories (figure 1.1). Scientific Method (p. 3) is a way of learning about the world through collecting observations, developing theories to explain them, and using the theories to make predictions. Hypotheses: Making Predictions 1) Scientific thinking and procedures revolve around the concepts of hypothesis and theory. Hypothesis (p. 3) (plural: hypotheses) is a testable prediction about processes that can be observed and measured. 2) A scientific hypothesis must be testable. i) It is either confirmed or rejected; we do not prove hypotheses. ii) A good scientific hypothesis is stated in precise, and publicly relevant, terms. a) For example, “People become less likely to help a stranger if there are others around”, or “Exercise improves memory ability.” b) Each of those hypotheses can be confirmed or rejected through scientific testing. 3) These rules are often broken by those claiming to be scientific, such as astrologers and psychics. i) Their “hypothesis” or prediction might be something like, “It’s a good time for you to keep quiet or defer important calls or emails.” a) This cannot be tested scientifically. Instead, this is a very general prediction that people can find some truth in by the end of the day. Pseudoscience (p. 4) refers to ideas that are presented as science but do not actually utilize basic principles of scientific thinking or procedure. Theories: Explaining Phenomena 1) Hypotheses are a major component of scientific theories. i) Hypothesis testing eventually leads back to the theory form which it was based (figure 1.1). Theory (p. 4) is an explanation for a broad range of observations that also generates new hypotheses and integrates numerous findings into a coherent whole. 2) Theories are built from hypotheses that are repeatedly tested and confirmed. i) Good theories eventually become accepted explanations of behaviour. 3) Similar to hypotheses, scientific theories must also be able to be proven false with new evidence. i) Any scientific theory must be falsifiable. a) “All swans are white” is a falsifiable statement. A swan that is not colored white will falsify it. ii) Theories can be updated with new information, which helps to ensure that science is self-correcting and that bad ideas do not last long in science (figure 1.1). 4) The term theory is often used one way in casual talk and another in science. To be clear: i) Theories are not the same thing as opinions. a) “That’s just your theory” is something you might say to a friend, but it’s not something scientists say. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 3

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science ii) All theories are not equally plausible. a) For example, there are a number of theories to explain why people become depressed; some are good theories and others are not-so-good. iii) A measure of a good theory is not the number of people who believe it to be true. a) Only 61% of Canadians believe in the theory of evolution by natural selection, despite the fact that it is the most rigorously tested theory of biological change and diversity. 5) Testing hypotheses and constructing theories are both part of all sciences. i) However, each science has its own approach to subject matter. a) Psychology examines the individual as a product of multiple influences, including biological, psychological, and social factors. The Biopsychosocial Model 1) Thinking and behaving are complex subjects with complex explanations, which is why psychologists use multiple perspectives to study “Why do we behave the way we do?.” Biopsychosocial Model (p. 5) is a means of explaining behaviour as a product of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors. 2) The biopsychosocial model is comprised of three main perspectives that psychologist take into account (figure 1.2). i) Biological influences on our behaviour involve brain structures, chemicals, hormones, and drug effects. a) For example, how do drugs affect behaviour? ii) Psychological influences include how a person’s thoughts, experiences, emotions, and personality constitute his/her psychological makeup. a) For example, how is one’s thoughts affected by language? iii) Sociocultural factors include family, peers, and the social context one is in as well as one’s ethnicity and gender. a) For example, what social situations lead to conformity?

Building Scientific Literacy 1) A major goal of this textbook is to help students develop the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are central to the field of psychology. Scientific Literacy (p. 6) is the ability to understand, analyze, and apply scientific information. 2) Scientific Literacy has several key components (figure 1.3). i) Knowledge gathering: asks us what do we know about the concept(s)? a) This starts with our ability to learn new information, such as key terminology. ii) Scientific explanation: asks how can science explain it? a) This includes using the terminology and research to give possible reasons the concept occurred. iii) Critical thinking: asks can we critically evaluate the evidence? a) This includes assessing the accuracy of claims and information. iv) Application: asks why is this relevant? a) There isn’t much use is doing research that doesn’t have any applicability to real-world situations.

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science 3) To help hone these skills, the textbook has sections in each chapter called “Working the Scientific Literacy Model” with a focus on a particular topic (depending on the module) that breaks down the information into each key component. Working the Scientific Literacy Model: How We Learn and Remember 1) The focus of this section is to uncover the four components of the scientific literacy model using the example of students planning for different classes 2) What do we know about effective studying techniques? i) In the first stage of Scientific Literacy Model we gather knowledge about the topic a)Students often use flashcards to remember factual information (e.g., dates, definitions, etc). There are two commonly used study techniques with flashcards (figure 1.4). b) ‘Massing’ is when students break a large pile of cards into smaller groups and go through each pile separately. Many students prefer this method because it seems easier and less overwhelming. However, spacing is more effective. c) ‘Spacing’ is when students go through the entire pile at once. This leaves a greater space of time between seeing the same card again. 3) How can science explain this difference? i) In the second stage of the Scientific Literacy Model we determine whether the topic has been examined using the scientific method a)Nate Kornell (2009) conducted a study examining both study methods using 20 student volunteers (figure 1.4). b) For the massing study session, the students studied 20 vocabulary terms in four sets of five cards each. c) For the spacing study session, they studied another set of 20 terms in one set of 20. d) Regardless of the study method, each word was studied four times. e) A memory test administered after the study session showed that students remembered significantly more words using spacing, even though they reported a preference for the massing technique. 4) Can we critically evaluate alternative explanations? i) In the third stage of the Scientific Literacy Model we examine the limitations of the studies mentioned earlier. a) Spacing seems counterintuitive, so students will most likely continue to use the less effective method of massing. b) This study does not provide evident that spacing works for all kinds of material. This study only used vocab words. Additional studies should apply this research to studying specific topics in sciences and humanities. c) It is not clear how to apply these results to other types of learning, such as problem solving or critical thinking. 5) Why is this finding relevant? i) In the fourth stage of the Scientific Literacy Model we attempt to apply the results to situations outside of the laboratory a) Students should consider the results from studies of mass versus distributed practice when studying b) evidence suggests that online flashcards may be a helpful learning tool c) There are flashcards available with the online tools accompanying this book at MyPsychLab, that you can use to study the definitions in this textbook.

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science Critical Thinking, Curiosity, and a Dose of Healthy Skepticism 1) Critical thinking is important in research (and scientific literacy), but also in our everyday lives where there are products pushed on us that are 100% organic, to find our soul mates, and “guaranteed” to deliver whatever the claim is. Critical Thinking (p. 9) involves exercising curiosity and skepticism when evaluating the claims of others, and with our own assumptions and beliefs. 2) There is a core set of habits that promote critical thinking i) Be curious. a) don’t assume the simple answer is correct; for example researchers have found that allowing the brain to ‘rest’ after a stroke results in worse long term outcomes ii) Examine the nature and the source of evidence a) for example, subtle methods will produce better measures of prejudice than obvious ones iii) Examine assumptions and biases a) Could the researcher be biased by the source of their funding? iv) Avoid overly emotional thinking a) no matter how you feel results should look you should draw conclusions from evidence, not from what you want or expect to see v) Tolerate ambiguity a) sometimes the most accurate answer is ‘we don’t know’. b) it is better to honestly say that you cannot know for sure than to eliminate a possible explanation in order to claim that something is ‘certain’. 3) Critical thinking is not a philosophy or a faith and it will not cause everyone to come to the same conclusion 4) Critical thinkers need to know that sometimes answers can be deemed incorrect i) it is okay to say a theory is wrong if critical thinking drew you to that conclusion Myths in Mind: Abducted by Aliens! 1) Occasionally we hear claims of alien abductions, ghost sightings, and other paranormal activity. i) However, physical evidence to support such claims is always lacking. ii) How should we evaluate these stories? 2) Scientific and critical thinking involves the use of the principle of parsimony, which means that the simplest of all completing explanations of a phenomenon should be the one we accept. i) Critical thinking means not always assuming the simplest answer is correct; all information should be weighed first. 3) In the case of alien abductions, research suggests there is a simpler answer. i) For example, alien abduction claims usually go up after an alien movie comes out and claims are often similar to what happened in the movie. ii) Those who have claimed to be abducted are usually prone to fantasizing and having false memories (vivid recollection and belief in something that didn’t happen). iii) Abductees are also likely to experience sleep paralysis (waking up and becoming aware of being unable to move—a temporary state that is not unusual) and hallucinations while in the paralyzed state.

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 1.1 Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics

 Psychology and Common Sense  How Do We Know What We Know?  Correlations and Causal Relationships Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises  Misconceptions About Psychology  Psychology’s Goals Applied to Matchmaking Web Resources  Amoeba Web: www.vanguard.edu/faculty/ddegelman/amoebaweb  Centre for Psychology Resources: http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/aupr/psycres.shtml  Psych Web: www.psychwww.com  Psychology Central: www.psychcentral.com  Social Psychology Network: www.socialpsychology.org  Tests, Tests, Tests: www.queendom.com/tests

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science II. MODULE 1.2: HOW PSYCHOLOGY BECAME A SCIENCE (Text p. 12) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives  Know key terminology of psychology’s history. o See bold, italicized terms below.  Understand how various philosophical and scientific fields became major influences on psychology. o Determinism, empiricism, and materialism laid the groundwork for the study of human behaviour. Many of the first psychologists were trained in the physical scientists. For example, Fechner designed experiments to demonstrate how the physical and mental worlds interact, which he termed psychophysics.  Apply your knowledge to distinguish among the different specializations in psychology. o If given a description of what a psychologist studies, students should be able to identify the psychologist’s field of study.  Analyze how the philosophical ideas of empiricism and determinism are applied to human behaviour. o Psychology is based on the belief that all knowledge is acquired through the senses (empiricism). All sciences, including psychology, operate on the belief that all events in the world have a physical cause (determinism).

Psychology’s Philosophical and Scientific Origins 1) Science is more than just a body of facts; it’s a philosophy of knowledge that stems from two fundamental beliefs: empiricism and determinism. Empiricism (p. 13) is a philosophical tenet that knowledge comes through experience. Determinism (p. 13) is the belief that all events are governed by lawful, cause-and-effect relationships. 2) You might have heard, “Seeing is believing”; but in science, empiricism means that knowledge about the world is based on careful observation, not common sense or speculation. i) Whatever we see or measure should be observable to anyone else who follows the same methods. ii) Scientific theories must also be rational explanations of how the observations fit together. 3) Determinism is easy to grasp when we think of gravity. If we drop something on earth, it will fall. But do behaviours also follow certain laws of nature or do we control our own actions? i) This debate is often referred to as free will vs. determinism. a) Most people like to think they are in control, but there are some compelling reasons to think our behaviours are determined (discussed later in text). 4) Psychology is both empirical and deterministic, but the field did not become scientific until the late 1800s (in comparison the physics, astronomy, physiology, biology, and chemistry, which took hold around 1600). i) Before that, it was more philosophical in nature. ii) Hippocrates (460-370 BCE) developed a personality classification system based on the body’s humours (black bile, yellow bile, bood and phlegm) a)different personalities developed from different combinations of the four humours b) Galen (127-217) suggested the four humours actually created temperaments (sanguine, choleric, melancholic, and phlegmatic; most people were a combination of more than one temperament) Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 8

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science c) later Romans thought that foods influenced humours which then influenced temperaments d) at the end of the 4th century the Roman Empire collapsed and the Dark Ages began. e) the zeitgeist of the Dark Ages prevented further advances in knowledge about the source of human behaviour Zeitgeist (p. 14) refers to a general set of beliefs of a particular culture at a specific time in history. a) This helps to explain why certain ideas take off immediately and others go unnoticed for years. 5) The power of zeitgeist can be very strong and there are several ways it prevented psychological science from emerging in the 1600s with the other sciences. i) Mainly, people of that time were not ready to accept a science that could be applied to minds. a) They did not want to believe that human behaviours were the result of predictable laws. Doing so would imply materialism. Materialism (p. 14) is the belief that humans, and other living beings, are composed exclusively of physical matter. b) Accepting this idea would mean that humans lacked a self-conscious or a self-controlling soul. 6) While most thinking about the mind and behaviour remained philosophical in nature, scientific methods were generating great discoveries for the other sciences (e.g., physics, biology, and physiology). i) This means that the early influences on psychology came from the natural and physical sciences. ii) Figure 1.5 provides a timeline summarizing some major events in the history of psychology. Influences from Physics: Experimenting with the Mind 1) The early experiments in scientific psychology were conducted by physicist and physiologists. i) One of the earliest explorations was made by Gustav Fechner (1801-1887), who worked on sensation and perception. a) His training was in the natural world of moving objects and energy, but he turned to psychology to ask how the physical and mental worlds interact, a term he coined psychophysics. Psychophysics (p. 14) is the study of the relationship between the physical world and the mental representation of that world. 2) Fechner designed experiments to demonstrate how the physical and mental worlds interact (figure 1.7). i) For example, he would have people hold a 1 pound (.45 kg) weight in one hand and a 5 pound (2.27 kg) weight in the other. Obviously, one would be perceived as heavier than the other. That was not the focus. a) Next, he would add a quarter-pound weight (113 g) to each hand. Oddly enough, the weight in the one pound hand was perceived as heavier even though it was the same. ii) Fechner developed an equation to calculate the perceived change in weight and then applied it to changes in brightness, loudness, and other perceptual experiences (see Figure 1.6). Influences from Evolutionary Theory: The Adaptive Functions of Behaviour 1) Around the same time Fechner was doing his experiments, Charles Darwin (1809-1882) was studying the variety of plants and animals around the world. i) He noticed minor physical differences between animals isolated from each other.

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science a) These differences seemed to fine-tune the animals according to their particular environment, making them better equipped for survival and reproduction. b) Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection was based on these observations, which explains why there is such diversity on Earth. 2) What is the connection between evolution and psychology? i) Darwin recognized that behaviour is shaped by natural selection. a) Many species, including humans, were able to survive and reproduce based on their ability to recognize some expressions as threats and others as submission. b) It also appeared to Darwin that emotional expressions and behaviours were influenced by natural selection. For example, animals were bred for certain characteristics (e.g., Sheep dogs for herding). 3) Darwin’s recognition that behaviours, like physical traits, are subject to hereditary and natural selection was a major contribution to psychology and can still be found today in the modern field of evolutionary psychology. Influences from Medicine: Diagnoses and Treatments 1) Medicine contributed greatly to the biological perspective in psychology, as well as the clinical field. Clinical Psychology (p. 16) is the field of psychology that concentrates on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders. 2) One contribution from medical studies was brain localization, which is the idea that certain parts of the brain control specific mental abilities and personality characteristics. There were two competing views of localization in the mid-1800s. i) Phrenology remained popular for more than 100 years thanks to physicians Franz Gall (1758-1828) and Johann Spurzheim (1776-1832). a) They believed the brain consisted of 27 “organs” corresponding to mental traits and dispositions that could be detected by feeling the surface of the skull (figure 1.7. ii) The second approach to localization was much more grounded in science and entailed the study of brain injuries and how they affect behaviour. a) For example, physician Paul Broca studied a patient named Tan. He was named Tan because that was the only word he could speak even though he could hear and understand perfectly well. Broca found an area in the left side of Tan’s brain that was damaged and claimed to have found where speech was localized in the brain (now called Broca’s area). b) In 1874, Karl Wernicke identified Wernicke’s area. Damage to this area of the brain resulted in patients speaking with unusual or made-up words. Patients who recover later report being able to hear, but that language (even their own) did not make sense. 3) Additional medical influences worthy of note include that of Franz Mesmer, an 18th-centurey Austrian physician practicing in Paris. i) He believed magnets could redirect the flow of metallic fluids in the body and cure disease and insanity. ii) His claim was rejected by the scientific community, but many of his patients claimed to be cured after being lulled into a trance. a) Modern science attributes these “cures” to the patients belief in the treatment, now called psychosomatic medicine. b) However, the medical community was interested in these trances Mesmer used with his patients, and named the phenomenon hypnosis.

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science 4) Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was particularly interested in hypnosis and began using it to treat his patients. i) He found hypnosis to cure patients with hysterical paralysis—a condition in which an individual loses feeling and control in a specific body part, despite the lack of any known neurological damage or disease. ii) These experiences lead Freud to develop his famous perspective and technique, psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis (p. 17) is a psychological approach that attempts to explain how behaviour and personality are influenced by unconscious processes. 5) Freud acknowledged our conscious experiences, however he believed we have an unconscious mind that contained forgotten episodes from early childhood and urges to fulfill sexual and aggressive impulses. i) He suggested that these unconscious urges could exert influence in strange ways, such as restricting the use of a body part (psychosomatic or hysterical paralysis). ii) He believed hypnotizing a person or medicating into a trancelike state (often using cocaine) allowed access into the patient’s unconscious mind where he could determine and correct any urges he believed were causing problems. 6) Although Freud’s approach lacked in scientific experiments, his work has had a profound impact on the psychological field. Psychoanalysis (p. 17): is a psychological approach that attempts to explain how behaviour and personality are influenced by unconscious processes i) Modern psychologists still make inferences about unconscious mental activity. ii) Freud influenced the use of medical ideas to treat disorders of emotions, thought, and behaviour, an approach known as the medical model. iii) Freud incorporating evolutionary thinking into his work by emphasizing how physiological needs and urges (related to survival and reproduction) can influence our behaviours. iv) Freud placed great emphasis on how early childhood behaviours affect our behaviours as adults—a perspective that comes up many times in this textbook. The Influence of Social Sciences: Measuring and Comparing Humans 1) Another influence in psychology came from the social sciences of economics, sociology, and anthropology. i) These disciplines developed statistical methods for measuring human traits. 2) An early pioneer in measuring perception and behaviour was Sir Francis Galton. i) He was inspired by the work of his cousin, Charles Darwin, on evolution by natural selection. ii) Galton believed that heredity (genetics) explained psychological differences among people. a) For example, Darwin’s cousin was a great naturalist, his uncle was a celebrated physician and writer, and he was reading at the age of 2. iii) To Galton, it seemed people did better in business, wealth, etc. because they were better (genetically speaking). a) Galton termed this belief eminence—a combination of ability, morality, and achievement. b) One observation supporting his claim for heredity for eminence was that the closer a relative, the more similar the traits. iv) Galton was one of the first investigators to scientifically examine the question of nature and nurture relationships. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 11

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science Nature and Nurture Relationships (p. 18) is the inquiry into how heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) influence behaviour and mental processes. v) However, Galton often ignored perspectives that didn’t support his claims and beliefs supporting the nature side. a) For example, Galton ignored environmental factors such as family traditions and inheritances left to family or that great people can come from humble beginnings. vi) Galton’s beliefs and biases led him to pursue scientific justification for eugenics. a) Galton promoted social programs that encouraged intelligent, talented individuals to have children, whereas criminals, those with physical or mental disability, and non-White races should be kept out of the English gene pool. 3) However, not all of Galton’s contributions to psychology were negative. i) His greatest contribution is the use of statistical methods to measure and study behaviour and mental processes applied in modern practices. a) For example, biological psychology seeks to explain the underlying genetic, physiological, and brain basis for behaviour. b) Cognitive neuroscience examines relationships between thought and brain function.

The Beginnings of Contemporary Psychology 1) Although Darwin, Fechner and Freud had not created the field of psychology, the field was well on its way to being formed in the late 1800s thanks to their contributions 2) In the late 1800s the zeitgeist changed so that the study of human behaviour was deemed acceptable; ideas flourished Structuralism and Functionalism: The Beginnings of Psychology 1) Most agree that German scientist Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) had the first laboratory dedicated to studying human behaviour and was responsible for establishing psychology its own field of science. i) He conducted a number of studies looking at how people sense and perceive. ii) Wundt’s primary research method was introspection, meaning “to look within.” a) Trained volunteers were exposed to a stimulus (e.g., touch a wet dog) and then asked to report in each individual sensation s/he could identify through introspection. b) For example, a person holding a snow ball would likely report sensations of cold, hard, and wet. Wundt believed these basic sensations were the mental “atoms” that combined to form the molecules of experience. iii) Wundt also developed reaction time methods to assess mental effort. a) For example, Wundt had participants watch to mental balls swing into each other to make a clicking sound and measure how long it took them to react to the sound (about 1/8 of a second). b) Wundt concluded that mental activity was not instantaneous, but rather requires a small amount of effort and time to process. 2) Wundt’s ideas made their way to the United States through his students, such as Edward Titchener. i) He adopted Wundt’s method of introspection, but expanded on his view by organizing a map of the structure of human consciousness. Structuralism (p. 20) was an attempt to analyze conscious experience by breaking it down into basic elements, and to understand how these elements work together.

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science 3) Titchener deliberately chose the word “elements” because he believed our mental experiences were made up of a limited number of sensations, much like the periodic table consists of a limited number of elements in the physical sciences. i) Also similar to the chemical elements, Titchener believed different sensations could form and create complex compounds or experiences. 4) Around the same time Wundt set up his laboratory, an American physician named William James (1842-1910) set out to write the first textbook in psychology, The Principles of Psychology. i) James was influenced by Darwin’s evolutionary principles and sought to explain how our thoughts and actions help us adapt to our environment. a) This is in contrast to structuralism, which looks for permanent, unchanging elements of thought. Functionalism (p. 21) is the study of the purpose and function of behaviour and conscious experience. ii) functionalism can be found today in the field of evolutionary psychology The Rise of Behaviourism 1) In the early 20th century, biologists became interested in how organisms learn to anticipate their bodily functions. 2) An American psychologist, Edwin Twitmyer (1873-1943), took on this work in studying reflexes. i) He had a machine that would tap volunteers’ patellar tendon just below the kneecap, causing a kicking reflex. ii) To make sure the volunteers weren’t kicking because they were startled by the machine, he would ring a bell just before the machine went off so they knew it was coming. iii) Then one day, the machine broke and only the bell rang, but the volunteer’s leg kicked anyway! a) Because the bell predicted the hammer, the ringing soon had the same effect, a process now called classical conditioning. 3) However, it would take some time before fellow psychologists recognized this finding and so credit for discovering classical conditioning usually goes to a Russian physiologist named Ivan Pavlov (18491936). i) His Nobel Prize-winning research showed that dogs could learn when food was paired with the sound of a tone. ii) The study of conditioning soon became the focus of behaviourism. Behaviourism (p. 21) an approach that dominated the first half of the 20th century of North American psychology and had a singular focus on studying only observable behaviour, with little to no reference to mental events or instincts as possible influences on behaviour.. 4) John B. Watson (1878-1958) is credited for the rise of behaviourism in North America. i) He believed that only observable changes in the environment and behaviour were appropriate for scientific study. a) He believed internal events (e.g., thoughts) were much too subjective. ii) He believed that all behaviour could ultimately be explained through conditioning, regardless of genetics. a) He believed he could use conditioning to create any kind of personality if given enough control over the environment. iii) After being dismissed from his university job for an indiscretion involving a female graduate student, he went into advertising, applying behaviourist principles. a) At the time, advertisements only educated the consumer about the product. b) Watson’s company developed ads to form associations between a product’s brand image and positive emotions, much like Pavlov got the dogs to salivate. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 13

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science c) Modern advertisers still use these same principles. 5) B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) was another behaviourist who had considerable influence over American psychology for decades. i) Similar to Watson, Skinner believed only observable behaviours should be studied. ii) Skinner worked mainly with animals in chambers examining behaviours associated with rewards and punishments. Animals would get a reward (usually food) for pressing a lever. a) Skinner could vary when the reward was given, and animals would learn the pattern. iii) Skinner believed this work related to human behaviours that were also influenced by our drives for rewards and our motivations to avoid punishment. 6) Watson’s and Skinner’s concept of behaviourism was met with resistance by some psychologists due to free will. i) If our behaviour is controlled by external rewards, then this leaves little room for free will. ii) Those who disagree with this view believe humans can rise about their instinctive, reward-based motivations. Humanistic Psychology Emerges 1) In the 1950s, psychologists began to break away from perspectives that claimed humans did not have free will (e.g., behaviourism and psychoanalyses), which spurred the creation of humanistic psychology. i) This perspective sought to understand the meaning of personal experience. ii) In contrast to behaviourism, this perspective believed humans had free will. iii) Psychoanalysis focused on illnesses of the body, whereas humanism focused on people attaining the best self they could be. Humanistic Psychology (p. 23) focuses on the unique aspects of each individual human, each person’s freedom to act, his or her rational thought, and the belief that humans are fundamentally different from animals. 2) Two of the major founders of this perspective were Carl Rogers (1902-1987) and Abraham Maslow (1908-1970). i) Both focused on the positive aspects of humanity and the factors that lead to a productive and fulfilling life instead of labeling problems and disorders. ii) They believed humans are motivated to develop a sense of self and to personally grow and fulfill their potential, and this was the focus of their treatments. The Brain and Behaviour 1) human abilities were also being studied by neurologists, surgeons and brain scientists i) Karl Lashley (1890-1958) worked to locate the engram or the place in the brain where memory was stored a) Lashley systematically examined how brain damage in specific areas influenced rats’ memory performance b) Lashley found that the exact location of damage did not affect performance (long term memories are therefore stored throughout the brain) c) Lashley found that larger amounts of brain damage tended to result in greater memory loss which he termed the principle of mass action d)Lashley ended his career without fully understanding how learning occurred 2) Canadian Donald Hebb studied how brain cells changed during learning i) he observed that when one brain cell consistently stimulates another physical changes occur to strengthen that relationship (Hebb’s Law) a) showed that activities that occur at the cellular level can be studied (in this case memory) Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 14

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science b) showed that behaviour can be studied on multiple levels ranging from the neuron to the entire brain 3) Wilder Penfield (1891-1976) worked at the Montreal Neurological Institute and worked with Herbert Jasper to develop a surgical procedure to help people with epilepsy i) the procedure involved first mapping out the patient’s brain tissue to avoid damaging areas involved with important functions like language a) Penfield would electrically stimulate areas and ask for the sensation experienced after each burst of electricity ii) when he combined the results from research on several patients Penfield was able to produce precise maps of sensory and motor cortices iii) Penfield showed that subjective experiences were represented in the brain which implied that a simple stimulus-response model put forth by behaviourists was not a complete representation of our mental world The Cognitive Revolution 1) While behaviourism dominated the first half of the 20th in North America, Europeans focused on thought and studies of the mind. i) Therefore, Europeans are credited with forming cognitive psychology, with early studies focusing on memory. 2) The German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) focused his research on remembering and forgetting. i) His results produced “forgetting curves”, which showed that most of what a person learns is forgotten rapidly, but then forgetting slows to a crawl. a) This forgetting curve is still used in psychology today as well as some of his research methods. 3) British psychologist Frederick Bartlett (1886-1969) illustrated that memory is an interpretive process that involves cultural knowledge. i) For example, he work showed that after viewing a movie we are more likely to remember the general storyline that what exact words in the script or what the characters were wearing. a) In addition, what we deem important enough to remember is shaped by our cultural knowledge. 4) Another precursor to cognitive psychology, Gestalt psychology, emerged in the early to mid-1900s. Gestalt Psychology (p. 25) is an approach emphasizing that psychologists need to focus on the whole of perception and experience, rather than its parts (figure 1.8) 5) Gestalt psychology contrasted the goal of structuralists to break experiences down into smaller parts 6) Gestalt psychologists argued that much of our thinking and experiences occur at a higher, more organized level than Wundt (structuralism) emphasized. i) For example, Gestaltists argued that looking at experience as individual pieces made as much sense as studying water by looking at hydrogen and oxygen atoms. 6) Around the time humanistic psychology was gaining interests, the scientific study of cognition was becoming an accepted practice (1950s). i) The invention of the computer gave scientist something to liken them mind to, “The software of the brain). ii) Linguists also argued that grammar and vocabulary were much too complex to be explained by the behaviourist perspective. iii) However, it wasn’t until 1968 that these areas of research were given the name “cognitive psychology” by Ulrich Neisser (born 1928). Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 15

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science

7) Cognitive psychology is a modern perspective that focuses on mental processes, such as memory, thinking, and language. Social and Cultural Influences 1) behaviourist and cognitive psychology focused on responses to stimuli i) these approaches ignore the fact that we sometimes have to respond to stimuli in front of people a) this notion had been studied in the 1800s by Norman Triplett (1861-1931) who conducted one of the first formal experiments on social influences. i) Triplett observed that cyclists ride faster in the presence of other people than when riding alone. ii) Triplett published the first social psychology research in 1982 and a few social psychology textbooks in 1908. 3) However, this field did not really take off until the 1940s with the events in Nazi-controlled Germany. i) German psychologists fled to the United States, many having a gestalt perspective, and mixed with the mostly behaviourist psychologists. ii) Research on social influences were also the result of collaboration with sociologists (study of populations of humans ) and psychologists (who were studying individuals at the time). a) They worked together to understand how normal individuals could be transformed into brutal prison camp guards, how propaganda affects people, and how society might address issues of prejudice. iii) Out of this sprung the field of social psychology, which is the study of the influence of other people on our behaviour iv) however it was noted that not everyone responded to social situations in the same way which gave rise to personality psychology, the study of how different personality characteristics can influence how we think and act. . 4) Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) is often credited with founding modern social psychology and argued that social and personality factors interact with each other i) Lewin was originally trained in Gestalt psychology ii) Lewin found that behaviour is a function of the individual and the environment or B = f{I,E}. a) In other words, all behaviours could be predicted and explained through understanding how an individual (with specific set of traits) would respond in a context that involved a specific set of conditions. b) For example, let’s say one person is very quiet and reserved and other person is very talkative and outgoing. Now put them in a social situation, such as a wedding and funeral. How can we expect them to act? iii) Given the differences between individuals and situations, we can expect different behaviours, which was essentially how Lewin viewed social psychology. 5) On a related note, but broader scale, cross-cultural psychology, is the field that draws comparisons about individual and group behaviour among cultures. i) many studies compare North Americans to individuals in non-Western countries such as China or Japan a) also study what happens when people from other cultures immigrate to North America b) how do people respond from being pulled in different directions by history and current country of residence? c) most recently brain imaging techniques have been used to see how cultural experience are embedded in our brain tissue. 6) Trends that emerged during the formative years of psychology laid the foundation for the modern perspectives and theories we see today

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 1.2 Lecture Launchers  Women in the History of Psychology in America  Biographical Profiles  Scandal in Psychology—John Watson’s Fall from the Throne  There Are Other Psychologies in the World  Psychologists and Prescription Privileges Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises  Promoting Cultural Awareness Web Resources  Classics in the History of Psychology: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca  Today in the History of Psychology: www.cwu.edu/~warren/today.html  APA—American Psychological Association: www.apa.org  APS—Association for Psychological Science: www.psychologicalscience.org  Experimental Psychology Society: www.eps.ac.uk  Jean Piaget Society: www.piaget.org  Society of Clinical Psychology: www.div12.org  Society of Counseling Psychology: www.div17.org  Society of Experimental Social Psychology (SESP): www.sesp.org  Society for Personality and Social Psychology: www.spsp.org  Society for Psychological Study of Social Issues: www.spssi.org  Society for Research in Child Development: www.srcd.org  B.F. Skinner Foundation: www.bfskinner.org/BFSkinner/Home.html

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science Work the Scientific Literacy Model ▲ Return to Table of Contents Text p. 33  MYPSYCHLAB: Video Series Episode 1: Introduction to Psychology offers six 5–7 minute segments covering the most recent research, science, and applications utilizing the most up-to-date film and animation technology. Multiple-choice and short-answer questions are provided for student assignments. Format The MyPsychLab video series is available in MyPsychLab. Each half-hour episode in the MyPsychLab video series is made up of several five-minute clips which can be viewed separately or together: • The Big Picture introduces the topic of the episode and draws in the viewer. • The Basics uses the power of video to present foundational topics, especially those that students find difficult to understand. • Special Topics dives deeper into high-interest and often cutting-edge topics, showing research in action. • Thinking Like a Psychologist models critical thinking and explores research methods. • In the Real World focuses on applications of psychological research. • What’s In It for Me? These clips show students the relevance of psychological research to their lives. Text p. 35  ASSIGNMENT: Work the Model After students read the chapter and view the video (available in MyPsychLab and at www.youtube.com/scientificliteracy) assign the discussion topic found in the “Why is this relevant?” section as a classroom discussion or as a short-answer writing assignment through MyPsychLab. Discussion Question or Writing Prompt: Jake has become very anxious ever since he started taking harder classes in his major. The university’s counselor diagnosed him with an anxiety disorder. Compare and contrast how the behavioural, humanistic, and cognitive approaches would view the origins and treatment of Jake’s anxiety. Then, describe how psychologists view each of the three approaches today. Rubric for Writing Assignment: Trait 1 Rubric: Development of Ideas Specific Trait Response Priorities Complete for all multi-part prompts Comparing and contrasting instead of just listing each approach separately. Top Priority Accurately describing each approach including current views. Second Priority Score Point

Description of Student Response

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science

Response correctly compares and contrasts how each of the three approaches would view the origin and treatment of Jake’s anxiety: • Behavioural would focus on what is reinforcing his anxious behaviour and set up a new reinforcement-type schedule to make changes. Treatment focus would be on the present and on Jake’s behaviour, ignoring his past or his thoughts. • Humanistic would focus on healthier aspects of Jake’s life and see anxiety as something that is not pathological but changeable by him. Focus of treatment would be on establishing positive relationship between therapist and Jake so that Jake is free to grow to his greatest potential. • Cognitive would focus on the content of Jake’s thoughts/images as driving his anxious behaviour. Focus of treatment would be helping him to change the content of his thoughts/images. Response also describes how psychologists view each of the three approaches today, such as: • Behaviourism is still considered prominent and legitimate but no longer to the extreme that it ignores the mind. Most current approaches combine behaviourism and cognitive psychology into new approach called Cognitive Behavioural Approach. • Humanistic approach has evolved into Positive Psychology because previous ideas were too limited and could not effectively answer scientific questions about humanity or helping those with psychological issues. • Cognitive psychology is still considered prominent and legitimate and either exists on its own or in combination with behaviourism (the Cognitive Behavioural Approach). Responses may vary, but will include most of the following: compares and contrasts how the three approaches would view the origin and treatment of Jake’s anxiety: • Behavioural would focus on what is reinforcing his anxious behaviour and set up a new reinforcement-type schedule to make changes. Treatment focus would be on the present and on Jake’s behaviour, ignoring his past or his thoughts. • Humanistic would focus on healthier aspects of Jake’s life and see anxiety as something that is not pathological but changeable by him. Focus of treatment would be on establishing positive relationship between therapist and Jake so that Jake is free to grow to his greatest potential. • Cognitive would focus on the content of Jake’s thoughts/images as driving his anxious behaviour. Focus of treatment would be helping him to change the content of his thoughts/images. Responses may vary, but will include most of the following: describes how psychologists view each of the three approaches today: • Behaviourism is still considered prominent and legitimate but no longer to the extreme that it ignores the mind. Most current approaches combine behaviourism and cognitive psychology into new approach called Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 19

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science

Cognitive Behavioural Approach. • Humanistic approach has evolved into Positive Psychology because previous ideas were too limited and could not effectively answer scientific questions about humanity or helping those with psychological issues. • Cognitive psychology is still considered prominent and legitimate and either exists on its own or in combination with behaviourism (the Cognitive Behavioural Approach). Responses may vary, but will include some of the following: compares and contrasts how the three approaches would view the origin and treatment of Jake’s anxiety: • Behavioural would focus on what is reinforcing his anxious behaviour and set up a new reinforcement-type schedule to make changes. Treatment focus would be on the present and on Jake’s behaviour, ignoring his past or his thoughts. • Humanistic would focus on healthier aspects of Jake’s life and see anxiety as something that is not pathological but changeable by him. Focus of treatment would be on establishing positive relationship between therapist and Jake so that Jake is free to grow to his greatest potential. • Cognitive would focus on the content of Jake’s thoughts/images as driving his anxious behaviour. Focus of treatment would be helping him to change the content of his thoughts/images. Responses may vary, but will include some of the following: describes how psychologists view each of the three approaches today: • Behaviourism is still considered prominent and legitimate but no longer to the extreme that it ignores the mind. Most current approaches combine behaviourism and cognitive psychology into new approach called Cognitive Behavioural Approach. • Humanistic approach has evolved into Positive Psychology because previous ideas were too limited and could not effectively answer scientific questions about humanity or helping those with psychological issues. • Cognitive psychology is still considered prominent and legitimate and either exists on its own or in combination with behaviourism (the Cognitive Behavioural Approach).

Responses may include some incorrect information. Response fails to compare and contrast how each of the three approaches would view the origin and treatment of Jake’s anxiety or includes substantial incorrect information: • Response does not indicate focus or treatment of Jake’s behaviour from the Behavioural Approach. • Response does not indicate focus or treatment of healthier aspects of Jake’s life and/or fails to mention importance of relationship with therapist for the Humanistic Approach. • Response does not indicate focus or treatment of Jake’s thoughts/images from the Cognitive Approach.

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science Response fails to describe how psychologists view each of the three approaches today or includes substantial incorrect information: • Response does not indicate that Behaviourism is still considered prominent and/or that it ignores the mind. Or response fails to indicate current approaches combine behaviourism and cognitive psychology into new approach called Cognitive Behavioural Approach. • Response does not indicate that Humanistic approach has evolved into Positive Psychology or that previous ideas were too limited and could not effectively answer scientific questions about humanity or helping those with psychological issues. • Response does not indicate that Cognitive psychology is still considered prominent and legitimate or that it either exists on its own or in combination with behaviourism (the Cognitive Behavioural Approach). Trait 2 Rubric: Organization Specify Trait Score Point Description of Student Response

Organization is clear and helps the reader understand the respondent’s point of view. Transitions connect concepts and guide the reader. Contains an effective introduction and conclusion.

Organization helps the reader understand the respondent’s point of view. Transitions connect some concepts. Contains an appropriate introduction and conclusion. 3

A lack of organization interferes with the reader’s understanding of the respondent’s point of view. Response has few transitions that would help the reader follow the essay. Either the introduction or the conclusion or both are ineffective.

A lack of organization profoundly interferes with the reader’s understanding of the respondent’s point of view. Response lacks transitions that would help the reader follow the essay. Both the introduction and the conclusion are absent or ineffective.

Trait 3 Rubric: Conventions Specific Trait Score Point Description of Student Response

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science

Response does not contain a significant number of errors in grammar, spelling, punctuation, or word choice. Errors do not interfere with the reader’s understanding. Response demonstrates variety in sentence structure. Demonstrates sophistication and skill with a wide variety of conventions.

Response contains a significant but not excessive number of errors in grammar, spelling, punctuation, or word choice. Most errors do not interfere with the reader’s understanding. Response demonstrates some variety in sentence structure. Demonstrates control over basic but not complex conventions.

Response contains a substantial number of errors in grammar, spelling, punctuation, or word choice. Many errors interfere with the reader’s understanding. Response demonstrates little to no variety in sentence structure. Demonstrates minimal control over basic conventions. Response contains a large number of errors in grammar, spelling, punctuation, or word choice. Many errors interfere with the reader’s understanding. Response demonstrates little to no variety in sentence structure. Demonstrates a lack of control over basic conventions.

Trait 4 Rubric: Voice Specific Trait Score Point Description of Student Response

The writing has an individual, engaging voice with a compelling tone. There is a sense of a personality behind the written words. Words are precise and natural; there may be figurative language used appropriately. Sentences are graceful and clear with a natural rhythm and variety that demonstrate fluency. Awareness of audience is evident.

The writing has a clear but uncomplicated voice. The writing is relatively fluent, but overall it may lack spontaneity and vitality. Word choice is appropriate and functional; figurative language may be limited to clichés. Sentences may occasionally be awkward or repetitious but demonstrate some variety in structure. There are few surprising or unexpected moments. Some awareness of audience is evident.

The writing may have an artificial or uneven tone. Word choice may be simple and limited, or overly jargonistic, reflecting text written to impress. There may be little evidence the writer is engaged in the topic; the text lacks liveliness. Sentences may be choppy, rambling, or repetitive in a way that limits fluency. There may be little or no audience awareness. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 22

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science

The writing may lack voice or use a tone inappropriate for the audience. Word choices are vague, inappropriate, or incorrect. Sentences may be limited in variety or be comprised of awkward fragments or run-ons which produce a halting voice. No commitment to audience and/or topic is evident.

Trait 5 Rubric: Focus & Coherence Specific Trait Score Point Description of Student Response Response persuasively justifies its conclusions through logic, examples, and illustrative language. References to theories, concepts, etc. effectively demonstrate a strong command of psychology. 4

Response justifies its conclusions through some combination of logic, examples, and illustrative language. References to theories, concepts, etc. effectively demonstrate a good command of psychology. 3

Response provides some justification for its conclusions. Some combination of logic, examples, and illustrative language are present but are inconsistent or somewhat ineffective. References to theories, concepts, etc. effectively demonstrate only a partial understanding of psychology. Response provides no significant justification for its conclusions. Logic, examples, and illustrative language are absent, inconsistent, and/or ineffective. References to theories, concepts, etc. effectively demonstrate no more than a weak grasp of psychology.

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science ▼ LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND DISCUSSIONS TOPICS        

How Do We Know What We Know? Psychology and Common Sense Correlations and Causal Relationships Women in the History of Psychology in America Biographical Profiles Scandal in Psychology—John Watson’s Fall from the Throne There Are Other Psychologies in the World Psychologists and Prescription Privileges

▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: How Do We Know What We Know? How do you know that John A. MacDonald was the first Prime Minister of Canada? you really have a stomach? Dependence on observation is one of the hallmarks of science, but it is not the only way humans acquire knowledge. There are, in fact, many questions that cannot be answered by scientific methods and for which other means of acquiring knowledge are more appropriate. Begin by asking the following questions. • • • • • •

How do you know that John A. MacDonald was the first prime minister of Canada? How do you know that you really have a stomach? What makes you so sure the sun will rise tomorrow? How do you know the color of the shirt I’m wearing? How can you be sure that there aren’t little creatures inside computers that are responsible for the things computers do? Are you sure you don’t have a big hole in the back of your pants or skirt?

Authority is one source of knowledge. We know, or believe, that MacDonald was the first Prime Minister because we trust the authority of historians and history books. During the centuries that Western civilization was dominated by the Church, the authority of holy writings was believed to be the only dependable way of knowing. Reason was considered by Renaissance scholars to be the most reliable source of knowledge. If you say, “All humans have stomachs; I am human; therefore, I have a stomach,” you have used deductive reasoning. If you say, “The sun rose today, yesterday, the day before yesterday, and for as long as I or anyone can remember; therefore, it will rise tomorrow,” you are using inductive reasoning. Observation is still another way of acquiring knowledge. You know the color of my shirt because you can see the shirt. You assume that you do not have a hole in the posterior of your clothing because you have not observed stares and giggles. One might use any of these ways of knowing to deny the existence of little creatures in computers. People you perceive to be authorities about computer innards may have told you how they work. You may have reasoned that creatures need nourishment and there is no food supply inside microprocessors. Or you may Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 24

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science have looked inside a computer and failed to see little creatures waiting to solve your problems. But there is no way one can absolutely refute the computer-creature hypothesis; so if you want to keep your computer running, maybe you should find out what the little creatures eat. All these ways of knowing—authority, reason, and observation—are used by scientists, but observation must be the basis for knowledge that is scientific. Science puts greater emphasis on evidence provided by the senses than on authority of others or reasoning. Science relies on empirical evidence. An extension of this activity might involve a discussion of some of the following contradictory beliefs: Birds of a feather flock together ...................................................Opposites attract Absence makes the heart grow fonder .............................. Out of sight, out of mind You can’t teach an old dog new tricks ..................................Never too old to learn Often students will have anecdotal stories about each belief. Ask students to think about their beliefs from an empirical point of view. You may want to facilitate discussion by providing students with the following questions: Can you rely on one person’s account to believe in a phenomenon? How might each set of beliefs be tested empirically? When will you “believe” in a certain phenomenon? ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture Launcher: Psychology and Common Sense A common refrain voiced by laypeople and scientists is that most, if not all, of behavioural science “is just common sense.” Introductory psychology students are particularly apt to make this claim, given that much of their prior exposure to psychology is likely to have been very common-sensical (though perhaps not well-established) claims by a variety of “professionals” on the talk-show circuit. In a nutshell, it’s difficult to counter the “common-sense” stigma when so much of behaviour seems to be explainable at an intuitive surface level. Mark Leary shares some suggestions for discussing this issue with your students. It is true that the subject matter of psychology is much more familiar to most people than is the subject matter of subatomic physics or gastroendocrinological biology; we see behaviour all around us, but rarely stumble over a gluon. Psychology would be an odd science of thought and behaviour if it only considered thoughts and behaviours completely foreign to people’s experiences, or if its findings always ran counter to most people’s beliefs. But neither greater visibility of subject matter nor popular consensus guarantees greater understanding. Many people believed whole-heartedly in flat earths and cheese moons, only to find their common-sense views dismantled in the face of scientific evidence. So too with psychology. Although most people would like to believe that large rewards produce greater liking for a boring task, that the behaviour of men and women is determined by their biology, or that absence makes the heart grow fonder, researchers studying cognitive dissonance, sex-role stereotypes, and close relationships would be happy to share their findings to the contrary. In short, the popularity of a common-sense belief may not always support the weight of scientific evidence. More importantly, psychologists (like all scientists) are primarily engaged in the task of explaining behaviour, rather than merely cataloging it. The difference between theory and description—”why” versus “what”—echoes the difference between science and common sense. Common sense certainly helps Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 25

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science describe what takes place in behaviour, but it doesn’t compel us to understand why it takes place. The development of theory in understanding behaviour sets science apart from everyday, common-sense accounts. Leary, M. (1995). Behavioural Research Methods (2nd ed., pp. 24–25). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Correlations and Causal Relationships There seems to be a general human tendency to attribute causality to correlated events. The lay person, like the psychologist, often imposes patterns of (apparently) lawful regularity on observed events. Given what is perceived as an “effect,” we search for causes. Events are more likely to be singled out for attention and analysis when they are unusual, anomalous, and discontinuous with our prior experience. When such events are natural phenomena, they are typically relegated to the status of “cause” and then the search is directed toward their aftereffects. One of the most persistent instances in which pseudo-correlations of behaviour consequences are reported to flow from salient natural and human events is the “baby boom” syndrome. For example, the allegation of increased births nine months after a major power blackout in New York is well known. So too, is the baby boom in Israel nine months after their war with Egypt. Invariably, when base rate data are used to compare the assumed “increase in births,” the effect vanishes. That is, when seasonal fluctuations in births are taken into account, there is no unusual effect left to relate to the nine-months-earlier unusual event. But that does not deter the correlation seekers. Three University of North Carolina sociologists attributed a 1955 drop in Southern birth rates to the Supreme Court’s 1954 school desegregation decision (Rindfuss, Reed, & St. John, 1978). They theorized that uncertain prospects for the future “demoralize” prospective parents (both whites and, to a lesser extent, blacks), causing them to postpone any children they might otherwise have conceived in the three- or four-month period immediately following the decision. The subsequent recovery in the birth rate is attributed to the realization that desegregation would in fact proceed slowly. And on it goes. Less than a week after Chicago’s “Blizzard of ’79,” at least one newspaper columnist was speculating on the possibility of a baby boom in the coming autumn (Kup’s column, Chicago Sun-Times, January 17, 1979, p. 52). Another example of the temptation to confuse correlation with a causal connection is in the area of extramarital sexual affairs. Biracree (1984) found that for men there was an almost perfect positive correlation between annual income and the percentage of men who had been unfaithful to their wives. This relationship was not true for married women. If this finding is valid, what are the possible explanations for these relationships? Is there any strong evidence to support any of these explanations, or are they, at the moment, speculations? Biracree, T. (1984). How you rate: Men and How you rate: Women. New York: Dell. Rindfuss, R. R., Reed, J. S., & St. John, C. A. (1978). A fertility reaction to a historical event: Southern white birthrates and the 1954 desegregation ruling. Science, 201, 178-180.

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Women in the History of Psychology in America Psychology recently has renewed its appreciation of diversity in human behaviour. Part of that diversity includes celebrating the accomplishments and contributions of women to the field of psychology. Share with your students the stories of some key figures from psychology’s history: Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930) attended Harvard University and worked with William James, but because Harvard did not officially admit women into graduate programs, Calkins never received a Ph.D. from Harvard. At best, Harvard offered her the degree from its sister school Radcliffe. She refused, stating that she ought to be given the degree from the institution where she earned it. Calkins collaborated with Edmund Sanford from neighboring Clark University on a variety of research projects. At that time, women with advanced degrees or training primarily received faculty positions at female colleges, such as Wellesley and Vassar Colleges. Calkins received a position at Wellesley College in 1887, and established a prolific laboratory in 1891 producing short-term memory research (Madigan & O’Hara, 1992). In 1906, Calkins was the first woman elected President of the American Psychological Association (APA). Margaret Floy Washburn (1871–1939) was the first person, male or female, to receive a Ph.D. from Edward B. Titchener in 1884, the leading structuralist in American experimental psychology at that time (Goodwin, 1999). She was also the first female to receive a Ph.D. in the United States. Interestingly, Washburn never believed Titchener taught her much, as she became a leading comparative psychologist at Vassar College. She produced her most influential work in The Animal Mind in 1908, and in 1921, she was elected the second woman president of APA. She suffered a cerebral hemorrhage in 1937, and died from its complications in 1939 (Scarborough & Furumoto, 1987). Christine Ladd-Franklin (1847–1930) was a mathematician who developed an interest in visual perception and made great contributions to theories of color vision (Furumoto, 1992). She married a math professor from Columbia University, and she occasionally taught adjunct courses there. However, she was rarely paid. Like Calkins, she did not receive her Ph.D. although she had completed all of the required work. Johns Hopkins University finally granted her the degree shortly before her death. She accepted the degree in person. At the turn of the 20th century, one popular belief held that there was more variability in intelligence in men than in women. One implication of this belief was that even the brightest of women would never be as bright or even “outshine” the brightest of men. African American psychologist Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886–1939) challenged these beliefs with her research, which showed no evidence that the distribution of intelligence test scores differed between men and women (Hollingworth, 1914). She also challenged the popular belief that women’s intellectual abilities were affected by their menstrual cycles, again finding no statistical evidence to support such claims (Silverman, 1992). Hollingworth’s contributions are often seen as the seedlings for the formal study of the psychology of women. African American psychologist Mamie Phipps Clark (1917–1983) received her bachelor’s and master’s degrees from Howard University, and her Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1944. She is well-known for her studies of racial differences in racial identity and self concept (Clark & Clark, 1950). In the 1940s and 1950s racial segregation was becoming institutionalized, and Clark became interested in the effects of segregation on African American children. She conducted a series of studies in which African American and white children were shown black and white dolls. The children were first asked to pick the doll they most looked like, establishing a measure of racial identity. Then, children were asked which doll they Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 27

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science would most like to play with. Both white and African American children preferred the white doll, suggesting for both races of children a preference and perhaps more value on being white. Clark’s work was considered and noted in the Supreme Court’s 1954 ruling in Brown v. Board of Education desegregation case, which ruled that public school segregation was unconstitutional. Clark, K. B., & Clark, M. P. (1950). Emotional factors in racial identification and preference in Negro children. Journal of Negro Education, 19, 341–350. Furumoto, L. (1992). Joining separate spheres: Christine Ladd-Franklin, woman-scientist. American Psychologist, 47, 175–182. Furumoto, L., & Scarborough, E. (1992). Placing women in the history of psychology: The first American women psychologists. In J. S. Bohan (Ed.) Seldom Seen, Rarely Heard (pp. 337–353). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Goodwin, C. J. (1999). A History of Modern Psychology. New York: Wiley. Hollingworth, L. S. (1914). Variability as related to sex differences in achievement. American Journal of Sociology, 19, 510–530. Madigan, S., & O’Hara, R. (1992). Short-term memory at the turn of the century. American Psychologist, 47, 107–174. Scarborough, E., & Furumoto, L. (1987). Untold Lives: The First Generation of American Women Psychologists. New York: Columbia University Press. Silverman, L. K. (1992). Leta Stetter Hollingworth: Champion of the psychology of women and gifted children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 20–27. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Biographical Profiles Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) Born in Neckarau, Germany, Wilhelm Wundt was the fourth child of a Lutheran minister. Despite coming from a family that boasted numerous scholars, scientists, and physicians, Wundt initially was not a good student. After he dropped out of one high school, a teacher suggested that a reasonable goal for Wundt would be a career in the postal service. Wundt’s scholastic abilities improved, however, and in 1855 he graduated at the top of his class in medical school. Wundt then went to Berlin to study physiology with Johannes Müller, and he subsequently decided to become an experimental physiologist himself. Wundt then returned to the University of Heidelberg, where he worked as an assistant for Herman von Helmholtz. It was at Heidelberg that Wundt taught his first course in psychology. The year was 1862. In 1879, at the University of Leipzig, where he held a chair in philosophy, Wundt established the Institute for Experimental Psychology, the first laboratory whose formal purpose was the scientific investigation of the human mind. Wundt is one of the most prolific contributors to the field of psychology. It is estimated that between the years of 1853 and 1920, Wundt wrote 53,735 pages of text. Wundt was not only a voracious writer; he was also responsible for training numerous researchers, some of whom, such as Edward Titchener, brought versions of Wundt’s psychology to America. Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) Sigmund Freud was born in Pribor, Czechoslovakia, in 1856. Although Freud was a gifted student, it took him eight years to finish his medical degree at the University of Vienna, partly because he was interested in so many topics. Freud first pursued a career as a neurologist, but financial concerns forced him into general medical practice. In cooperation with his friend Joseph Breuer, Freud began to treat hysterical Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 28

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science women. This is unusual, because at the time there was no known cure for hysteria, which is now known as a conversion disorder. Through trial and error and feedback from their clients, Breuer and Freud developed the technique known as psychoanalysis. Its fundamental rule is honesty; clients must relay all thoughts and feelings uncensored to the analyst. Clients then follow their stream of thought wherever it may lead, a process known as free association. In the course of free association, clients often uncover traumatic events in the past, and, upon reliving these events, often experience relief from their symptoms. Freud’s first major work, The Interpretation of Dreams (1900), detailed the process of dream interpretation, which he felt was the “royal road to the unconscious.” Although it took six years to sell the first 600 copies printed, this work was reprinted eight times during Freud’s lifetime. Although the technique of psychoanalysis is perhaps Freud’s most important legacy, he made many other substantial contributions to psychology. These include the recognition of the importance of sexuality and unconscious processes, a fully developed system of personality, and an appreciation for the conflict between individual desires and the constraints of society. His work has influenced so many aspects of our thinking that he is often not given full credit for the development of his ideas. Freud’s many detractors are quick to point out that his theories are not based on empirical research. While this is true, just because they lack empirical evidence does not mean that they are wrong, only that they are less likely to be right. Because of the breadth of his intellectual contributions, he remains the most cited psychologist in Psychology and Life, 16th Edition, and most comparable texts. William James (1842–1910) William James, often considered the father of American psychology, was born in New York City, but spent much of his childhood traveling between the United States and Europe, where he attended several private schools. James’ interest in such varied fields as philosophy, religion, and science were cultivated at home in an enriched environment shared with his brother Henry James, the famous author. William James struggled to find a vocation that mated his various interests, trying his hand at art (his paintings have appeared on the cover of recent editions of American Psychologist), chemistry, and, finally, medicine. He received his M.D. from Harvard in 1868. In 1872, James began teaching physiology at Harvard but was preoccupied by his ongoing and deep interest in such philosophical issues as free will and determinism. Though James considered himself a temporary dabbler in the discipline of psychology, his two-volume textbook, Principles of Psychology (1890), stood as the field’s definitive textbook through the first half of this century. It is still considered one of the best-written texts on psychology and a source of many original ideas. James’ contributions to psychology include the notion of a stream of consciousness, the importance of habit and instinct, a complex theory of the self, a theory of emotion, and opening the boundaries of psychology to include topics such as religious beliefs. B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born and raised in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania and received a bachelor’s degree in English from Hamilton College in New York. Skinner enrolled in the experimental psychology program at Harvard and studied under E.G. Boring, earning his masters degree in 1930 and Ph.D. in 1931. In 1936, he began his academic career at the University of Minnesota; then, in 1945, he took a position as chairman of the psychology department at Indiana University. In 1948, however, Harvard offered him a position, which he accepted, and he remained there for the rest of his life. Skinner died of leukemia in 1990. While Skinner was at Harvard, he was heavily influenced by the work of John B. Watson. From this influence, Skinner dedicated his life’s work to studying the relationship between reinforcement and observable behaviour. Throughout his career, he insisted that psychology be a scientific, empirically driven discipline. He is considered by many to be one of the most important figures in twentieth century Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 29

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science psychology, and his contribution to both clinical and experimental psychology is evident in the work of psychologists who followed his lead, and to this day, extend his work in associative learning research. The principles of reinforcement that he outlined were built on by clinical psychologists and applied to the conceptualization and treatment of mental disorders. The application of behaviourism to clinical psychology was not short-lived, as empirically supported treatments for anxiety disorders (e.g., panic disorder, simple phobia) and child conduct problems are based upon behavioural principles. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Scandal in Psychology—John Watson’s Fall from the Throne John B. Watson was a very famous man in his day—something many students never realize, as he usually gets only a few short paragraphs in introductory psychology texts. In fact, at the end of his career in psychology he was an esteemed professor at the world-renowned Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland. At one time, he was recognized as an authority on caring for babies, much as Dr. Spock and Dr. Brazelton would later become household words. He was married, a father, and respected in his field. All of that ended when he was fired over his affair with a beautiful and intelligent graduate student, Rosalie Rayner. Mary Watson, the wronged wife, insisted that the affair stop, as did Watson’s employers. But neither Watson nor Rayner wanted the affair to end, and finally Johns Hopkins insisted that he resign. The subsequent divorce from Mary was front page news at the time. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: There Are Other Psychologies in the World While introductory psychology books have enough to cover without taking on the whole world, it is important to remember that Western Psychology is not the only game in town. All cultures have implicit or explicit psychological theories, theories of how the mind works, that have been developing for thousands of years. Some, like Mayan theories, were almost completely lost after their cultures were all but wiped out by European invaders. Others, like Tibetan Abhidharma, are written down, have continued to develop, and have found overlap with Western psychological traditions. Tibetan Psychology www.orientalia.org/dedicatedserver.html APA Monitor: www.apa.org/monitor/dec03/tibetan.html Japanese Psychology www.web-jpn.org/links/education/academic/psychology.html www.todoinstitute.org/ Morita Therapy: www.morita-therapy.org/ ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Psychologists and Prescription Privileges During discussions about the various mental health professions, I usually mention the great debate regarding prescription privileges for psychologists. Students are fascinated by the political and public Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 30

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science dissention caused by this movement. They tend to understand the desire of the psychiatrists to “protect their turf,” yet they also understand how prescription privileges could improve psychological services to clients. A detailed discussion of the topic is found in the APA Monitor article referenced below. www.apa.org/monitor/apr02/newmexico.html ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science ▼ CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, DEMONSTRATIONS, AND EXERCISES  Misconceptions About Psychology  Psychology’s Goals Applied to Matchmaking  Promoting Cultural Awareness ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Misconceptions about Psychology One of the most popular and venerable activities for the introductory course is the administration of a Test of Common Beliefs and subsequent discussion of misconceptions about psychology. Although a new 65item multiple-choice test was developed by McCutcheon (1991), the most popular test is the Test of Common Beliefs developed by Vaughan (1977). Vaughan’s test, however, has been criticized for the ambiguity of some of the items (Brown, 1984; Gardner & Dalsing, 1986; Ruble, 1986), the fact that all items have “false” as the correct response, which may lead to a response set tendency (Vaughan, 1977), and the finding that many of the items are not really misconceptions since they are often correctly answered (Gardner & Dalsing, 1986; Lamal, 1979). Griggs and Ransdell (1987) compared responses to Vaughan’s Test of Common Beliefs from students that had taken an introductory psychology course in high school to those of several other studies (Lamal, 1979; Gardner & Dalsing, 1986; Vaughan, 1977). Using a criterion of at least a 50% error rate for an item (that is, they were answered as “true”), they identified 15 questions that met the criterion in at least two studies and had not been subject to earlier criticisms of ambiguity. These items are reproduced in Handout Master 1.1 and are ordered from highest to lowest with respect to their average error rate. You can administer these items to your class and use the responses as a starting point for a discussion on common sense notions and misconceptions about psychology. You may want to note to your students that many of these items are also answered incorrectly by psychologists and other social scientists (see Gardner & Hund, 1983). You can also tell your students that the correct answers to many of these items are discussed in their textbook. Brown, L. T. (1983). Some more misconceptions about psychology among introductory psychology students. Teaching of Psychology, 10, 207–210. Brown, L. T. (1984). Misconceptions about psychology aren’t always what they seem. Teaching of Psychology, 11, 75–78. Gardner, R. M., & Dalsing, S. (1986). Misconceptions about psychology among college students. Teaching of Psychology, 13, 32–34. Gardner, R. M., & Hund, R. M. (1983). Misconceptions of psychology among academicians. Teaching of Psychology, 10, 20–22. Griggs, R. A., & Ransdell, S. E. (1987). Misconceptions tests or misconceived tests? Teaching of Psychology, 14, 210–214. Lamal, P. A. (1979). College students’ common beliefs about psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 6, 155–158. McCutcheon, L. E. (1991). A new test of misconceptions about psychology. Psychological Reports, 68, 647–653. Ruble, R. (1986). Ambiguous psychological misconceptions. Teaching of Psychology, 13, 34–36. Vaughan, E. D. (1977). Misconceptions about psychology among introductory psychology students. Teaching of Psychology, 4, 138–141. Reprinted from Hill, W. G. (1995). Instructor’s resource manual for Psychology by S. F. Davis and J. J. Palladino. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 32

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Psychology’s Goals Applied to Matchmaking (This class exercise was adapted from an “Experience Break,” originally included in Psychology and Life, 15th Edition, by Philip Zimbardo and Richard Gerrig.) Based only on the descriptions provided in the grid below, ask your class to guess which pairs of the people listed below belong together. There is no right or wrong answer. Tell them to go with their instincts. Now lead your class in a discussion of their matchmaking decisions with respect to the goals of psychology: •

•

• •

•

• •

How would they describe the behaviours they engaged in while trying to settle on appropriate matches? Did they read all the descriptions before they began? Did they find the decisions easy to make? Did they change their mind several times? How would they explain their behaviour? What rules do they believe they used to match up the couples? Were they most concerned about age? About occupations? About leisure activities? Did they use some combination of all three descriptions? What inferences did they make in their decisions, such as perceived gender? What does the factor(s) that they used most say about them personally and their selection of a partner? How might their explanation allow them to predict which real-world relationships would succeed? Suppose that based on their day-to-day observations of relationships, they focused on occupations while doing their matchmaking. Are they willing to generalize from the predictions they made on this task to predictions in the real world? Can they begin to imagine the types of research they might carry out to test those predictions? Does their explanation allow them to control or improve their own relationship-seeking behaviour or to give better advice to others? Have they learned from this exercise what matters most to them in a relationship? What more would they like to learn from research? Could they learn something that would allow them to improve the quality of their own or other people’s lives? If their research reveals the factors that help determine which relationships, in general, will endure, they should be able to improve the quality of people’s lives.

David Age: 21 Job: Car mechanic Enjoys: Gourmet food

Dana Age: 23 Job: Advertising executive Enjoys: Movies

Chris

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science Age: 29 Job: Dog groomer Enjoys: Gardening

Age: 35 Job: Lawyer Enjoys: Roller coasters

Sandy Age: 54 Job: Flight attendant Enjoys: Hang gliding

Karen Age: 18 Job: Sales clerk Enjoys: Art museums

Jamie Age: 20 Job: Secretary Enjoys: Football

Pat Age: 56 Job: Pediatrician Enjoys: Opera

Tony Age: 37 Job: College professor Enjoys: Comic books

Rahul Age: 22 Job: Store manager Enjoys: Scuba diving

◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Promoting Cultural Awareness Lani Fujitsubo suggests an exercise that can be used profitably in Introductory Psychology as well as several other courses. Ask students to play the roles of family members and one or two newspaper reporters. The family is a group of aliens from outer space who have arrived on this planet, and the reporters are interviewing them for a story of interest to their readers. Fujitsubo provides the following script for the family member volunteers to rehearse: “You are a family (mother, father, and child) from outer space whose spacecraft recently landed in the United States. You are doing your best to assimilate into this society and are being interviewed because your child won the local spelling bee. On your planet of origin you show respect by laughing out loud before answering a direct question. Men are not allowed to speak directly to others, and must whisper their requests to women who will then communicate directly. It is traditional to offer a gift or compliment to someone before making a request or asking for anything. If offended you use nonverbal communication to express your hurt feelings, the most common form of which is to briefly turn your back to the person. Apologies are made by briefly dipping your head. No one on your planet is considered more important than anyone else, and competition is an unknown concept. Eye contact with males is considered offensive. A question is usually never answered directly because this implies that someone is an expert and causes others to lose face.” After the demonstration, poll the reporters and family members for their reactions. Reporters often feel frustrated, confused, misunderstood, or helpless in the face of this interaction where they don’t know the Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 34

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science “rules.” Family members might also find themselves misunderstood, offended, or frustrated at the inability of the reporter to understand their situation. Class discussion of this activity can focus on the importance of appreciating differences among others and understanding where and how miscommunications might arise. Fujitsubo, L. C. (1999). The importance of cross-cultural sensitivity in psychology. In L. T. Benjamin, B. F. Nodine, R. M. Ernst, and C. B. Broeker (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (Vol. 4). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science ▼ HANDOUT MASTERS  Handout Master 1.1 Knowledge of Psychology Test ▲ Return to Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science Handout Master 1.1 Knowledge of Psychology Test Instructions: Read each item carefully and then circle whether you believe the statement to be true or false. T F

1. To change people’s behaviour toward members of ethnic minority groups, we must first change their attitudes.

T F

2. By feeling people’s faces, blind people can visualize how they look in their minds.

T F

3. Children memorize much more easily than adults.

T F

4. Unlike humans, the lower animals are motivated only by their bodily needs—hunger, thirst, sex, etc.

T F

5. The study of the mind” is the best brief definition of psychology today.

T F

6. The more you memorize by rote (e.g., poems), the better you will become at memorizing.

T F

7. The best way to ensure that a desired behaviour will persist after training is completed is to reward the behaviour every single time it occurs throughout training (rather than intermittently).

T F

8. Fortunately for babies, human beings have a strong maternal instinct.

T F

9. The ability of blind people to avoid obstacles is due to a special sense that develops in compensation for their absence of vision.

T F

10. By giving a young baby lots of extra stimulation (e.g., mobiles and musical toys), we can markedly increase its intelligence.

T F

11. Psychiatrists are defined as medical people who use psychoanalysis.

T F

12. Boys and girls exhibit no behavioural differences until environmental influences begin to produce such differences.

T F

13. The high correlation between cigarette smoking and lung cancer proves that smoking causes lung cancer.

T F

14. Genius is akin to insanity.

T F

15. In love and friendship, more often than not, opposites attract one another.

Reprinted with permission from R. A. Griggs and S. E. Ransdell (1987), Misconceptions Tests or Misconceived Tests? Teaching of Psychology, 14, 210–214. Copyright 1987 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. ► Return to Activity: Misconceptions About Psychology ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science Handout Master 1.2 ▼ APS: READINGS FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE ▲ Return to Table of Contents Current Directions in Introductory Psychology, Second Edition (0-13-714350-8) Edited by Abigail A. Baird, with Michele M. Tugade and Heather B. Veague This new and exciting American Psychological Reader includes timely, cutting-edge articles, giving readers a real-world perspective from a reliable source: Current Directions in Psychological Science journal. This reader includes over 20 articles that have been carefully selected and taken from the very accessible Current Directions in Psychological Science journal. Articles discuss today’s most current and pressing issues in introductory psychology and are broken down into these main sections: Scientific Thinking; Nature/Nurture; Consciousness; Individual Differences; and Applications. Morton Ann Gernsbacher, Michelle Dawson, H. Hill Goldsmith Three Reasons Not to Believe in an Autism Epidemic. (Vol. 14, No. 2, 2005, pp. 55–58) p. 136 in the APS reader According to some lay groups, the nation is experiencing an autism epidemic—a rapid escalation in the prevalence of autism for unknown reasons. However, no sound scientific evidence indicates that the increasing number of diagnosed cases of autism arises from anything other than purposely broadened diagnostic criteria, coupled with deliberately greater public awareness and intentionally improved case finding. Why is the public perception so disconnected from the scientific evidence? In this article we review three primary sources of misunderstanding: lack of awareness about the changing diagnostic criteria, uncritical acceptance of a conclusion illogically drawn in a Californiabased study, and inattention to a crucial feature of the “child count” data reported annually by the U.S. Department of Education. ▲ Return to Table of Contents Suniya S. Luthar, Shawn J. Latendresse Children of the Affluent. Challenges to Well-Being. (Vol. 14, No. 1, 2005, pp. 49–53) p. 21 in the APS reader Growing up in the culture of affluence can connote various psychosocial risks. Studies have shown that upper-class children can manifest elevated disturbance in several areas-such as substance use, anxiety, and depression-and that two sets of factors seem to be implicated, that is, excessive pressures to achieve and isolation from parents (both literal and emotional). Whereas stereotypically, affluent youth and poor youth are respectively thought of as being at “low risk” and “high risk,” comparative studies have revealed more similarities than differences in their adjustment patterns and socialization processes. In the years ahead, psychologists must correct the long-standing neglect of a group of youngsters treated, thus far, as not needing their attention. Family wealth does not automatically confer either wisdom in parenting or equanimity of spirit; whereas children rendered atypical by virtue of their parents’ wealth are undoubtedly privileged in many respects, there is also, clearly, the potential for some nontrivial threats to their psychological well-being. ▲ Return to Table of Contents Kate Sweeny, Patrick J. Carroll, James A. Shepperd Is Optimism Always Best? Future Outlooks and Preparedness. (Vol. 15, No. 6, 2006, pp. 302–306) p. 169 in the APS reader Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 38

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science Although people generally appear optimistic about the future, they shift from optimism under certain circumstances. Drawing from a recent review of the literature, we describe how both optimism and shifts from optimism serve the common goal of preparedness, which includes a readiness to deal with setbacks and a readiness to take advantage of opportunities. Shifts from optimism occur in response to available information and to the possibility that things may not turn out as hoped. People tend to shift from optimism when feedback is anticipated in the near future, when the outcome is important, when negative outcomes are easily imagined, and when the outcomes are uncontrollable. In addition, people with low self-esteem shift from optimism more readily than do people with high self-esteem. Finally, both optimism and shifts from optimism have unique benefits in terms of preparedness. ▲ Return to Table of Contents

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science ▼ FORTY STUDIES THAT CHANGED PSYCHOLOGY Forty Studies that Changed Psychology: Explorations into the History of Psychological Research, 6/e (013603599X) By Roger Hock This unique book closes the gap between psychology textbooks and the research that made them possible by offering a first-hand glimpse into 40 of the most famous studies in the history of the field, and subsequent studies that expanded upon each study’s influence. Readers are able to grasp the process and excitement of scientific discovery as they experience an insider’s look at the studies that continue today to be cited most frequently, stirred up the most controversy when they were first published, sparked the most subsequent related research, opened new fields of psychological exploration, and changed most dramatically our knowledge of human behaviour. Watch Out for the Visual Cliff! Gibson, E. J., & Walk, R. D. (1960). The “visual cliff.” Scientific American, 202(4), 67–71. ▲ Return to Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science ▼ WEB RESOURCES ▲ Return to Table of Contents General/Comprehensive Amoeba Web: www.vanguard.edu/faculty/ddegelman/amoebaweb/ A site containing nicely organized tables of links to web pages related to various topics in psychology. Centre for Psychology Resources: http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/aupr/psycres.shtml A site maintained by Athabasca University in Canada. Provides comprehensive information on a variety of psychology topics. Psych Web: www.psychwww.com A cornucopia of psychology-related links maintained by the Psychology Department at Georgia Southern University. Psychology Central: www.psychcentral.com/ Web links and online resources for psychology students and faculty. Social Psychology Network: www.socialpsychology.org/ Well-organized links related to topics in social psychology. Tests, Tests, Tests: www.queendom.com/tests A vast variety of psychological tests established and maintained by “Cyberia Shrink.” History of Psychology Archives of the History of American Psychology: www.uakron.edu/ahap Psychology’s attic, maintained at the University of Akron. History of Psychology: http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/aupr/history.shtml The Psychology Center’s History of Psychology page has many websites to choose from, including broad topics and those specific to the history of psychology. Your students can learn more about psychology’s past or investigate the history of a particular topic that interests them. Today in the History of Psychology: www.cwu.edu/~warren/today.html Warren R. Street, of the University of Central Washington, knows everything about who was born when, who died when, what got published when, and what happened where. Major Professional Organizations APA—American Psychological Association: www.apa.org Information about the APA and links to other sites. APS—Association for Psychological Science: www.psychologicalscience.org Information about the APS and links to other sites. Division 3 of the American Psychological Association: www.apa.org/divisions/div3

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science The Division of Experimental Psychology of the American Psychological Association was formed many years ago to represent the interests and concerns of psychologists whose principal area of study or research lies within the field of general experimental psychology. Division 7 of the American Psychological Association: http://ecp.fiu.edu/APA/div7 Division 7 was organized to (a) promote research in the field of Developmental Psychology; (b) foster the development of researchers through providing information about educational opportunities and recognizing outstanding contributions to the discipline; (c) facilitate exchange of scientific information about developmental psychology through publications such as the division’s newsletter and through national and international meetings; and (d) promote high standards for the application of scientific knowledge on human development to public policy issues. Experimental Psychology Society: www.eps.ac.uk The Experimental Psychology Society is for the furtherance of scientific inquiry within the field of Psychology and cognate subjects. It holds periodical meetings at which papers are read and discussions held. The Society also disseminates information and educational material made available as a consequence of psychological research, including the publication of the Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology (Section A: Human Experimental Psychology, and Section B: Comparative and Physiological Psychology). Jean Piaget Society: www.piaget.org This site was created as an information resource for members of the Jean Piaget Society. The Jean Piaget Society, established in 1970, has an international, interdisciplinary membership of scholars, teachers and researchers interested in exploring the nature of the developmental construction of human knowledge. Philosophy of Science Association: www.philsci.org The Philosophy of Science Association aims to further studies and free discussion from diverse standpoints in the field of philosophy of science. To this end, the PSA engages in activities such as: the publishing of periodicals, essays and monographs in this field; sponsoring conventions and meetings; and the awarding of prizes for distinguished work in the field. Psychonomic Society: www.psychonomic.org One of the premier organizations of modern experimental psychology. The Psychonomic Society promotes the communication of scientific research in psychology and allied sciences. Society of Clinical Psychology: www.div12.org This site is sponsored by Division 12 of APA and addresses a variety of research, theory, and practice issues associated with clinical psychology. Society of Counseling Psychology: www.div17.org Division 17—Counseling Psychology was founded in 1946 to promote personal, educational, vocational, and group adjustment in a variety of settings. Presently, Division 17 brings together psychologists, students, and international and professional affiliates who are dedicated to promoting education and training, scientific investigation, practice, and diversity and public interest in professional psychology. Society of Experimental Social Psychology (SESP): www.sesp.org SESP is a scientific organization dedicated to the advancement of social psychology. Society for Personality and Social Psychology: www.spsp.org Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 42

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science With over 4,000 members, the Society is the largest organization of social and personality psychologists in the world. The goals of the Society are to further the generation and dissemination of research in personality and social psychology. Society for Psychological Study of Social Issues: www.spssi.org SPSSI is an international group of over 3500 psychologists, allied scientists, students, and others who share a common interest in research on the psychological aspects of important social issues. In various ways, the Society seeks to bring theory and practice into focus on human problems of the group, the community, and nations, as well as the increasingly important problems that have no national boundaries. Society for Research in Child Development: www.srcd.org The Society is a multidisciplinary, not-for-profit, professional association with a membership of approximately 5,500 researchers, practitioners, and human development professionals from over 50 countries. The purposes of the Society are to promote multidisciplinary research in the field of human development, to foster the exchange of information among scientists and other professionals of various disciplines, and to encourage applications of research findings. Psychological Theories About Psychoanalysis: www.apsa.org An article on this topic from the American Psychoanalytic Association. Humanistic Psychology from Maslow to the 21st Century: www.ahpweb.org/aboutahp/whatis.html A brief history of the humanistic psychology movement. Mind and Body: Rene Descartes to William James: http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/Mind/Table.html Robert H. Wozniak, of Bryn Mawr College, presents this history of ideas. B.F. Skinner Foundation: www.bfskinner.org Read a biography of the famous behaviourist, complete a training course on his theories, and visit a media archive replete with audio and video clips. The B.F. Skinner Foundation was established in 1987 to educate the public about B. F. Skinner’s work, and to promote an understanding of the role of contingencies in human behaviour. The Varieties of Religious Experience: www.psychwww.com/psyrelig/james/toc.htm This work by William James is available in its entirety on the Web, courtesy of the folks at Georgia Southern University. ▲ Return to Table of Contents

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science ▼ VIDEO RESOURCES ▲ Return to Table of Contents MyPsychLab Video Series Episode 1: Introduction to Psychology 1. The Big Picture: Asking the Tough Questions 2. The Basics: A Diverse Approach 3. Special Topics: Careers in Psychology 4. Thinking Like a Psychologist: Debunking Myths 5. In the Real World Application: Speed Dating 6. What’s In It For Me?: The Myth of Multitasking This video series offers instructors and students the most current and cutting edge introductory psychology video content available anywhere. These exclusive videos take the viewer into today’s research laboratories, inside the body and brain through breathtaking animations, and out into the street for real-world applications. Guided by the Design, Development and Review team, a diverse group of introductory psychology professors, this comprehensive new series features 17 half-hour episodes organized around the major topics of the introductory psychology course syllabus. For maximum flexibility, each 30-minute episode features several brief clips that bring psychology to life. FEATURES Format The MyPsychLab video series was designed with flexibility in mind. Each half-hour episode in the MyPsychLab video series is made up of several five-minute clips which can be viewed separately or together: • The Big Picture introduces the topic of the episode and draws in the viewer. • The Basics uses the power of video to present foundational topics, especially those that students find difficult to understand. • Special Topics dives deeper into high-interest and often cutting-edge topics, showing research in action. • Thinking Like a Psychologist models critical thinking and explores research methods. • In the Real World focuses on applications of psychological research. • What’s In It for Me? These clips show students the relevance of psychological research to their lives. Flexible Delivery Students can access the videos anytime within MyPsychLab, and each clip is accompanied by enriching self-assessment quizzes. Other Pearson Psychology Video Collections: Introductory Psychology Teaching Films Boxed Set ISBN (0131754327) Offering you an easy to use multi-DVD set of videos, more than 100 short video clips of 5–15 minutes in length from many of the most popular video sources for Psychology content, such as ABC News; the Films for the Humanities series; PBS; and more! Pearson Education Teaching Films Introductory Psychology: Instructor’s Library 2-Disk DVD Annual Edition (ISBN 0205652808) Annual updates of the most popular video sources for Psychology content, such as ABC News; the Films for the Humanities series; PBS; and more in 5-15 minute clips on an easy to use DVD!

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science Lecture Launcher Video for Introductory Psychology (ISBN 013048640X) This 60-minute videotape includes twenty-five segments covering all of the major topics in introductory psychology. All of the segments have been selected from videotapes in the Films for Humanities & Sciences collection. The segments are intended to provide brief illustrations of concepts, and to serve as a starting point for classroom discussions. FILMS FOR HUMANITIES AND SCIENCES VIDEO LIBRARY (www.films.com) Qualified adopters can select videos on various topics in psychology from the extensive library of Films for the Humanities and Sciences. Contact your local sales representative for a list of videos and ISBN’s. Other video series are available, ask your Pearson sales representative for more details. VIDEO CLIPS AVAILABLE FOR CHAPTER 1  Theories and Hypotheses (1:37)  Talking to Heaven (14:43)  Gun Control Makes Us Safer (4.27)  The Secret (2:06)  Magical Thinking: Children (4:55)  Magical Thinking: Adults (2:52)  “Straightening Out” Homosexuals (4:55)  Carlos: A Channeler (4:14)  Talking to Popular Heaven Medium James Van Praagh (13:59)  Carl Jung on Alchemy and Symbolism (3:22) ▲ Return to Table of Contents DESCRIPTION OF VIDEO CLIPS: ▼ From Introductory Psychology Teaching Films Boxed Set ISBN (0131754327) Theories and Hypotheses Source: Films for Humanities & Sciences Video: The Scientific Method Run Time: 1:37 Description: The difference between theories and hypotheses is explained. Two applied scientists provide examples of how theories become revised in light of new information, and how this process furthers the accumulation of knowledge in a science. Uses: This segment provides a good starting point for helping students understand the scientific method. Whereas most students believe that scientific results either “prove” or “disprove” a hypothesis, in fact scientific explanations are in constant revision as new evidence emerges. Talking to Heaven Source: ABC News—20/20 (6/21/1999) Run Time: 14:43 Description: This segment highlights the tendency of many to believe in psychics and engage in magical thinking by showing a psychic who claims to be able to communicate with the dead. Uses: Why it is important to learn and practice critical thinking skills? This clip would be a good introduction to psychology, its methods, as well as the value of empirical evidence and Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 45

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science the reasons for the scientific method. It could also be used to start a discussion about motivation. For example, why do people believe in the absence of empirical evidence? ▼ From: Introductory Psychology Teaching Films, 2009, Science and Pseudoscience (ISBN 0205652808) Gun Control Makes Us Safer Source: ABC News Run Time: 4:27 Description: Examination of the idea guns make us safer: interviews with individuals representing both sides of the discussion and background on some of the US laws around gun control. Uses: Good critical thinking/debate discussion for the classroom. The Secret Source: ABC News Run Time: 2:06 Description: Review of positive thinking as depicted in Rhonda Byrne’s popular book. Uses: Good critical thinking/debate discussion for the classroom. Magical Thinking: Children Source: ABC News Run Time: 4:55 Description: Children exhibit forms of magical thinking around 18 months. To learn more about “magical thinking,” Professor Robert Kavanaugh (ph) at Williams College in Massachusetts devised a test that involves an imaginary animal and a box. Uses: Good critical thinking/debate discussion for the classroom. Magical Thinking: Adults Source: ABC News Run Time: 2:52 Description: The Growing Faith in the ‘The Secret’ Power of Positive Thoughts Uses: Good critical thinking/debate discussion for the classroom. “Straightening Out” Homosexuals Source: ABC News Run Time: 4:55 Description: A ministry tries to change homosexuals into heterosexuals through prayer. Uses: Good critical thinking/debate discussion for the classroom. Carlos: A Channeler Source: ABC News Run Time: 4:14 Description: Carlos is really Jose Alvarez, a Florida artist coached by James Randi on how to fake being a channeler—interview and report by John Stossel. Uses: Good critical thinking/debate discussion for the classroom. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 46

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science Cold Reading: Talking to Popular Heaven Medium James Van Praagh Run Time: 13:59 Description: Interview with James Van Praagh, who claims he can communicate with the deceased and charges $150 to anyone wanting to contact a dead relative. Skeptics Society founder Michael Schermer asserts Van Praagh is merely engaging in parlor games. Uses: Good critical thinking/debate discussion for the classroom. ▼ From Introductory Psychology Teaching Films Boxed Set ISBN (0131754327) Carl Jung on Alchemy and Symbolism Source: Films for Humanities & Sciences Video Title: Passions of the Soul—Symbolism Run Time: 3:22 Description: Among the many things he believed, Carl Jung believed that the drawings and writings of alchemists were a rich source of information about symbols and the collective unconscious. Here he describes some of his views on the importance of embracing alchemy as a source of inspiration for modern psychology. Uses: Unlike many other pioneers of psychology, there is substantial video footage of Jung explaining his ideas. This clip presents a black-and-white interview with Jung on the subject of alchemy. Because his accent is somewhat thick, you might want to precede the presentation of this clip with a discussion of Jung’s basic ideas, or consider transcribing parts of his interview for students to read. ▲ Return to Table of Contents

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science ▼ MULTIMEDIA RESOURCES ▲ Return to Table of Contents On-line Resources: MyPsychLab www.mypsychlab.com See/Hear/Learn/Explore More Icons integrated in the text lead to web-based expansions on topics, allowing instructors and students access to extra information, videos, podcasts, and simulations. The intext icons are not exhaustive—there are many more resources available to instructors and students on-line at www.MyPsychLab.com. What Is MyPsychLab? MyPsychLab is a learning and assessment tool that enables instructors to assess student performance and adapt course content. Students benefit from the ability to test themselves on key content, track their progress, and utilize individually tailored study plan. In addition to the activities students can access in their customized study plans, instructors are provided with extra lecture notes, video clips, and activities that reflect the content areas their class is still struggling with. Instructors can bring these resources to class, or easily post on-line for students to access. Instructors and students have been using MyPsychLab for over 10 years. To date, over 600,000 students have used MyPsychLab. During that time, three white papers on the efficacy of MyPsychLab were published. Both the white papers and user feedback show compelling results: MyPsychLab helps students succeed and improve their test scores. One of the key ways MyPsychLab improves student outcomes is by providing continuous assessment as part of the learning process. Over the years, both instructor and student feedback have guided numerous improvements, making MyPsychLab even more flexible and effective. Pearson is committed to helping instructors and students succeed with MyPsychLab. To that end, we offer a Psychology Faculty Advisor Program designed to provide peer to-peer support for new users of MyPsychLab. Experienced Faculty Advisors help instructors understand how MyPsychLab can improve student performance. To learn more about the Faculty Advisor Program, please contact your local Pearson representative. In addition to the eText and complete audio files, the MyPsychLab video series, MyPsychLab offers these valuable and unique tools: MyPsychLab assessment questions: Over 3,000 questions, distinct from the test bank, but designed to help instructors easily assign additional quizzes and tests, all that can be graded automatically and loaded into an instructor’s grade book. MyPsychLab study plan: Students have access to a personalized study plan, based on Bloom’s Taxonomy, arranges content from less complex thinking–like remembering and understanding–to more complex critical thinking–like applying and analyzing. This layered approach promotes better criticalthinking skills, and helps students succeed in the course and beyond. Experiments Tool – On-line experiments help students understand scientific principles and practice through active learning – fifty experiments, inventories, and surveys are available through MyPsychLab. APA assessments: A unique bank of assessment items allows instructors to assess student progress against the American Psychological Association’s Learning Goals and Outcomes. These assessments have been keyed to the APA’s latest progressive Learning Outcomes (basic, developing, advanced). ClassPrep available in MyPsychLab. Finding, sorting, organizing, and presenting your instructor resources is faster and easier than ever before with ClassPrep. This fully searchable database contains hundreds and hundreds of our best teacher resources, such as lecture launchers and discussion topics, inCopyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 48

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science class and out-of-class activities and assignments, handouts, as well as video clips, photos, illustrations, charts, graphs, and animations. Instructors can search or browse by topic, and it is easy to sort your results by type, such as photo, document, or animation. You can create personalized folders to organize and store what you like, or you can download resources. You can also upload your own content and present directly from ClassPrep, or make it available on-line directly to your students. MyPsychLab Highlights for Chapter 1: Psychology and Scientific Thinking Experiments Tool to promote active learning Survey: What Do You Know About Psychology? Audio File of the Chapter A helpful study tool for students—they can listen to a complete audio file of the chapter. Suggest they listen while they read, or use the audio file as a review of key material. ▲ Return to Table of Contents

1/ INTRODUCING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE TABLE OF CONTENTS To access the resource listed, click on the hot linked title or press CTRL + click To return to the Table of Contents, click on click on ▲Return to Table of Contents MODULE 1.3: Putting Psychology to Work: Careers in Psychology and Related Fields  Lecture Guide: Professions in Psychology and Related Fields (p. 52) FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES  Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics (p. 55)  Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises (p. 57)  Web Resources (p. 58)  Video Resources (p. 61)  Multimedia Resources (p. 65)

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science LECTURE GUIDE MODULE 1.3: PUTTING PSYCHOLOGY TO WORK: CAREERS IN PSYCHOLOGY AND RELATED FIELDS (Textbook p. x in Module 1.3) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives  Know key terminology of psychological professions. o See bold, italicized items below.  Understand the various professional settings occupied by psychologists. o The mental health field is the largest sector of employment for individuals with advanced degrees in psychology, however many psychologist venture out into other fields. For example, research psychologists typically work at universities, in corporations, and in governmental agencies; forensic psychologists usually work in prisons, training and evaluating police officers, or assisting with jury selection; and those in environmental psychology study factors that improve working and living conditions by examining how the environment affects individuals or groups.  Understand the distinction among mental health professions in their approaches and educational requirements. o There are many different professions in the medical field, differing by level of education needed and the treatments considered most effective. For example, psychiatrists (MD) are likely to prescribe drugs, counseling psychologist (PhD, PsyD) are more likely to use psychological approaches to treat disorders, and social workers (BA, MSW, MA) are more likely to emphasize the social context in treatment (e.g., family dynamics).  Apply your knowledge to identify the job title of a psychologists based on their work. o Students should be able to identify the title of the psychologist based on his/her job description.  Analyze the claim that psychologists could contribute to virtually any field of work. o Although more psychologists are employed in the mental health field, a majority work in other applied fields such as I/O psychology, human factors, and environmental psychology.

Professions in Psychology 1) Psychology is a broad discipline with many applications to other disciplines. Because of this, psychologists work in a variety of settings (figure 1.xx). Research and Teaching 1) Research psychologists typically work at universities, in corporations, and in governmental agencies. i) Many of these psychologists work on applying the basic principles of psychology to real-world settings. Applied Psychology (textbook p. x in Module 1.3) uses psychological knowledge to address problems and issues across various settings and professions, including law, education, and clinical psychology, and business organization and management. 2) Academic psychologists usually work at community colleges and universities doing a combination of teaching and research. i) However, they would not call themselves academic psychologists. a) Instead, they would refer to their field of study such as, “I am a social psychologist.”

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science Psychological Health and Well-Being 1) The image most people think of when they hear psychologist is a person with a notepad in hand listening attentively to a client. i) the idea of a psychologists with a notepad is a caricature that reinforces the (incorrect) assumption that all psychologists do is analyze people; Figure 1.X in Module 1.3 shows this is clearly not true. 2) There are many different professions in the helping professions that are related to psychology, they differ by level of education needed and the treatments considered most effective. i) For example, psychiatrists are likely to prescribe drugs, counseling psychologist are more likely to use psychological approaches to treat disorders, and social workers are more likely to emphasize the social context in treatment (e.g., family dynamics). Psychiatry (textbook p. x in Module 1.3) is a branch of medicine concerned with the treatment of mental and behavioural disorders. 4) Psychologists also vary in the educational degrees they have. i) Psychologists can work in some limited treatment settings with a Bachelor’s degree, in some provinces a Master’s degree is sufficient for a wide range of helping professions ii) Many pursue a graduate degree or doctor of philosophy (PhD), for better career opportunities. a) This degree combines science and practice. iii) Others get a specialized doctor of psychology (PsyD) degree that focuses mostly on practice. a) PsyD degrees are becoming more common in Canadian universities 5) Psychologists can also specialize their field of study to practice in specific contexts. i) Forensic psychologists usually work in prisons, training and evaluating police officers, or assisting with jury selection (profiling is a very rare job). Forensic Psychology (textbook p. x in Module 1.3) encompasses work in the criminal justice system, including interactions with the legal system and its professionals. ii) School psychologists usually work with a team in helping students with disruptive behaviours or cognitive disabilities. a) They may spend much of their time observing children and administering psychological tests to identify learning disabilities. School Psychology (textbook p. x in Module 1.3) involved working with students who have special needs, such as those with emotional, social, or academic problems. 6)Most of the helping professions have two things in common i) graduate degrees ii) licensure or certification as approved by the individual provinces iii) a person with a Bachelor’s degree can work on a more basic level such as being case managers or Behavioural Health technicians Health and Medical Professions 1) An increasing number of psychologists are focusing on physiological health in the field known as health psychology. Health Psychology (p. xx) (or behavioural medicine), is the study of how individual, biological, and environmental factors affect physical health. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 52

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science

2) Health psychologists identify the behaviours and personality traits that put people at risk for disease. i) For example, overeating and a sedentary lifestyle have been linked to diabetes and a variety of cardiovascular diseases. ii) Psychological traits, such as pessimism and hopelessness, are correlated with impaired immune functioning and slower healing times. Other Applications of Psychology 1) One of the fastest growing fields in psychology is industrial and organizational (I/O) psychology. i) Psychologists in this field may develop tests to hire the most successful employees, or assist teams to improve communication. Industrial and Organizational Psychology (I/O) (textbook p.x in Module 1.3) is a branch of applied psychology in which psychologists work for businesses and other organizations to improve employee productivity and the organizational structure of the company or business. 2) Related to I/O psychology is human factors psychology, the study of how people interact with tools, physical spaces, or products. i) This is a high-tech field that applies principles of sensation and perception to work environments such as aircraft cockpits or how humans interact with computers to develop more user-friendly software. 3) Those in environmental psychology study factors that improve working and living conditions by examining how the environment affects individuals or groups. i) The results of these studies may be used to design work or living spaces that reduce distractions and stress and increase communication. 4) Many psychologists also go into the marketing field. i) Marketing involves a lot of research on what consumers prefer, what buyers expect, and what makes shoppers choose one product over another. ii) Marketing professionals often conduct experiments and surveys on preferences. I’m Not Planning on a Career in Psychology… 1) Not everyone with a bachelor’s degree in psychology goes on to work in the psychological field. i) approximately 40% go on to work in business settings. 2) However, all psychology majors and minors can apply many principles of human behaviour to their jobs as marketers, managers, and teachers (figure 1.xx in Module 1.3). 3) Psychological research methods are also helpful skills to have for problem solving and critical thinking.

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science ▼ LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND DISCUSSIONS TOPICS  Careers in Psychology ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Careers in Psychology In a mad rush to begin covering the tremendous amount of material in introductory psychology, many instructors overlook more practical issues that would be of interest to introductory students, especially those who think they might major in psychology. It’s never too early to introduce students to psychology as a profession, and even students who do not major in psychology are bound to gain a greater understanding and appreciation for the field. After discussing the various subfields of psychology, devote some time (perhaps a class session) to issues pertaining to psychology as a career choice. There are a variety of activities and topics you could introduce, and several suggestions are given here. Give your students the “straight dope” about graduate school—how to get in, what it’s really like, and what opportunities it affords. Tell students how you got interested in your major field and what life in graduate school was like. Explain degree plans (including how many years it takes, what is expected in the way of course work and research), funding opportunities (many students are surprised that teaching and research assistantships actually cover most graduate school expenses), and research and teaching opportunities. Bring in the latest edition of APA’s Guide to Graduate Study in Psychology and give an overview of its purpose. Briefly outline for students what they should be doing during each year of their undergraduate career if they are interested in going to graduate school (e.g., when to study and take the GRE, when to send for applications, when to get research experience, when to ask for letters of recommendation). Encourage students to seek out a close relationship with a faculty member whose research interests coincide with theirs. Finally, discuss career opportunities in psychology. Bring to class recent issues of job listings and [erhaps a printout from http://www.cpa.ca/careers/. Show either of two excellent APA-produced videos, Careers in Psychology: Your Options are Open (a brief, 9-minute segment that features a panel of psychologists from different specialties discussing career opportunities) or Career Encounters in Psychology (a longer, 28-minute segment that provides an overview of the diverse specializations and careers in psychology through interviews with several different types of psychologists). Have someone from your career counseling center give a talk on opportunities for psychology majors (he or she may also have data on the current employment status of recent psychology graduates). Better yet, invite to class (a) a psychologist from an applied setting (e.g., a clinician in private practice, an industrial/organizational psychologist, a sports or forensic psychologist) and (b) a psychologist who works in an academic setting (this could be you, another faculty member at your university, or someone outside your institution) to talk about career opportunities and experiences. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science ▼ CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, DEMONSTRATIONS, AND EXERCISES  Psychologists’ Twenty Questions Activity: Psychologists’ Twenty Questions Play the game, Twenty Questions, with your students to have them try to guess your specialization in psychology. They should be very close to your actual interests by the end of the game. Explain how and why you selected your particular field or specialty in psychology. You might also draw students’ attention to the information in Chapter 1 about possible careers for psychology majors. You may also want to mention the need for more minorities and individuals from working class backgrounds in the field, if such information would be appropriate for your students. Encourage them to visit the CPA Web site (http://www.cpa.ca/) to find out more about psychology careers. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science

▼ WEB RESOURCES ▲ Return to Table of Contents General/Comprehensive Amoeba Web: www.vanguard.edu/faculty/ddegelman/amoebaweb/ A site containing nicely organized tables of links to web pages related to various topics in psychology. Centre for Psychology Resources: http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/aupr/psycres.shtml A site maintained by Athabasca University in Canada. Provides comprehensive information on a variety of psychology topics. Psych Web: www.psychwww.com A cornucopia of psychology-related links maintained by the Psychology Department at Georgia Southern University. Psychology Central: www.psychcentral.com/ Web links and online resources for psychology students and faculty. Social Psychology Network: www.socialpsychology.org/ Well-organized links related to topics in social psychology. Tests, Tests, Tests: www.queendom.com/tests A vast variety of psychological tests established and maintained by “Cyberia Shrink.” History of Psychology Archives of the History of American Psychology: www.uakron.edu/ahap Psychology’s attic, maintained at the University of Akron. Classics in the History of Psychology: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/ This document repository, complete with a search engine, allows you to read excerpts from classic papers in psychology. History of Psychology: http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/aupr/history.shtml The Psychology Center’s History of Psychology page has many websites to choose from, including broad topics and those specific to the history of psychology. Your students can learn more about psychology’s past or investigate the history of a particular topic that interests them. Today in the History of Psychology: www.cwu.edu/~warren/today.html Warren R. Street, of the University of Central Washington, knows everything about who was born when, who died when, what got published when, and what happened where. Major Professional Organizations CPA—Canadian Psychological Association: www.cpa.org Information about the APA and links to other sites. APS—Association for Psychological Science: www.psychologicalscience.org Information about the APS and links to other sites. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 56

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science Division 3 of the American Psychological Association: www.apa.org/divisions/div3 The Division of Experimental Psychology of the American Psychological Association was formed many years ago to represent the interests and concerns of psychologists whose principal area of study or research lies within the field of general experimental psychology. Division 7 of the American Psychological Association: http://ecp.fiu.edu/APA/div7 Division 7 was organized to (a) promote research in the field of Developmental Psychology; (b) foster the development of researchers through providing information about educational opportunities and recognizing outstanding contributions to the discipline; (c) facilitate exchange of scientific information about developmental psychology through publications such as the division’s newsletter and through national and international meetings; and (d) promote high standards for the application of scientific knowledge on human development to public policy issues. Experimental Psychology Society: www.eps.ac.uk The Experimental Psychology Society is for the furtherance of scientific inquiry within the field of Psychology and cognate subjects. It holds periodical meetings at which papers are read and discussions held. The Society also disseminates information and educational material made available as a consequence of psychological research, including the publication of the Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology (Section A: Human Experimental Psychology, and Section B: Comparative and Physiological Psychology). Jean Piaget Society: www.piaget.org This site was created as an information resource for members of the Jean Piaget Society. The Jean Piaget Society, established in 1970, has an international, interdisciplinary membership of scholars, teachers and researchers interested in exploring the nature of the developmental construction of human knowledge. Philosophy of Science Association: www.philsci.org The Philosophy of Science Association aims to further studies and free discussion from diverse standpoints in the field of philosophy of science. To this end, the PSA engages in activities such as: the publishing of periodicals, essays and monographs in this field; sponsoring conventions and meetings; and the awarding of prizes for distinguished work in the field. Psychonomic Society: www.psychonomic.org One of the premier organizations of modern experimental psychology. The Psychonomic Society promotes the communication of scientific research in psychology and allied sciences. Society of Clinical Psychology: www.div12.org This site is sponsored by Division 12 of APA and addresses a variety of research, theory, and practice issues associated with clinical psychology. Society of Counseling Psychology: www.div17.org Division 17—Counseling Psychology was founded in 1946 to promote personal, educational, vocational, and group adjustment in a variety of settings. Presently, Division 17 brings together psychologists, students, and international and professional affiliates who are dedicated to promoting education and training, scientific investigation, practice, and diversity and public interest in professional psychology. Society of Experimental Social Psychology (SESP): www.sesp.org SESP is a scientific organization dedicated to the advancement of social psychology. Society for Personality and Social Psychology: www.spsp.org Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 57

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science With over 4,000 members, the Society is the largest organization of social and personality psychologists in the world. The goals of the Society are to further the generation and dissemination of research in personality and social psychology. Society for Psychological Study of Social Issues: www.spssi.org SPSSI is an international group of over 3500 psychologists, allied scientists, students, and others who share a common interest in research on the psychological aspects of important social issues. In various ways, the Society seeks to bring theory and practice into focus on human problems of the group, the community, and nations, as well as the increasingly important problems that have no national boundaries. Society for Research in Child Development: www.srcd.org The Society is a multidisciplinary, not-for-profit, professional association with a membership of approximately 5,500 researchers, practitioners, and human development professionals from over 50 countries. The purposes of the Society are to promote multidisciplinary research in the field of human development, to foster the exchange of information among scientists and other professionals of various disciplines, and to encourage applications of research findings. Psychological Theories About Psychoanalysis: www.apsa.org An article on this topic from the American Psychoanalytic Association. Humanistic Psychology from Maslow to the 21st Century: www.ahpweb.org/aboutahp/whatis.html A brief history of the humanistic psychology movement. Mind and Body: Rene Descartes to William James: http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/Mind/Table.html Robert H. Wozniak, of Bryn Mawr College, presents this history of ideas. B.F. Skinner Foundation: www.bfskinner.org Read a biography of the famous behaviourist, complete a training course on his theories, and visit a media archive replete with audio and video clips. The B.F. Skinner Foundation was established in 1987 to educate the public about B. F. Skinner’s work, and to promote an understanding of the role of contingencies in human behaviour. The Varieties of Religious Experience: www.psychwww.com/psyrelig/james/toc.htm This work by William James is available in its entirety on the Web, courtesy of the folks at Georgia Southern University. ▲ Return to Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science ▼ VIDEO RESOURCES ▲ Return to Table of Contents MyPsychLab Video Series Episode 1: Introduction to Psychology 1. The Big Picture: Asking the Tough Questions 2. The Basics: A Diverse Approach 3. Special Topics: Careers in Psychology 4. Thinking Like a Psychologist: Debunking Myths 5. In the Real World Application: Speed Dating 6. What’s In It For Me?: The Myth of Multitasking This video series offers instructors and students the most current and cutting edge introductory psychology video content available anywhere. These exclusive videos take the viewer into today’s research laboratories, inside the body and brain through breathtaking animations, and out into the street for real-world applications. Guided by the Design, Development and Review team, a diverse group of introductory psychology professors, this comprehensive new series features 17 half-hour episodes organized around the major topics of the introductory psychology course syllabus. For maximum flexibility, each 30-minute episode features several brief clips that bring psychology to life. FEATURES Format The MyPsychLab video series was designed with flexibility in mind. Each half-hour episode in the MyPsychLab video series is made up of several five-minute clips which can be viewed separately or together: • The Big Picture introduces the topic of the episode and draws in the viewer. • The Basics uses the power of video to present foundational topics, especially those that students find difficult to understand. • Special Topics dives deeper into high-interest and often cutting-edge topics, showing research in action. • Thinking Like a Psychologist models critical thinking and explores research methods. • In the Real World focuses on applications of psychological research. • What’s In It for Me? These clips show students the relevance of psychological research to their lives. Flexible Delivery Students can access the videos anytime within MyPsychLab, and each clip is accompanied by enriching self-assessment quizzes. Other Pearson Psychology Video Collections: Introductory Psychology Teaching Films Boxed Set ISBN (0131754327) Offering you an easy to use multi-DVD set of videos, more than 100 short video clips of 5–15 minutes in length from many of the most popular video sources for Psychology content, such as ABC News; the Films for the Humanities series; PBS; and more! Pearson Education Teaching Films Introductory Psychology: Instructor’s Library 2-Disk DVD Annual Edition (ISBN 0205652808) Annual updates of the most popular video sources for Psychology content, such as ABC News; the Films for the Humanities series; PBS; and more in 5-15 minute clips on an easy to use DVD!

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science Lecture Launcher Video for Introductory Psychology (ISBN 013048640X) This 60-minute videotape includes twenty-five segments covering all of the major topics in introductory psychology. All of the segments have been selected from videotapes in the Films for Humanities & Sciences collection. The segments are intended to provide brief illustrations of concepts, and to serve as a starting point for classroom discussions. FILMS FOR HUMANITIES AND SCIENCES VIDEO LIBRARY (www.films.com) Qualified adopters can select videos on various topics in psychology from the extensive library of Films for the Humanities and Sciences. Contact your local sales representative for a list of videos and ISBN’s. Other video series are available, ask your Pearson sales representative for more details. VIDEO CLIPS AVAILABLE FOR CHAPTER 1  Theories and Hypotheses (1:37)  Talking to Heaven (14:43)  Gun Control Makes Us Safer (4.27)  The Secret (2:06)  Magical Thinking: Children (4:55)  Magical Thinking: Adults (2:52)  “Straightening Out” Homosexuals (4:55)  Carlos: A Channeler (4:14)  Talking to Popular Heaven Medium James Van Praagh (13:59)  Carl Jung on Alchemy and Symbolism (3:22) ▲ Return to Table of Contents DESCRIPTION OF VIDEO CLIPS: ▼ From Introductory Psychology Teaching Films Boxed Set ISBN (0131754327) Theories and Hypotheses Source: Films for Humanities & Sciences Video: The Scientific Method Run Time: 1:37 Description: The difference between theories and hypotheses is explained. Two applied scientists provide examples of how theories become revised in light of new information, and how this process furthers the accumulation of knowledge in a science. Uses: This segment provides a good starting point for helping students understand the scientific method. Whereas most students believe that scientific results either “prove” or “disprove” a hypothesis, in fact scientific explanations are in constant revision as new evidence emerges. Talking to Heaven Source: ABC News—20/20 (6/21/1999) Run Time: 14:43 Description: This segment highlights the tendency of many to believe in psychics and engage in magical thinking by showing a psychic who claims to be able to communicate with the dead. Uses: Why it is important to learn and practice critical thinking skills? This clip would be a good introduction to psychology, its methods, as well as the value of empirical evidence and Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 60

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science the reasons for the scientific method. It could also be used to start a discussion about motivation. For example, why do people believe in the absence of empirical evidence? ▼ From: Introductory Psychology Teaching Films, 2009, Science and Pseudoscience (ISBN 0205652808) Gun Control Makes Us Safer Source: ABC News Run Time: 4:27 Description: Examination of the idea guns make us safer: interviews with individuals representing both sides of the discussion and background on some of the US laws around gun control. Uses: Good critical thinking/debate discussion for the classroom. The Secret Source: ABC News Run Time: 2:06 Description: Review of positive thinking as depicted in Rhonda Byrne’s popular book. Uses: Good critical thinking/debate discussion for the classroom. Magical Thinking: Children Source: ABC News Run Time: 4:55 Description: Children exhibit forms of magical thinking around 18 months. To learn more about “magical thinking,” Professor Robert Kavanaugh (ph) at Williams College in Massachusetts devised a test that involves an imaginary animal and a box. Uses: Good critical thinking/debate discussion for the classroom. Magical Thinking: Adults Source: ABC News Run Time: 2:52 Description: The Growing Faith in the ‘The Secret’ Power of Positive Thoughts Uses: Good critical thinking/debate discussion for the classroom. “Straightening Out” Homosexuals Source: ABC News Run Time: 4:55 Description: A ministry tries to change homosexuals into heterosexuals through prayer. Uses: Good critical thinking/debate discussion for the classroom. Carlos: A Channeler Source: ABC News Run Time: 4:14 Description: Carlos is really Jose Alvarez, a Florida artist coached by James Randi on how to fake being a channeler—interview and report by John Stossel. Uses: Good critical thinking/debate discussion for the classroom. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 61

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science

Cold Reading: Talking to Popular Heaven Medium James Van Praagh Run Time: 13:59 Description: Interview with James Van Praagh, who claims he can communicate with the deceased and charges $150 to anyone wanting to contact a dead relative. Skeptics Society founder Michael Schermer asserts Van Praagh is merely engaging in parlor games. Uses: Good critical thinking/debate discussion for the classroom. ▼ From Introductory Psychology Teaching Films Boxed Set ISBN (0131754327) Carl Jung on Alchemy and Symbolism Source: Films for Humanities & Sciences Video Title: Passions of the Soul—Symbolism Run Time: 3:22 Description: Among the many things he believed, Carl Jung believed that the drawings and writings of alchemists were a rich source of information about symbols and the collective unconscious. Here he describes some of his views on the importance of embracing alchemy as a source of inspiration for modern psychology. Uses: Unlike many other pioneers of psychology, there is substantial video footage of Jung explaining his ideas. This clip presents a black-and-white interview with Jung on the subject of alchemy. Because his accent is somewhat thick, you might want to precede the presentation of this clip with a discussion of Jung’s basic ideas, or consider transcribing parts of his interview for students to read. ▲ Return to Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science ▼ MULTIMEDIA RESOURCES ▲ Return to Table of Contents On-line Resources: MyPsychLab www.mypsychlab.com See/Hear/Learn/Explore More Icons integrated in the text lead to web-based expansions on topics, allowing instructors and students access to extra information, videos, podcasts, and simulations. The intext icons are not exhaustive—there are many more resources available to instructors and students on-line at www.MyPsychLab.com. What Is MyPsychLab? MyPsychLab is a learning and assessment tool that enables instructors to assess student performance and adapt course content. Students benefit from the ability to test themselves on key content, track their progress, and utilize individually tailored study plan. In addition to the activities students can access in their customized study plans, instructors are provided with extra lecture notes, video clips, and activities that reflect the content areas their class is still struggling with. Instructors can bring these resources to class, or easily post on-line for students to access. Instructors and students have been using MyPsychLab for over 10 years. To date, over 600,000 students have used MyPsychLab. During that time, three white papers on the efficacy of MyPsychLab were published. Both the white papers and user feedback show compelling results: MyPsychLab helps students succeed and improve their test scores. One of the key ways MyPsychLab improves student outcomes is by providing continuous assessment as part of the learning process. Over the years, both instructor and student feedback have guided numerous improvements, making MyPsychLab even more flexible and effective. Pearson is committed to helping instructors and students succeed with MyPsychLab. To that end, we offer a Psychology Faculty Advisor Program designed to provide peer to-peer support for new users of MyPsychLab. Experienced Faculty Advisors help instructors understand how MyPsychLab can improve student performance. To learn more about the Faculty Advisor Program, please contact your local Pearson representative. In addition to the eText and complete audio files, the MyPsychLab video series, MyPsychLab offers these valuable and unique tools: MyPsychLab assessment questions: Over 3,000 questions, distinct from the test bank, but designed to help instructors easily assign additional quizzes and tests, all that can be graded automatically and loaded into an instructor’s grade book. MyPsychLab study plan: Students have access to a personalized study plan, based on Bloom’s Taxonomy, arranges content from less complex thinking–like remembering and understanding–to more complex critical thinking–like applying and analyzing. This layered approach promotes better criticalthinking skills, and helps students succeed in the course and beyond. Experiments Tool – On-line experiments help students understand scientific principles and practice through active learning – fifty experiments, inventories, and surveys are available through MyPsychLab. APA assessments: A unique bank of assessment items allows instructors to assess student progress against the American Psychological Association’s Learning Goals and Outcomes. These assessments have been keyed to the APA’s latest progressive Learning Outcomes (basic, developing, advanced). ClassPrep available in MyPsychLab. Finding, sorting, organizing, and presenting your instructor resources is faster and easier than ever before with ClassPrep. This fully searchable database contains hundreds and hundreds of our best teacher resources, such as lecture launchers and discussion topics, inCopyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 63

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science class and out-of-class activities and assignments, handouts, as well as video clips, photos, illustrations, charts, graphs, and animations. Instructors can search or browse by topic, and it is easy to sort your results by type, such as photo, document, or animation. You can create personalized folders to organize and store what you like, or you can download resources. You can also upload your own content and present directly from ClassPrep, or make it available on-line directly to your students. MyPsychLab Highlights for Chapter 1: Psychology and Scientific Thinking Experiments Tool to promote active learning Survey: What Do You Know About Psychology? Audio File of the Chapter A helpful study tool for students—they can listen to a complete audio file of the chapter. Suggest they listen while they read, or use the audio file as a review of key material. ▲ Return to Table of Contents

2/ READING AND EVALUATING SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS To access the resource listed, click on the hot linked title or press CTRL + click To return to the Table of Contents, click on click on ▲Return to Table of Contents MODULE 2.1: Principles of Scientific Research  Lecture Guide Principles of Scientific Research (p. 63)  Resources Available (p. 71) MODULE 2.2: Scientific Research Designs  Lecture Guide: Scientific Research Designs (p. 73)  Resources Available (p. 79) MODULE 2.3: Ethics in Psychological Research  Lecture Guide: Ethics in Psychological Research (p. 83)  Resources Available (p. 85) MODULE 2.4: A Statistical Primer  Lecture Guide: A Statistical Primer (p. 86)  Resources Available (p. 90) WORK THE SCIENTIFIC LITERACY MODEL  MyPsychLab Video Series (p. 124)  Work the Model (p. 126) FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES  Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics (p. 79)  Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises (p. 79)  Handout Masters (p. 111)  Web Resources (p. 120)  Multimedia Resources (p. 122)

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science LECTURE GUIDE I. MODULE 2.1: PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH (Text p. 31) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives  Know the key terminology related to the principles of scientific research. o See bold, italicized terms below.  Understand the five characteristics of quality scientific research. o These characteristics include: (1) that measurements are objective, valid, and reliable; (2) the research can be generalized; (3) it uses techniques that reduce bias; (4) the findings are made public; and (5) the results can be replicated.  Understand how biases might influence the outcome of a study. o Demand characteristics affect how participants respond in research studies. They might try to guess what the study is about or paint themselves in a favorable light. Researchers can also unintentionally introduce bias.  Apply the concepts of reliability and validity of examples. o Students should be able to read scenarios involving research methods and determine whether there are issues with reliability or validity.  Analyze whether anecdotes, authority figures, and common sense are reliably truthful sources of information. o It is important to critically evaluate the source of information. Is one person telling his/her success story? Such anecdotal evidence is usually not generalizable. Is the claim endorsed by an authority figure or expert? It’s important that it’s not just opinion, but also backed up by data. Common sense is also important, but good scientific research should come first. 1) The most important aspect of scientific research is that it strives for objectivity. i) Objectivity assumes that certain facts about the world can be observed and tested independently form the individual (e.g., scientist) who describes them. ii) However, the problem is that interpretations of events are subjective, meaning individuals’ knowledge of the event is shaped by prior beliefs, expectations, experiences, as well as mood.

Five Characteristics of Quality Scientific Research 1) Quality scientific research meets the following criteria: i) It is based on measurements that are objective, valid, and reliable. ii) It can be generalized. iii) It uses techniques that reduce bias. iv) It is made public. v) It can be replicated. Scientific Measurement: Objectivity, Reliability, and Validity 1) The foundation of scientific methodology is the use of objective measurements. Objective Measurements (p. 32) are the measure of an entity or behaviour that, within an allowed margin of error, is consistent across instruments and observers. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 66

Chapter 2: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research

i) For example, weight is something that can be measure objectively. a) Holding everything constant, a single object should weight the same using multiple, functioning scales. ii) The same goes for measuring behaviour in psychology. a) However, in psychology, the objectivity of the measure often comes from the person doing the measuring. 2) In psychology, we measure variables. Variable (p. 33) : the object, concept, or event being measured. i) All variables can be described and measured 3)There are a number of instruments used to measure variables. i) psychologists used to rely on observation and self report to measure psychological variables ii) In recent decades, contributions from neuroscience has allowed psychologists to increase the number of variables they can examine. a) For example, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) allows researchers to view the brain. b) Researcher might also gather blood or saliva to be analyzed for enzymes, hormones, and other biological variables that relate to behaviour and mental functioning. 4) It’s also important that all methods and variables used by researchers are carefully defined (figure 2.1). i) This is important when conducting a study (for replications) as well as when sharing results. Operational definitions (p. 33) are statements that describe the procedures (or operations) and specific measure that are used to record observations 5) In 1998, the governor of Georgia spent $105,000 on classical music, because they believed providing children with classical music would make them smarter. Had they used operational definitions, they wouldn’t have spent that money. i) For example, how did the researchers define the outcome of their study? a) Does classical music make you smarter or does it improve memory? b) Is the effect permanent, or only when listening to classical music? c) Does the effect differ by type of classical music? ii) Across a number of studies with over 700 individuals and multiple measures, the only improvement seems to be in one specific type of thinking called spatial reasoning—that is, the ability to look at objects and mentally manipulate them. a) However, the increase on an IQ test was only 1 1/2 points, which is minimal given a person’s score can differ 9 points from week to week. b) The effect also disappears after 10 minutes. c) Initially research attributed the improvement to classical music (especially piano concerts), but later found the same effect after individuals listened to a recording of a Stephen King horror novel. 6) The behavioural measures psychologists use must also be reliable and valid.

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science 7) Multiple psychologists have to be able to observe individuals and record the same behaviour for it to be reliable. Reliability (p. 34) is when a measure provides consistent and stable answers across multiple observations and points in time. i) For example, a group of psychologist might observe children after they watch a violent TV program to see if they display aggressive behaviours. a) To have high inter-rater reliability, researchers must carefully train the judges as to the operational definitions of what counts as aggression (e.g., specific actions, how long they last, what isn’t aggression, etc). ii) In this example, the instruments doing the measuring are people, but the same principles apply to mechanical instruments. a) Brain scanning machines, scales, etc. must also be reliable and consistent. iii) inter-rater reliability is also important a)when more than one person measures a variable the same way you have inter-rater reliability b)good operational definitions for variables improve inter-rater reliability 8) Closely related to reliability is the concept of validity which evaluates whether a variable measure what it claims to measure. Validity (p. 34) is the degree to which an instrument or procedure actually measures what it claims to measure. i) For example, a psychologist could claim to measure intelligence based on shoe size. a) S/He could give a clear operational definition of how to measure shoe size. b) His/her measure of sure size could be reliable (a tape measure should give the same size every time). c) However, shoe size is not a valid measure of intelligence. d) A valid measure would assess things like problem solving and logical thinking. 9) Reliability and validity are essential components of scientific research Generalizability of Results 1) It is also important that the results of studies can be applied outside the laboratory to the real world in other contexts, with other people, etc. Generalizability (p. 34) refers to the degree to which one set of results can be applied to other situations, individuals, or events. 2) Studying a large group of people is one way to increase the likelihood that the results will be generalizable. i) This way psychologists can report on the average effect for the group and get a better sense of how individuals are likely to behave. ii) In a perfect world, psychologists would study an entire population of people, however due to time, money, and other costs this is not practical or possible. a) Instead, researchers study a sample of a population and then generalize the findings from the sample to the population.

Chapter 2: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research Population (p. 35) is the group that researchers want to generalize about. Sample (p. 35) is a select group of population members. 3) It is also important that psychologist get a random sample of people from the population so that their sample best reflects the population. Random Sample (p. 35), a sampling technique in which every individual of a population has an equal chance of being included i) For example, if you wanted to study the population of students at your school, it would most likely be impossible to track them all down, convince them to participate, and then actually have them participate. Therefore, you would take a random sample. a) If you approached students, this wouldn’t be random because you’re more likely to run into students who are in your major, live in your dorm, etc. b) Instead, you would have a computer randomly select names of students. c) However, obtaining a truly random sample is very difficult and so psychologists are more likely to settle for convenience samples (e.g., Intro Psych students). Convenience Samples (p. 35) are samples of individuals who are the most readily available. 4) Although laboratory research is convenient because researchers have complete control over the environment, it can limit generalizability because the laboratory does not always reflect the real world. i) For example, the effects of a cognitive improvement CD were studied by bringing volunteers into the laboratory and measuring their ability to problem solve, might not generalize to a classroom where students are taking real tests for real grades. Ecological Validity (p. 35) meaning that the results of a laboratory study can be applied to or repeated in the natural environment. ii)it is important not to over-generalize a) do not attempt to apply the results from a university convenience sample to the elderly population b)do not assume that an effect observed on adults will generalize to children Sources of Bias in Psychological Research 1) In order to have sound research, it is also important to keep bias out of the research. a) Various types of bias can be introduced by the researchers (researcher bias) doing the measuring as well as by the people or animals being observed (subject bias). Hawthorne Effect (p. 35) is a term used to describe situations in which behaviour changes as a result of being observed. 2) In the 1920s a study was done to examine the relation between productivity and working conditions at Western Electric Company’s Hawthorne Works. i) Researchers found that changing the lighting increased productivity. ii) They also found giving less, but longer breaks increased productivity. iii) In fact, any change the researchers made resulted in productivity increases. a) This is because after each change, the factory supervisors paid close attention to the workers. b) In this case, the research results were biased by the expectations of those observing as well as those being observed. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 69

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Demand Characteristics and Participant Behaviour 1) What do we know about how bias affects research participants? i) Participants often try to guess what the study is about and/or instead of answering questions honestly, answer in a way that makes them look good. Demand Characteristics (p. 36) are inadvertent cues given off by the experimenter or the experimental context that provide information about how participants are expected to behave. a) For example, a researcher asks a volunteer to wear a heaving backpack and then asks him/her to guess how steep a ramp is. Social Desirability/Socially Desirable Responding (p. 36) means that research participants respond in ways that increase the chances that they will be viewed favorably. a) For example, many participants will not openly admit to being biased toward a certain social group (e.g., race, religion, sexual orientation) because that is not acceptable in our society. 2) How can science test the effects of demand characteristics on behaviour? i) Using the same backpack scenario, a study was done to examine how demand characteristics affect people’s judgment. ii) Participants were placed into 1 of 3 groups. a) One group was simply asked to judge the steepness of the ramp. b) One group was asked to wear a 25 pound backpack and judge the steepness of the ramp. c) The third group was given a 25 pound backpack and told it was full of electrical equipment to measure muscle activity in their ankles. To increase believability, they attached electrodes to the participants ankles. Then they were asked to judge the steepness of the ramp. iii) All participants were taken to a room with the same ramp and asked how steep they thought it was before and after stepping on it. iv) After this, participants sat at a computer and answered a survey including questions in which they guessed the purpose of the study. v) Students who wore the backpack with no explanation, judged the ramp to be steeper before and after stepping on it compared to the other two groups. a) This same group also guessed the study was about the effects of wearing a heavy backpack on perceptions of steepness (the other two groups did not guess this). 3) How can we critically evaluate the issue of bias in research? i) Researchers are another source of bias in research. ii) For example, Rosenthal and colleagues conducted a study in which they told teachers in 18 different classrooms that a certain group of children had “unusual” potential for learning (when in reality they were just a random selection of students). a) After 8 months, the children singled out as promising showed significant gains in grades and intelligence test scores (which are believed to be relatively stable). iii) Similar results have also been found with animal research. a) When research assistants were told they were handling “bright” rats, it appeared the animals learned faster than when handling “dull” rats. b) Given the rats were not influenced by these terms, it is likely the assistants made subtle changes in how they observed and recorded behaviour. 4) Why is this relevant? Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 70

Chapter 2: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research i) Demand characteristics and other sources of bias can compromise research studies, so researchers must be vigilant to eliminate or control for such factors. Psych @ The Hospital: The Placebo Effect Placebo Effect (p. 38) is a measurable and experienced improvement in health or behaviour that cannot be attributable to a medication or treatment. 1) To control for demand characteristics, researchers often have a placebo group. a) one group gets the real pill and another group gets a sugar pill (and no one is told who has which pill). b) Those in the placebo group, who took the sugar pill, report feeling better. 2) The reason people feel better after taking a placebo is up for debate. i) Some argue the effect is “all in their head”, whereas some believe there is an actual physiological response that leads to improvement, and others say both. ii) Those given a placebo have shown physiological evidence of pain and nausea relief. iii) For many (not all) there are changes in brain activity in regions involved in human pain when hospital patients take a pill, even if it is a placebo. a) This suggests that it’s not just a matter of believing a pill works, but the actual act of taking the pill that make contribute to improvement. Techniques that Reduce Bias 1) The best technique to reduce subject bias is to provide anonymity and confidentiality to volunteers. i) Anonymity means that each individual’s responses are recorded without any name or other personal information that could link a particular individual to specific results. ii) Confidentiality means that the results will be seen only by the researcher. 2) Also informing participants about how the data will be used can help reduce their anxiety in participating. i) They are less likely to be concerned with their performance if they know their data is not going to be used to diagnose psychiatric problems, affect their grades, or harm them. 3) Participant bias can also be reduced by using blind procedures Single-Blind Study (p. 39), the participants do not know the true purpose of the study, or else do not know which type of treatment they are receiving (for example, a placebo or a drug). 4) Researchers can also introduce bias, so an even more effective technique is a double-blind study. Double-Blind Study (p. 39) is a study in which neither the participant nor the experimenter knows the exact treatment for any individual. i) In this case, the researcher has an assistant conduct the observations, or at the very least, the research is not told who which volunteer got what treatments. 5) Double-blind procedures are the best techniques for removing researcher and participant bias. i) Even the most ethical researcher might be influenced if s/he stands to make money from a test. ii) As we’ve seen, the Hawthorne Effect, can also influence participants’ performance.

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science Sharing the Results 1) On of the most important aspects of scientific research is making the results public. i) Sharing results is what allows researchers to test hypotheses and build theories. ii) It’s also an important aspect of replication, which allows other researchers to confirm or reject the original researcher’s observations and findings. 2) Academic journals are the primary method of sharing results in psychology. i) These are softbound books that contain a number of articles by different researchers on a single topic. ii) These books or journals are usually only found in libraries (including online libraries). 3) However, before research findings are published in academic journals, they go through a peer review process, which consists of two main tasks. Peer Review (p. 39) is a process in which papers submitted for publication in scholarly journals are read and critiqued by experts in the specific field of study. i) First, an editor receives the manuscript from the researcher and determines whether it fits in with the topics covered by that journal. a) For example, an article on 17th century Italian sculpture wouldn’t belong in the Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience). ii) Next, the editor sends copies of the manuscript to a select group of peer reviewers. a) Peers in this case means other professionals working in the same field of study. b) These reviewers critique the methods and results of the research and make recommendations to the editor regarding the merits of the research. iii) This process helps to ensure that only the best research is made public. Replication Replication (p. 39) is the process of repeating a study and finding a similar outcome each time. 1) Once findings have been published it is possible for researchers to check whether the results occurred by chance a) science is self correcting b) However, not all results are replicated. ii) Earlier, the Mozart effect was discussed. This is the idea that listening to classical music makes you smarter. One of the first studies claiming this was in 1993. I a) Skeptical researchers tried to replicate the results without much luck. iii) Failure to replicate may indicate unintentional researcher bias, or sampling bias, or just fluke results.

Five Characteristics of Poor Research 1) There are a lot of scientific-sounding claims being made on TV, the internet, etc. It is important to know how to differentiate between weak and strong evidence. 2) Poor evidence comes most often in one of five varieties: untestable hypotheses, anecdotes, a biased selection of available data, appeals to authority, and common sense. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 72

Chapter 2: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research 3)The most important characteristics of science is that the hypothesis is testable and falsifiable Falsifiable (p. 41): the hypothesis is precise enough that it could be proven false i)if a hypothesis is not falsifiable then there is no way to prove the view is wrong and there is always a way to change the hypothesis to fit the data a) modern psychology has few hypotheses that are not falsifiable b) however early personality work by Freud suffered from this problem; if results did not appear as Freud’s model predicted one could just say other aspects of the personality were dominating at that time c) more recent work on personality is falsifiable 2) Anecdotal evidence is also not good science; for example, you might have seen a weight loss commercial with a person who lost 200 pounds. However, that is just anecdotal evidence. Anecdotal Evidence (p. 41) is an individual’s story or testimony about an observation or event that is used to make a claim as evidence. ii) There is no way of knowing if this evidence is true. a) The result of the weight loss could have been due to a thyroid problem that was fixed or changes in physical activity that were not a part of the diet plan. 3) Biased data selection is also a problem i) for example a climate change denier could select only data that suggests that the climate is not changing (see Figure 2.2) 4) Another type of poor evidence is the appeal to authority. Appeal to Authority (p. 41) is the belief in an “expert’s” claim even when no supporting data or scientific evidence is present. i) It is important to note that an expertise in an area or topic does not mean evidence. a) The expert could be mistaken, dishonest, overpaid, or misquoted. ii) One should also check to see if there is corresponding data to support the claim. iii) It is also important to consider whether the expert has something to gain or a hidden agenda. 4) Finally, poor evidence consists of an appeal to common sense. Appeal to Common Sense (p. 41) a claim that appears to be sound, but lacks supporting scientific evidence. i) For example, many people assumed the world was the stationary center of the universe a) The idea of the Earth orbiting the sun at blinding speeds seemed like nonsense. b) That kind of force would fling us all into outer space. 5) There are other commonly used methods to pass poor evidence. i) Appeals to tradition: We have always done it this way! ii) Appeals to novelty: It is the latest thing!

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 2.1 Lecture Launchers  The Tragedy of Dr. Semmelweis and Childbed Fever Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises  Estimating the Frequencies of Our Own and Others’ Behaviours Web Resources  Simeon’s Cave of Magic and the Confirmation Bias: www.caveofmagic.com/pickcrd2.htm  Discovering Psychology Episode on Decision Making: www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/11/e11expand.html#

Chapter 2: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research II. MODULE 2.2: SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH DESIGNS (Text p. 44) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives  Know the key terminology related to research designs. o See bold, italicized terms below.  Understand what it means when variables are positively or negatively correlated. o When two variables are positively correlated, they happen together (increase or decrease). For example, income and education or positively correlated. When two variables are negatively correlated, as one increases, the other decreases. For example, more sleep is associated with less irritability.  Understand how experiments help demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships. o Experiments rely on random assignment and the manipulation of an independent variable to show cause and effect. Two or more groups are randomly assigned to a group to ensure the groups are roughly equal. Then researchers manipulate an independent variable and measure the dependent variable. If one group turns out to be different, that difference is most likely due to the independent variable.  Apply the terms and concepts of experimental methods to research examples. o Students should be able to read research scenarios and identify which experimental methods are being used.  Analyze the pros and cons of descriptive, correlational, and experimental research designs. o Descriptive methods allow researchers to observe and give rich details about naturally occurring behaviours. Correlational designs build on this design by showing how those observed variables relate. However, correlation does not equal causation. Experiments are needed to determine cause-and-effect relations. However, experiments done in laboratories make lack generalizability to real-world situations. 1) Psychologists always begin their research with a research question. i) For example, “How does attitude affect health?” a) They also make a hypothesis, or prediction, about the outcome. 2) To test the hypotheses, psychologists use a variety of methods called research designs to help guide investigators in: i) Organizing the study ii) Making observations iii) Evaluating the results 3) Because there are so many designs available, psychologists must choose the design that best fits the research question and is best suited to the subject of the research. However, all research designs have certain common characteristics. i) All designs include variables (from module 2.1). a) Sense of humor is a variable. People have varying levels of it. ii) Operational definitions are needed to describe the variables and methods used. a) Humor might be measured using the Coping Humor Scale. iii) All designs result in collected data. These are the observations about the variables of interest. a) Data might consist of the scores on the Coping Humor Scale from each individual in the sample. 4) Table 2.1 lists the strengths and limitations of different research designs.

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science

Descriptive Research 1) The beginning of any new line of research must involve descriptive data. i) This type of data is only from observations. ii) There is no attempt to explain why a behaviour happened. iii) For example, researchers might observe a two-year-old and count how many words are spoken or see how many hours per week a typical college student spends on homework. 2) To gather this type of data, psychologists use case studies, naturalistic observation, or surveys and questionnaires. Case Studies 1) Case studies are useful when a researcher was very specific details about an individual, such as symptoms of psychological disorders and detailed descriptions of successes or failures in treatment. Case Study (p. 45) is an in-depth report about the details of a specific case. 2) This design allows researchers to gain an extensive amount of details regarding the effects of a treatment on an individual. a) For example, one study followed an individual for 16 weeks to examine a specific type of anxiety disorder. b) Researchers documented how and when changes happened, and the effects of the treatment on the individual and the individual’s life. 3) The main disadvantage of this design is that there is no guarantee the findings can be generalized to other individuals and situations. Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Case Studies as a Form of Scientific Research 1) Case studies allow the clinician or researcher to present more details about an individual i)detail comes at a price; sometimes it can become anecdotal evidence 2)What do we know about using case studies as a form of scientific research? i) case studies have been used for over one hundred years and have described many unique neurological patients ii) case studies are also useful for describing psychological disorders and the outcomes of treatments 3) How can science test the usefulness of case studies? i) case studies can be used to test existing hypotheses a) for example, emotions are thought to be centralized in the amygdala b) a case study showing the emotional capability of someone with damage to the amygdala could support or refute this hypothesis ii) case studies can also be used to find similarities between different concepts a) for example, case studies of post traumatic stress disorder have revealed a great deal about the development of fears in all people; emotion and attention, when brought together can produce fear b) without the case study this link may not have been noticed 4) How can we critically evaluate the role of case studies in research? i) case studies can help guide understanding of existing theories ii) case studies can spawn new research Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 76

Chapter 2: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research a) the case of Phineas Gage has led to extensive research in the role of the frontal lobes in shaping personality 5) Why is this relevant? i) case studies are not simply anecdotes, they can serve as inspiration for many future studies and test existing hypotheses ii) without case studies our understanding of many rare issues in psychology would be limited iii) it should be noted that case studies cannot be used for all research questions a) for example, studies of groups of people in their natural settings cannot be studied with case studies Naturalistic Observation 1) Another approach is to observe people and animals in their natural settings. Naturalistic Observation (p. 47): is when psychologists unobtrusively observe and record behaviour as it occurs in the subject’s natural environment. 2) Naturalistic observation can happen anywhere that behaviour occurs. i) For example, researchers might observe chimpanzees in forests or even human behaviours after drinking at a bar. ii) The key is that the researchers are making systematic observations of specific variables according to operational definitions a) This is in contrast to those of us who like to people watch. iii) researcher must also be unobtrusive when they observe iv) naturalistic observation can be used for animals or humans a) for example, one researcher used naturalistic observation to see how comments by sport spectators varied by gender, who they were speaking to, and the type of competition 3) However, when researchers want more specific types of data, sometimes they need to develop specific questions for participants to answer. Surveys and Questionnaires 1) Surveys and questionnaires are still a method of observation, except now the participant is making the observation regarding his/her beliefs, attitudes, opinions, etc. Self-reporting (p. 48): a method in which responses are provided directly by the people who are being studies, typically through face-to-face interviews, phone surveys, paper and pencil tests and web-based questionnaires. 2) the creation of object survey items is challenging i) must be unbiased ii) sometimes have to ask about questions that people don’t want to discuss, such as depressive symptoms iii) researchers can sometimes determine if their survey questions are valid by comparing the results to clinical diagnoses iv) researchers also spend a great deal of time pretesting the items on a questionnaire to determine norms

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science

Correlational Research 1) Psychologists almost always observe more than one behaviour or variable in descriptive research and they often want to know how these variables relate. Correlational Research (p. 49) involves measuring the degree of association between two or more variables. 2) Correlational research may involve any of the descriptive methods discussed earlier, but now the data are evaluated in such a way to see if there are relationships between the variables. i) For example, do countries with higher graduation rates also tend to have higher income levels? a) How the variables relate or correlate can be visualized by using scatterplots (figure 2.3). 3) Correlations have two main characteristics. i) They have a direction (figure 2.3). a) They can be positive, meaning they both variables occur together (e.g., as one increases, so does the other)(Figure 2.3a). b) They can be negative, meaning that more of one variable, the less of the other (e.g., more sleep, less irritability)(Figure 2.3b). ii) Correlations also have magnitude or strength. a) This magnitude (like direction) is described in terms of a measure called the correlation coefficient. b) The correlation coefficient ranges from -1.0 to +1.0, but the closer to the absolute of 1.0, the stronger the relation. c) In a scatter plot, the dots are very close together when there is a strong correlation and all over the place when there is a weak correlation. 4) It is important to keep in mind that correlations only show how variables are related. A correlation does not equal causation! i) For example, a sense of good humor is related to positive health. a) Does humor cause one to have good health? b) Does good health lead of a good humor? c) Or maybe a third variable causes both good humor and health. ii) For example, ice cream sales and homicide rates are positively correlated. a) Does ice cream consumption drive people to murder? b) Does murder lead to ice cream cravings? c) Most likely, a third variable, such as hot summers, explains both. iii) We cannot establish cause with correlations because of the third variable problem, which refers to the possibility that a third, unmeasured variable is actually responsible for a well-established correlation between the two variables. Myths in Mind: Beware of Illusory Correlations 1) Many common beliefs ingrained in our culture consist of perceived correlations that actually do not exist. i) For example, crime increases when there is a full moon, opposites attract, and that gamblers can get on a “hot streak.” ii) These are illusory correlations, which are relationships that really exist only in the mind, rather than in reality. a) Sound research studies have failed to show that full moons are related to bizarre or violent behaviour. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 78

Chapter 2: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research b) People who are attracted to each other are usually very similar. c) And there is no such thing as a hot streak in competitive sports or gambling. iii) Stereotypes are often based on illusory correlations. 2) However, these perceptions of correlations exist because they easily come to mind. i) Normal events don’t stand out as much, so we are less likely to take note of them, and in turn are slower to recall them vs. events or pairings that are not normal.

Experimental Research 1) Experimental designs are the only designs that can provide strong evidence for cause-and-effect relationships. 2) Like correlational research, experiments have at least two variables. However, there are two main differences between the two designs. i) The random assignment of participants. ii) The experimenter’s control over the variables being studied. The Experimental Method 1) The first unique element of experiments is random assignment. Random Assignment (p. 51) is a technique for dividing samples into two or more groups in which participants are qually likely to be placed in any condition of the experiment. i) Similar to random samples, this gives each participant an equal chance of being place into any one of the experimental groups. a) This helps to ensure that the groups are roughly equal. ii) Allowing the participants to pick the group might lead to unequal groups. a) After all, there are individual reasons why we might choose to group ourselves with others. 2) When groups are not randomly assigned, all sorts of confounding variables could enter the picture. Confounding variable (p. 52) a variables outside of the researcher’s control that might affect or provide an alternative explanation for the results. i) Confounding variables differ depending on the variables and design of the study. ii) However, researchers typically cannot control the moods participants are in or an individual’s personality. 3) There are also specific types of variables used in experiments: independent and dependent variables. Independent Variable (p. 52) is the variable that the experimenter manipulates to distinguish between the two groups. Dependent Variable (p. 52) is the observation or measurement that is recorded during the experiment and subsequently compared across all groups.

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science i) In regards to our experiment on how nature images affects stress, , the visual material would be the IV and one’s stress score would be the DV. a) The experimental group would view the nature images and the control group would view the neutral images. b) this is a between-subjects design where the experimental group receives the treatment and the control group does not Between-subjects design (p. 52): an experimental design in which we compare the performance of participants who are in different groups. Experimental Group (p. 52) is the group in the experiment that receives a treatment or the stimuli oargeting a specific behaviour. Control Group (p. 52) is the group that does not receive the treatment or stimuli targeting a specific behaviour; this group therefore serves as a baseline to which the experimental group is compared. b) If the experimental group showed a reduction is stress, we could conclude that exposure to nature images is responsible for the difference (as long as it was a well-designed experiment and confounds were accounted for). ii) between-subjects designed can be problematic because it is hard to know if the two groups differed before the experiment, to solve this problem an experimenter can use a within-subjects design within-subjects design (p. 52): an experimental design in which the same participants respond to all types of stimuli or experience all experimental conditions a) in the example just discussed a within-subjects design would involve showing participants all images from one condition (e.g. nature images) before being tested and then showing the images from the other condition (e.g. neutral images) before being tested again; the order of the conditions would have to be random for each participant The Quasi-Experimental Method 1) Random assignment and manipulation of a variable are needed to determine cause and effect relationships. However, in some cases, random assignment is not possible. Quasi-Experimental Research (p. 52) is a research technique in which the two or more groups that are compared are selected based on predetermined characteristics, rather than random assignment. 2) For example, many studies compare men and women. i) We can’t randomly assign people to one group or the other. ii) Men and women are also bound to differ in terms of genetics, gender roles, family history, and so on. iii) Because of this, quasi-experiments can point out relationships, but cannot determine what causes the differences between groups (like correlations).

Chapter 2: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 2.2 Lecture Launchers  Case Studies of Vietnam War Experiences  The Case of Joseph Goldberger and Pellagra  Correlations and Causal Relationships  Independent and Dependent Variables  The Placebo Effect  The Road from Hypothesis to Conclusion  An Experimental Example  Applied Experimental Psychology in the Real World Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises  The Direction and Strength of Correlations  Experimental Design  Equating Groups on Multiple Variables Using Randomization  Identifying the Parts of an Experiment  Can Science Answer This Question?  Observational Research in the Dining Hall  Naturalistic Observation  Understanding Correlations  Correlational and Experimental Research  Testing Random Assignment  Small Samples  Which Method Would You Use?  Name That Research Method  Using Memory to Demonstrate Methodology  Softens Hands While You Do Dishes Web Resources  Correlation Is Not Causation: www.msnbc.msn.com/id/19918336/

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science III. MODULE 2.3: ETHICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH (Text p. 56) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives  Know the key terminology of research ethics. o See bold, italicized items below.  Understand the importance of reporting and storing data. o Making data public allows other scientists, as well as the general public, to have access to the details of the research. This is important for replications so that scientists know the characteristics of participants, methods used, and results obtained. Similarly, storage of the data is important in the event that other scientists wish to reanalyze the data or check for misconduct.  Understand why animals are often used in scientific research. o Scientists can administer treatments to animals that could never be applied to humans. Genetic research requires species with much shorter lifespans so that successive generations can be observed. Scientists can also control genetic and environmental variables with animals that cannot be controlled with humans.  Apply the ethical principles of scientific research to examples. o Students should be able to read research scenarios and identify why they may fail to meet ethical standards.  Analyze the role of using deception is psychological research. o Sometimes deception must be used as a means of reducing participant bias. For example, if participants were told, “We are going to test how a recent stressor you have experienced has affected your behaviour”, they would probably answer how they thought they should answer. However, participants are still given a description of potential risks.

Promoting the Welfare of Research Participants 1) In order to protect the welfare of the participants most research with human subjects involves shortterm, low-risk methods, and there are ethical guidelines and procedures the must be followed. i) In Canada all institutions that engage in human or animal research are required to have a Research Ethics Board (REB). Research Ethics Board (REB) (p. 56) is a committee of researchers and officials at an institution charged with the protection of human research participants. ii) The REB protects individuals in two main ways: a) The committee weighs the risks to the volunteers against the benefits of the research. b) It requires that volunteers agree to participate in the research. Weighing the Risks and Benefits of Research 1) The majority of psychological research involves minimal exposure to physical or mental stress. Nevertheless, great care is taken to protect participants. i) Some studies cause stress by submerging a participants hand in freezing water or having them exercise for short periods. ii) Some studies expose humans to the cold virus or make small cuts to the skin to study factors that affect healing. 2) However, most measures that involve stress are those that cause cognitive and emotional stress, such as: i) Mortality salience: human are made aware of death. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 82

Chapter 2: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research a) For example, by reading a passage of what happens to a decomposing body. ii) Writing about upsetting or traumatic experiences: people who have suffered a trauma (e.g., death of loved one, personal attack, etc) might be asked to write about the experience in great detail, sometimes repeatedly. 3) Another source of risk involves social situations. i) Some psychological research involves topics that could be damaging if made public (e.g., opinions of teachers, drug abuse, prejudices, etc). 4) The researcher, REB, and volunteer must weigh the potential risks of the study with the possible outcomes. i) For example, mortality salience tends to be a short term stressor. From such studies, psychologists have learned how the loss of a loved one influences decisions, such as donating to going to war. ii) Writing about upsetting experiences is also stressful, but psychologists have learned that those who write about stress tend to be healthier (emotionally and physically) in comparison to those who just write about everyday topics. Obtaining Informed Consent 1) Nowadays, volunteers must be informed of what they a volunteering to do. Informed Consent (p. 57): a potential volunteer must be informed (know the purpose, tasks, and risks involved in the study) and give consent (agree to participate on the information provided) without pressure. 2) To be truly informed about the study, participants must be told at least the following details (see also figure 2.5): i) The topic of the study. ii) The nature of any stimuli (e.g., images, sounds, smells) to which they will be exposed. iii) The nature of any tasks (e.g., test, puzzles) they will complete. iv) The approximate duration of the study. v) Any potential physical, psychological, or social risks involved. vi) The steps that the researchers have taken to minimize those risks. 3) However, this comes into conflict with best designs (from module 2.1) in which the participants are “blind” to avoid introducing participant bias. i) For example, if participants were told, “We are going to test how a recent stressor you have experienced has affected your behaviour”, they would probably answer how they thought they should answer. ii) In such cases, researchers use deception, or little “white lies.” Deception (p. 57) is misleading or only partially informing participants of the true topic or hypothesis under investigation. iii) This is much more serious with medical research in which participants are given a placebo instead of the actual treatment. iv) In both cases, participants are given enough information to weigh the risks of participating. 4) In addition, participants must give full consent, which means: i) They have the freedom to choose to not participant and not have to worry about any loss, harm, or damage. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 83

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science ii) Participants must be given equal opportunities. a) For example, Introductory Psychology students participating for credit must be offered alternative credit opportunities if they choose not to participate in the study. iii) Volunteers have the right to withdraw from a study at any time without penalty. iv) Participants also have the right to withhold responses. a) For example, they do not have to answer survey questions that make them uncomfortable. 5) Researcher who wish to study those who cannot give full consent (e.g., children, those with certain mental or neurological disorders), must obtain consent from a parent or next-of-kin. 6) After participation, volunteers are fully debriefed about the study. Debriefing (p. 58) means that the researchers should explain the true nature of the study, and especially the nature of and reason for the deception. The Right to Anonymity and Confidentiality 1) A final measure of protection involves anonymity and confidentiality. i) Anonymity means the data collected during a research study cannot be connected to individual participants. a) This helps reduce socially desirable responding and social risks to participants. b) If pure anonymity isn’t possible (e.g., researcher has to watch participant) then confidentiality is a reasonable substitute. ii) Confidentiality includes at least two parts: a) Researchers cannot share specific data or observations that can be connected back to the participant. b) All records must be kept secure (e.g., locked file cabinet or password protected database). The Welfare of Animals in Research 1) Many think of psychology as the study of human behaviour, but many psychologist study the behaviour of animals for important reasons. i) Scientists can administer treatments to animals that could never be applied to humans. ii) Genetic research requires species with much shorter lifespans so that successive generations can be observed. iii) Scientists can manipulate the breeding of laboratory animals to meet the needs of their experimental procedures. a) Selective breeding helps scientists control for individual differences based on genetic factors. 2) Ethical standards for animal research were developed the same time standards were put in place for human research. i) There are committees that oversee the ethical treatment of animals, much like REBs oversee the treatment of human participants. 3) These committees focus on three main areas of ethical treatment. i) The animals must be provided appropriate housing, feeding, and sanitation for the species. ii) They make sure that risk and discomfort are managed in a humane way. iii) They also make sure any harm or discomfort experienced by the animal is justified by the potential scientific value of the research. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 84

Chapter 2: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Animal Models of Disease 1) Researchers accidentally discovered a compound called MPTP that produced Parkison’s like symptoms in people i) could inject in animals to test possible treatments for the disorder ii) are animal models useful? Are they ethical? 2)What do we know about animal models of disease? i) there are animal models for all sorts of different disorders related to psychology ii) there are at least four methods for creating an animal model a) if a disease is related to a brain region, the region can be damaged with surgery or a substance like MPTP b) neurotransmitter function can be altered to mimic a disease c) the animal’s environment can be altered (e.g. stress can be introduced) d) the genetic makeup of the animal can be manipulated 3)How can science test animal models of disease? i) primary goal of animal models is to simulate the characteristics of disease so researchers can test possible treatments without harming humans a) sounds a little unethical until you understand the alternative b) there aren’t enough people with many disorders for a human model to be possible ii) animal models must have three characteristics a) must have the same physiological characteristics as the disease in humans i) animal model and human form of the disease must affect similar areas of the brain b) the tests to measure behaviours must be valid (must measure what they are intended to measure) i) if looking at depression then the measure of depression in rats must actually measure the extent of depressive symptoms in rats; researcher need to find behaviours in animals that are consistent with depression in humans, such as not seeking rewards c) the subjects of the animal models must respond to treatments like humans do i) if studying depression then the study should alleviate depressive symptoms such as lack of motivation, 4) How can we critically evaluate these models? i) one common criticism is that ‘animal brains aren’t human brains’ ii) we don’t always know what brain areas are involved with different disorders so how can we be sure we are using the right animal model? iii) researchers must infer the experiences of animals because animals can’t speak iv) if an animal has limited cognitive abilities some disorders that involve complex cognitive impairments cannot be studied using an animal model v)however despite these reservations animal models are the only option in many cases and help to greatly reduce the suffering for millions of people around the world vi) by having an effective REB making sure that the animals are treated well, animal models can be an ethical way of helping improve life for many people

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Ethical Collection, Storage, and Reporting of Data 1) Researchers continue their commitments to maintain anonymity, confidentiality, and security of the data. 2) Once data are reported in a journal or at a conference, researchers typically keep the data for 3 to 5 years. i) Keeping the data relates to the public nature of research. a) Sometimes other researchers will ask for the data so that they can analyze it themselves to replicate findings. 3) Scientists are also obligated to be honest with their data. i) Sometimes researchers are under pressure to get funding or tenure based on research results. ii) Cases of scientific misconduct sometimes arise when individuals fabricate or manipulate their data to fit their desired results. iii) To reduce this pressure, researchers are required to acknowledge any potential conflicts of interests, which include personal financial gain. a) This is often seen as a footnote in a journal article. iv) if research results cannot be replicated, the data that has been kept can be examined to see if it was manipulated a) in some cases researchers have a financial gain from certain results b) Andrew Wakefield, who claimed vaccines caused autism, not only became ‘famous’ for this finding but stood to gain financially from ‘stomach tests’ that he planned to market to test for autism related toxins c) fortunately, the fact that Wakefield’s study could not be replicated led science to self correct and for the person committing the misconduct to be caught and the ‘truth’ to be known v)authors are required to publish any conflicts of interest in their papers which is thought to reduce the likelihood of misconduct. RESORURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 2.3 Lecture Launchers  Animals in Psychological Research  An Historical Perspective on Research Ethics  Is There Privacy in a Public Restroom? Web Resources  CPA Code of Ethics: http://www.cpa.ca/aboutcpa/committees/ethics/codeofethics/

Chapter 2: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research IV. MODULE 2.4: A STATISTICAL PRIMER (Text p. 64) ▲ Return to Table of Contents Learning Objectives  Know the key terminology of statistics. o See bold, italicized terms below.  Understand how and why psychologists use significance tests. o Significance tests are statistics that tell us whether differences between groups are meaningful. For example, the mean scores of two groups could be very different; however, the variability of scores within each group will determine the likelihood the means of the two groups significantly differ.  Apply your knowledge to interpret the most frequently used types of graphs. o Students should be able to look at a histogram and be able to answer questions regarding its shape, measures of central tendency, and frequency of scores.  Analyze the choice of central tendency statistics based on the shape of the distribution. o It is important to consider they type of data and the shape of the distribution. For example, the mean and median usually give us more information about the central tendency. The mode is usually used for categorical data. For example, a mode can represent a candidate with the most votes. 1) Once the data has been collected, the next step is data analyses. i) Initially, this involves organizing numbers into ways that can be summarized and visualized to get an overall picture of trends and possible outcomes of the research. ii) Data analysis is also important in confirming or rejecting a hypothesis.

Descriptive Statistics 1) The first step in getting an overall picture of the data, is describing the data. Descriptive Statistics (p. 65) are a set of techniques used to organize, summarize, and interpret data. i) The most commonly used descriptive statistics are: frequency, central tendency, and variability. Frequency 1) Graphing the data is a logical first step in getting an overall picture of how the data looks. i) This allows researchers to see the distribution, or the location of where the scores cluster on a number line and to what degree they are spread out. 2) Psychologist often graph data using a type of bar graph called a histogram. i) This allows researchers to see the same data, but with a line called a curve. ii) Like most bar graphs, the vertical axis shows the frequency. Frequency (p. 65) is the number of observations that fall within a certain category of range of scores. iii) These graphs are easily interpreted; the higher the bar, the more scores that fall into that specific range (figure 2.6). iv) The horizontal axis basically describes the heights of the bars. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 87

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science 3) Graphing gives a visual image from which psychologists can describe the data and make general estimates. i) For example, it shows where scores cluster together and how spread out they are. a) There are mathematical equations to determine this, but this is just a first step. 4) When scores are clustered in the middle and the right side of the curve mirrors the left side, we can describe this as symmetrical curve. Normal Distribution (p. 65) (sometimes called the bell curve) is a symmetrical distribution with values clustered around a central, mean value. i) Many variables fall into a normal distribution. a) For example, the scores on most standardized tests. 5) Sometimes the data clusters at one end and trails off at the other. In this case, we have a skewed distribution (figure 2.7). Negatively Skewed Distribution (p. 66) is a distribution in which the curve has an extended tail to the left of the cluster. Positively Skewed Distribution (p. 66) is a distribution in which the curve has an extended tail to the right of the cluster. i) Most of the time, skews occur because there is an upper or lower limit to the data. a) For example, a person cannot take less than 0 minutes to complete a test. b) Instead, most students might finish a quiz in 6 minutes, but a few took much longer. c) Conversely, most scores would cluster around 90% on an easy quiz with a couple tailing off into the lower grades. Central Tendency 1) When we identify the portion of the graph where the scores seem to cluster together, we are estimating central tendency. Central Tendency (p. 65) is a measure of the central point of a distribution. i) This is a single number that represents an entire data set. ii) The measure of central tendency we use depends on the distribution of data. 2) Psychologists use one of three measures to describe the central tendency of the data: mean, median, and mode (figure 2.8). Mean (p. 66) is the arithmetic average of a set of numbers. Median (p. 66) is the 50th percentile—the point on the horizontal axis at which 50% of the observations are lower and 50% of all observations are higher. Mode (p. 66) is the category with the most observations. i) However, the mean and median usually give us more information about the central tendency (where scores cluster). ii) The mode is usually used for categorical data. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 88

Chapter 2: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research a) For example, a mode can represent a candidate with the most votes. 3) In a histogram of a normal distribution, the mean, median, and mode are the same value (figure 2.8). 4) When distributions are skewed, the median is the best measure of central tendency (figure 2.9). i) This is because the mean gets pulled toward the extreme scores, or tail. ii) The median is a relatively stable score. Variability 1) Measures of central tendency tell us where scores cluster. However, sometimes scores are more spread out than clustered (figure 2.12). Variability (p. 67) is the degree to which scores are dispersed in a distribution. 2) Because data can be clustered or spread out, researchers report both the mean and variability to help give a better picture of the data. Standard Deviation (p. 68) is a measure of variability around the mean. 2) Standard deviation is one commonly used measure of variability. i) It can be thought of as the average distance from the mean. ii) For example, a standard intelligence test has a standard deviation of 15 points around the mean. a)about 68% of data falls within one standard deviation of the mean b)68% of people would have an intelligence test score between 85 and 115 c)27% of the data falls between the first and second standard deviation so 13.5% of people have an IQ between 70 and 85, ad 13.5% have an IQ between 115 and 130 d)5% of data falls beyond the second standard deviation; thus only a small percentage of people have IQs over 130

Hypothesis Testing: Evaluating the Outcome of the Study 1) After researchers have described their data, the next step is to see whether the data support their hypothesis. Hypothesis Test (p. 70) is a statistical method of evaluating whether differences among groups are meaningful, or could have been arrived at by chance alone. i) The results of a hypothesis test will tell us if the two groups are significantly different (due to the IV) with a certain degree of probability. 2) For example, let’s say we wanted to know whether text messaging reduces feelings of loneliness in first-year university students (figure 2.12). i) Students who regularly text are randomly selected and put into one of two groups: a) Those who can text (control group). b) Those who cannot text (experimental group). c) In this example, the IV is the two groups (texting and no texting) and the DV is the score on the loneliness measure (higher score = more loneliness). Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 89

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science ii) After 3 days, the students are asked to fill out a survey measuring loneliness. iii) We find that those who were able to text, scored 3 points below the mean of the group who could not text. a) Can we conclude texting decreases loneliness? b) We need to also know the variability in the scores. iv) The means of the two groups can differ by three points and still be very similar, or differ by three points and be very different (figure 2.13). a) The groups are likely to be similar if the scores are very spread out and different if there is little variability in each group. 3) Next, researchers need to determine if the difference in scores between the two groups is significant or has statistical significance Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Statistical Significance 1) Statistical significant occurs when two scores are further apart then you would expect by chance alone Statistical Significance (p. 70) implies that the mean of the groups are farther apart than you would expect them to be by random chance alone. 2)What do we know about statistical significance? i) statistical significance is based on the researcher making two hypotheses: the null hypothesis and the experimental hypothesis a) the null hypothesis assumes differences are due to chance b) the experimental hypothesis assumes that the differences are controlled by the experimenter c) the goal of research is to create differences so large that they could not be due to chance d) the size of the difference is measured by the p value; lower p values indicate a lower likelihood that the difference is due to chance ii) specific formulas are used to calculate the p-values 3) What can science tell us about statistical significance? i) p values must be less than 0.05 in order to be considered significant; this means there is a less than 5% chance that the results are due to chance a) this standard is used in many sciences including psychology b) however in some cases a false positive could have dire consequences (e.g. relying on a drug to cure a deadly disease) a) in these cases a p value of less than 0.01 is often used iii) when a sample is small it is difficult to get a significant p value a) this can be problematic when studying rare diseases where there are few people in the study; in these cases other methods can be used to assess the results 3) Can we critically evaluate the use of statistical significance testing in research? i) There are two concerns related to significance testing a) the problem of multiple comparisons a) if there is a 5% chance of a ‘fluke’ , the more tests you perform the greater the likelihood of a ‘fluke’ outcome b)to combat this there are tighter p value restrictions as the number of comparisons increases b) an increased study size means an increased probability of getting a significant result a) sometimes we may see big medical studies showing lifestyle choices as affecting health outcomes that may actually reflect the size of the sample, not the true effect of the lifestyle choice. ii) Power analysis is an alternative to significance testing Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 90

Chapter 2: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research a) instead of accepting and rejecting hypotheses the researcher can adjust how much they believe a hypothesis to be true 4) Why is this relevant? i) statistical significance is a powerful standard for psychologists ii) statistical significance puts all researchers ‘on the same page’ iii) there are alternatives for cases where significance is not the ideal approach

RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR MODULE 2.4 Lecture Launchers  Pseudopsychology and the Mozart Effect  Oscar the Deathcat: A Case of Illusory Correlation?

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Web Resources  Rice Virtual Lab in Statistics: www.onlinestatbook.com/rvls.html  VassarStats: http://vassarstats.net/ Oscar the “Deathcat”: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c-R5wdywfZE

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science WORK THE SCIENTIFIC LITERACY MODEL ▲ Return to Table of Contents Text p. 73  MYPSYCHLAB: Video Series Episode 2: Research Methods offers six 5–7 minute segments covering the most recent research, science, and applications and utilizing the most up-to-date film and animation technology. Multiple-choice and short-answer questions are provided for student assignments. Text p. 73  ASSIGNMENT: Work the Model After students read the chapter and view the video, assign the discussion topic found in the “Why is this relevant?” section as a classroom discussion or as a short-answer writing assignment through MyPsychLab.

Chapter 2: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research ▼ LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND DISCUSSIONS TOPICS              

The Tragedy of Dr. Semmelweis and Childbed Fever Case Studies of Vietnam War Experiences The Case of Joseph Goldberger and Pellagra Correlations and Causal Relationships Independent and Dependent Variables The Placebo Effect The Road from Hypothesis to Conclusion An Experimental Example Applied Experimental Psychology in the Real World Animals in Psychological Research An Historical Perspective on Research Ethics Is There Privacy in a Public Restroom? Pseudopsychology and the Mozart Effect Oscar the Deathcat: A Case of Illusory Correlation?

▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The Tragedy of Dr. Semmelweis and Childbed Fever The case of Dr. Ignac Semmelweis and childbed fever complements the debacle surrounding the technique of facilitated communication and powerfully illustrates the tragedies that ensue when scientific information is ignored or rejected. It is an extraordinary story that is as much psychological as it is medical. In 1847, Semmelweis attempted to persuade his fellow physicians that they were contaminating women during childbirth with some substance acquired from the cadavers of women who had died from this illness. When his own students washed their hands in an antiseptic, the death toll plummeted, but his fellow physicians disbelieved this clear and objective evidence. Describe the case and ask students why the medical community was so reluctant to accept Semmelweiss’s findings. A brief presentation on cognitive dissonance theory may be helpful. That is, after watching women perish from this gruesome infection, the physicians’ knowledge that they had caused these deaths may have been too discrepant with their self-concepts as healers to resolve the dissonance. They disparaged Semmelweis and his evidence. The story may be found in the following source: http://litmed.med.nyu.edu/Annotation?action=view&annid=12179 ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Case Studies of Vietnam War Experiences An excellent example of how the case study works in psychological research is the work of Lambright (2003), who studied the responses of six Vietnamese volunteers (varying in age from 24 to 68) to the disruption in their daily lives, occupations, and the cultural adjustments brought about by the war in Vietnam. She conducted the interviews individually, in different locations throughout Vietnam during June and July of 2002. The six volunteers, from whom she obtained written consent, answered seven questions. While the standard seven questions might suggest that this face-to-face interview was a highly structured one, Lambright was in fact free to follow up any interesting answers with more questions as the need arose, making the interview an unstructured one. Here are two brief excerpts from those interviews, answers to the question “What about your culture explains its resilience during sustained disruption (such as war, famine, social and political crises)?” Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 93

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science

(Nguyen Ban, 24) “A happy stable family takes care of each other…we all overcome together. We have a solid base to stand on… The Vietnamese are very flexible, adaptable to the situation. They are resilient; in the hard time they are unified and come together in a community to fight against the enemy…” (Le Minh Viet, 68): Resilience, without the ability to adapt under circumstances, we wouldn’t have survived the Chinese domination, the French, and all the wars over the centuries. Circumstances shape the attitudes, the emotions, and the behaviours. All of us are used to war situation and became acclimated so it minimizes trauma.” Notice that while both interviewees stress the adaptability of the Vietnamese, the younger Nguyen seems focused on how Vietnamese people might react in some future conflict—Nguyen did not live through wartime. The older Minh did experience the war, and talks more about how the past affects his culture now. This kind of detailed information is only possible in a case study style of research. Mere observation would not provide the answers to Lambright’s questions. Interview Questions: 1. What about your culture explains its resilience during sustained disruption (such as war, famine, social and political crises)? 2. What lessons have been learned as a result? 3. How have these lessons been integrated into the current society? 4. Can you share some examples of adjustment to the turmoil, examples known within your area of expertise or with which you are personally familiar? 5. Can you give examples of maladjustment known within your area of expertise or with which you are personally familiar? 6. In thinking about your answers, what do you see as being particular to the Vietnamese culture that explains your response to the above questions? 7. Is there anything else you would like to add to this interview? Lambright, L.L. (2003) Paper presented at International Conference, Midwest Institute for International/Intercultural Education, Cleveland, Ohio, April. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The Case of Joseph Goldberger and Pellagra The case of Joseph Goldberger and pellagra is another powerful, true-life story from the history of medicine that shows how the correlation between this disease and poverty obscured the true causal mechanism: Poor diet. Early in the twentieth century, diets deficient in niacin killed many poor Southerners. Dr. Joseph Goldberger discovered the cause of the disease and generated controversy by demonstrating that it was not caused by germs. Because cases of pellagra were often higher among those with poor sanitation (e.g., no indoor plumbing), contamination by means of germs was the favored theory, a clear case of mistaking correlation for causation. In his attempt to discover the true cause, Goldberger experimented on himself, his colleagues, his wife, and prisoners. The case also raises important ethical questions; that is, to what extent did prisoners feel coerced into participating? It is worth mentioning that Goldberger exchanged pardons for participation in his medical research. Goldberger’s ideas were not universally well received and some were reluctant to accept his findings. For example, Goldberger accurately predicted that the drop in cotton prices in 1920 would lead to increased poverty and cases of pellagra. In anticipation of this outcome, he argued for social programs to improve nutrition in the South. In response, he was accused of impeding tourism and discouraging economic investment in the region by some Southerners, memorably led by then-congressman Jimmy Byrnes. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 94

Chapter 2: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research The following two links lead to information on the case. http://history.nih.gov/exhibits/Goldberger/index.html ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Correlations and Causal Relationships There seems to be a general human tendency to attribute causality to correlated events. The lay person, like the psychologist, often imposes patterns of (apparently) lawful regularity on observed events. Given what is perceived as an “effect,” we search for causes. Events are more likely to be singled out for attention and analysis when they are unusual, anomalous, and discontinuous with our prior experience. When such events are natural phenomena, they are typically relegated to the status of “cause” and then the search is directed toward their aftereffects. One of the most persistent instances in which pseudo-correlations of behaviour consequences are reported to flow from salient natural and human events is the “baby boom” syndrome. For example, the allegation of increased births nine months after a major power blackout in New York is well known. So too, is the baby boom in Israel nine months after their war with Egypt. Invariably, when base rate data are used to compare the assumed “increase in births,” the effect vanishes. That is, when seasonal fluctuations in births are taken into account, there is no unusual effect left to relate to the nine-months-earlier unusual event. But that does not deter the correlation seekers. Three University of North Carolina sociologists attributed a 1955 drop in Southern birth rates to the Supreme Court’s 1954 school desegregation decision (Rindfuss, Reed, & St. John, 1978). They theorized that uncertain prospects for the future “demoralize” prospective parents (both whites and, to a lesser extent, blacks), causing them to postpone any children they might otherwise have conceived in the three- or four-month period immediately following the decision. The subsequent recovery in the birth rate is attributed to the realization that desegregation would in fact proceed slowly. And on it goes. Less than a week after Chicago’s “Blizzard of ’79,” at least one newspaper columnist was speculating on the possibility of a baby boom in the coming autumn (Kup’s column, Chicago Sun-Times, January 17, 1979, p. 52). Another example of the temptation to confuse correlation with a causal connection is in the area of extramarital sexual affairs. Biracree (1984) found that for men there was an almost perfect positive correlation between annual income and the percentage of men who had been unfaithful to their wives. This relationship was not true for married women. If this finding is valid, what are the possible explanations for these relationships? Is there any strong evidence to support any of these explanations, or are they, at the moment, speculations? Biracree, T. (1984). How you rate: Men and How you rate: Women. New York: Dell. Rindfuss, R. R., Reed, J. S., & St. John, C. A. (1978). A fertility reaction to a historical event: Southern white birthrates and the 1954 desegregation ruling. Science, 201, 178–180. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Independent and Dependent Variables

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science In the cereal and fruit example, the cereal and the fruit are independent variables and the rash is the dependent variable. One useful way of thinking about and identifying independent and dependent variables is to remember that the basic hypothesis underlying any experiment is “X causes Y” (coloring a movie [X] changes the way people respond to it [Y]; a cereal [X] caused a rash [Y]; a fruit [X] caused a rash [Y]). To test such hypotheses, X is manipulated in order to determine its effect on Y. Thus, X is the independent variable and Y is the dependent variable. Advise students that, when trying to identify independent and dependent variables (as might happen in the context of an exam question), they should put the variables in the scenario into an “X causes Y” statement. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The Placebo Effect The power of suggestion is powerful indeed. Consider the example of the placebo effect. During the 1950s, surgeons routinely performed a simple operation to relieve chest pain suffered by patients with angina pectoris. An amazing number of the patients—nearly 90 percent—reported relief from pain. An experimental study divided angina patients into two groups and informed them that they were going to have an operation that had a very high success rate in relieving angina pain. The actual surgery was performed on only half the patients. What was done with the other half would no longer be allowed according to ethical medical standards. The surgeons took the remaining half of the patients, put them under anesthesia, made the surgical incision in their chests, and then simply sewed them up again. When the patients awakened in the recovery room, they were told that the operation had been performed (Cherry, 1981). The patients who had the sham surgery did even better than the patients who had undergone the actual operation! Their pain had been relieved simply by the power of suggestion. Remind students of the aspirin study and ask why the researcher included a placebo. Cherry, L. (1981, September). Power of the empty pill. Science Digest, 116, 60–67. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: The Road from Hypothesis to Conclusion How do we know that cigarette smoking is dangerous to your health? Cigarette smoking became common in Europe after French and British soldiers picked up the habit from Turkish soldiers in the Crimean War of 1854 to 1856. The habit was adopted by a few Americans in the next 30 or 40 years. The tobacco was strong and they rolled their own. More American males began to smoke after the automatic cigarette-making machine was perfected in North Carolina in the 1880s. Very few women smoked, at least in public, until after World War I when U.S. tobacco companies began to target women with their advertising. People must have suspected that cigarettes are dangerous to health long before any research was done. The slang term for cigarettes, “coffin nails,” was used during the first half of the century. The conjecture became a hypothesis when doctors noticed that many people who died of lung cancer had been heavy smokers, and it was also suspected that nicotine affects the circulatory system. Early studies produced high negative correlations between cigarette smoking and age at death: the more people smoked, the younger they were when they died. This correlational data resulted in the first warning labels on cigarettes in the 1960s: “Caution: The Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 96

Chapter 2: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research Surgeon General has determined that cigarette smoking may be hazardous to your health.” Notice that the warning reads “may be hazardous,” rather than “is hazardous.” The conservative warning is all that is justified by correlational data. A relationship between variables does not imply that the variables are causally related. The earlier death of smokers could be for reasons other than cigarette smoking. Perhaps smokers live more stressful lives, and both the smoking and their illness are the result of stress. Also, it is possible that smokers are not as careful of their health in other ways as nonsmokers; maybe they don’t exercise or have nutritious diets. Or perhaps both the smoking and the mortality have a genetic basis. To do a definitive experiment on the effects of smoking, one would need to get a sample of 100 or so young people who have never smoked and assign them randomly to a smoking group and nonsmoking group. The smokers would smoke at least one package of cigarettes a day for life, beginning at age 16 or 18, and the nonsmokers would not smoke at all. The dependent variable is age at death, and the successors of the original researchers could not analyze the data until all the subjects died. If the nonsmokers lived significantly longer, the researchers would be justified in concluding that cigarette smoking is hazardous to health. An experiment like this has not been done, and probably never will be done. In the 1970s the label on cigarette packages was changed to read, “Cigarette smoking is dangerous to your health.” The evidence that prompted this change came from several sources. One source was studies that tried to match smokers and nonsmokers on various alternative causes, such as stress, and thus to control for its effects on health. Another source of evidence came from animal studies. The conclusions that cigarettes are truly “coffin nails” is based on large amounts of data and a multitude of studies. Many studies were required to get from a hypothesis to a firm conclusion in the establishment of a causal link between smoking and disease and death. The reason is that there are humane and ethical constraints that rule out certain types of research. Because humans are the primary focus in psychology, it is often difficult for us to get answers to important questions. As just one example of this, we would like to know if child abuse has permanent effects on personality, and if so, what these effects are. But we cannot assign infants at birth to be abused or not abused, so to study this question we must try to tease out these effects from the mass of environmental variables that affect the development of human personality. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: An Experimental Example Can vitamins increase IQ? Suppose you hear about a retarded boy who did better schoolwork after being given a dose of a vitaminmineral supplement, and you decide to conduct an experiment to see if intellectual functioning of retarded children can really be improved by such a diet supplement. You start with the hypothesis, “A vitaminmineral supplement (independent variable) added to the diet of mentally retarded children will improve their intellectual functioning (dependent variable).” Your first task is to define your variables more precisely. What vitamins and minerals will you use, and at what strength? How many times a day and for how many months? You may decide to use an IQ test score as a numerical measure of your dependent variable; you may also decide that you will require a minimum increase in the number of points as acceptable evidence of improvement, because many chance factors can influence test scores. You draw your subjects from a group of children who have all been tested and diagnosed as mentally retarded, and you randomly assign them to either the experimental group, who will get the supplement, or Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 97

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science the control group, who will be given a placebo (some inert substance) instead of the supplement. There are several precautions you will need to take to avoid bias in your results. Besides controlling for similarity of your two groups at the start, you will want to be sure that the subjects in both groups are exposed to all the same conditions during the experiment except for the exposure to the independent variable, the nutritional supplement. Temperature, timing, instructions, conditions of testing, and other events during the time of the experiment should be as similar as possible for the two groups. Your own desires to prove or disprove the idea that vitamins may increase school performance may be a possible source of bias. To reduce this bias, would you conduct a single-blind or double-blind experiment? For a fixed period of time, say four months, the children in the experimental group receive the supplements in tablets at each meal. The control-group children also receive tablets, but they contain nothing of biological value (a placebo). Neither the children nor those working with them or testing them know which child is getting which kind of tablet. At the end of the four months, intelligence tests are given again to see if the groups now differ. You may find that both groups have higher scores than originally, perhaps from all the extra attention they have been receiving or from some natural development over this period. So you use the control group’s scores as a baseline and compare the experimental group’s scores with that baseline. If you find no difference, the study may end there, or you may try variations, perhaps a stronger supplement or a longer time period or subjects who are less retarded. If you do find a difference in your original study, you will evaluate the probability that your obtained difference could have occurred by chance alone, even without the independent variable. If it is unlikely that it is a chance finding, your confidence in the hypothesis is increased. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Applied Experimental Psychology in the Real World Students often have difficulty understanding how general research results can be applied to the real world. In other words, “How does this relate to me?” The following example provides connections between basic research in sensation and perception and possible military or medical errors. A number of devices use sound (beeps, clicks, etc.) to provide feedback regarding bodies, structures or machines. These sounds are designed to provide people with information about changes in the current situation. For example, in medicine, drops in heart rate or blood pressure are signalled with beeps. Jet pilots receive information regarding positioning in the form of sounds as well. The pupose of these devices is to provide immediate auditory feedback that signals potential problems. The auditory nature allows the surgeon or pilot to be visually focused on something else at the time. Unfortunately, results of recent research (Neuhoff, Kramer, and Wayand, 2002) suggest that people often misperceive how sounds change when both their pitch and loudness change. Rather than noticing the changes immediately and accurately noting the meaning of the changes, individuals may miss the changes entirely or misinterpret them. Because of this misperception, people can’t accurately judge the intended meanings of the sounds. Real-world complications that could arise from this problem range from medical mistakes to serious pilot errors. For example, if a pilot does not accurately identify the sounds of the flight Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 98

Chapter 2: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research system that are designed to alert him/her of possible mechanical issues, the chances of mechanical failure or crashes may be increased. This result is contrary to the purposes of those feedback systems which are designed to enhance safety. It appears that the initial assumptions of inventors/creators of these systems regarding the accuracy of human interpretations of the sounds may have been incorrect. www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2002/03/auditory.aspx Neuhoff, J. G., Kramer, G., & Wayand, J. (2002). Pitch and Loudness Interact in Auditory Displays: Can the Data Get Lost in the Map? Journal of Experimental Psychology—Applied, Vol. 8. No.1 ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Animals in Psychological Research Should animals be used in psychological research? A controversial issue in psychology, and in many other fields of study, involves the use of animals in research. Is it ethical to subject animals to unnatural and/or painful situations in the pursuit of knowledge about the human condition? You might present students with some additional information about the use of animals in psychological research and the nature of the debate. Psychologists who study animals are sometimes interested in comparing different species or hope to learn more about a particular species. Their work generally falls into the area of basic science, but often it produces practical benefits. For example, using behavioural principles, farmers have been able to reduce crop destruction by birds and deer without resorting to their traditional method – shooting the animals. Other psychologists are primarily interested in principles that apply to both animals and people. Because many animals have biological systems or behavioural patterns similar to those of human beings, using animals often allows more control over variables than would otherwise be possible. In some cases, practical or ethical considerations prevent the use of human beings as subjects. By studying animals, we can also clarify important theoretical issues. For example, we might not attribute the greater life expectancy of women solely to “lifestyle” factors and health practices if we find that a male-female difference exists in other mammals as well. As the text points out, those who support the use of animals in research argue that animal studies have led to many improvements in human health and well-being. In recent years, however, animal research has provoked angry disputes over the welfare of animals and even over whether to do any animal research at all. Much of the criticism has centered on the medical and commercial use of animals, but psychologists have also come under fire. Critics of animal research have pointed to studies that produce no benefits for human beings but involve substantial harm to the animals being studied. A few years ago, for instance, a Maryland psychologist studying the nervous system was convicted of cruelty to animals after he cut the nerve fibers controlling limb sensation in 17 monkeys. The purpose of his research was to find ways to restore the use of crippled limbs in stroke victims. The charges alleged abusive treatment of the animals. The psychologist’s conviction was eventually reversed on appeal, but by then the government had withdrawn its funding of the project. People have staked out extreme positions on both sides of this debate. The controversy has often degenerated into vicious name-calling by extremists on both sides. Some animal rights activists have vandalized laboratories, and threatened and harassed researchers and their families; some scientists have unfairly branded all animal welfare activists as terrorists (Blum, 1994). A more positive result of the debate has been the close examination of the American Psychological Association ethical code for the humane treatment of animals and the passage of stricter federal animal welfare regulations governing the Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 99

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science housing and care of research animals. Most psychological organizations, however, oppose proposals to ban or greatly reduce animal research. The APA and other organizations feel that protective legislation for animals is desirable but must not jeopardize productive research that increases scientific understanding and improves human welfare. www.the-aps.org/publications/tphys/legacy/1983/issue5/271.pdf ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: An Historical Perspective on Research Ethics When discussing the ethical treatment of human research participants, several “classic” studies, which would be ethically questionable by today’s standards, serve as examples. For instance, many instructors discuss Stanley Milgram’s studies of obedience, Philip Zimbardo’s prison simulation, or Stanley Schachter’s studies of autonomic arousal and attribution. Students often have mixed reactions to these examples. Some find them relatively innocuous, whereas others have strong reactions to the treatments participants were asked to endure. The fact that such studies took place within relatively recent times compounds the issue. Some students see these 1960s experiments as “long ago and of a different time,” whereas others see them as examples of the “unethical treatment psychologists still foist on people to this day.” To provide a context for these types of issues, your students might be interested in hearing about older examples of ethically questionable research. For example, Carney Landis, a noted psychologist of the 1920s and 1930s, conducted a series of studies dealing with the experience and expression of emotion. In one set of studies he was particularly interested in capturing facial expressions of emotion, and used strong elicitors of emotion to produce them. For example, one situation involved dropping a lit firecracker underneath an unsuspecting subject’s chair, whereas another involved showing participants pornographic (for their day) photographs and photos of horribly disfiguring skin diseases. Although these manipulations may seem harsh, Landis used stronger ones as well. For example, participants were instructed in one situation to plunge their hand into a pail of shallow water that, unbeknownst to them, contained 3 live frogs. (This manipulation was presumably used to evoke disgust.) To quote Landis, however...”After the subject had reacted to the frogs the experimenter said, ‘Yes, but you have not felt everything yet, feel around again.’ While the subject was doing so he received a strong...shock from an induction coil, attached to the pail by concealed wiring.” And for the coup de grâce: “The table in front of the subject was covered with a cloth. A flat tray and a butcher’s knife were placed on the cloth. A live white rat was given to the subject. He (sic) was instructed, ‘Hold this rat with your left hand and then cut off its head with the knife.’...In five cases where the subjects could not be persuaded to follow directions the experimenter cut off the head while the subject looked on.” Mention is also made of a final experiment involving shock which “...varied from a just noticeable intensity to a strength which caused the subject to jump from the chair,” as well as other studies. Landis’ participants, in passing, included graduate students, a stenographer, a school teacher, and a thirteen-yearold boy with high blood pressure.

Chapter 2: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research Although Landis has been singled out for examination here, there certainly is no lack of experiments from the 1920s through the 1960s work mentioned above that can provide examples of ethically dubious research. Discussing such studies, especially in light of current APA standards, should produce spirited discussion among your students. Landis, C. (1924). Studies of emotional reactions II: General behaviour and facial expression. Comparative Psychology, 4, 447-509. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Is There Privacy in a Public Restroom? In an infamous study of the correlates and consequences of invasion of personal space, Middlemist and colleagues measured latency to urinate and urination duration among men in public restrooms. In a pilot study, men designated as “subjects” were covertly observed urinating in a public restroom. Results indicated that onset of urination correlated negatively (r =.315) with the distance between the subject and another male using a nearby urinal. When only 1 urinal separated the men, mean latency of the subjects to urinate was 7.9 seconds; when 3 or more urinals separated the men, the latency was 5.7 seconds. Subsequently, an experimental study was carried out. Using a bucket and mop as props, urinals in a college restroom were blocked. Subjects were forced either to urinate at a urinal adjacent to a confederate or at a urinal separated by an “out-of-order” urinal between the two men. In a third control condition, no confederate was present. The subjects were observed and timed covertly by means of a “periscope” hidden within and monitored from a stall. Results revealed mean latencies to onset of urination of 4.9, 6.2, and 8.4 seconds within the control, moderate, and close distance groups. No subjects were ever informed that they had participated in a study. Clearly then, there was no attempt to obtain informed consent and no debriefing provided. Students may want to consider what possible harm could have resulted from such a study. Did subjects have a reasonable expectation of privacy in such a public setting? Could such a study have been done without the deception of the “secret recording”? Could such a study be carried out today? A complete version of the article (from the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1976) may be found at the following link: www.psychologytoday.com/files/u47/middlemist_et_al.pdf ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Pseudopsychology and the Mozart Effect Before discussing pseudoscience, ask students about their impression of the so-called Mozart effect. Most students have heard of the general phenomenon and have seen advertisements and CDs of music “designed to increase your children’s IQ.” Bring in a magazine advertisement and read from it, touting the merits of the product. Ask students if they believe it, and if they would buy the product. Probe them by asking what “proof” they would need that the product actually works. Usually, students will begin to question the merits of the product, at which point you can discuss the actual psychological findings of this moneymaking gimmick by summarizing the work of Steele, Bass, and Crook (1999).

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science Pseudoscience quite literally means “false science.” Its “claims [are] presented so that they appear scientific even though they lack the supporting evidence and plausibility” (Shermer, 1997, p. 33). Furthermore, pseudoscience appears to use scientific methods and tries to give that “science-y” impression. Some characteristics of Pseudoscience include the following: 1. associates itself with true science 2. relies on and accepts anecdotal evidence 3. sidesteps disproof • any possible outcome is explained away • a theory is not a good theory if it can explain everything because it can never make specific predictions 4. dangerously reduces complexity to simplicity (to a consumer society) Ask students why the Mozart effect would be considered pseudoscience based on the 4 aforementioned characteristics. Have students give other examples of possible pseudoscience such as graphology, palmistry, aromatherapy, and quite arguably Eye-Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR). Steele, K.M., & Bass, K. E., & Crook, M. D. (1999). The mystery of the Mozart effect: Failure to replicate. Psychological Science, 10, 366–369. Shermer, M. (1997). Why people believe weird things: Pseudoscience, superstition, and other confusions of our time. New York: W. H. Freeman & Co. ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Oscar the Deathcat: A Case of Illusory Correlation? Historically, a number of superstitions have been associated with cats. For a brief summary, see the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal: www.csicop.org/superstition/library/blackcat.html During the summer of 2007, the story of “Oscar the Deathcat” hit the Internet. The story originated in an article written for the New England Journal of Medicine (and also in Slate Magazine). It is possible that Oscar can predict the deaths of the elderly and infirm, but extraordinary claims such as this require extraordinary evidence. Students should consider one additional causal mechanism: That Oscar the Deathcat is another superstitious belief due to an illusory correlation. The issue of Oscar may be addressed with reference to the “Great Fourfold Table of Life” presented in the text. Note that although the article on Oscar was published in the NEJM, it was NOT a peer-reviewed article! Students may want to consider the degree to which the Journal’s prestige and the author’s professional status conferred credibility to the story of Oscar. The original NEJM and Slate articles links are listed here; a link to a video presentation on Oscar is listed in the Media Resources section. New England Journal of Medicine: http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/357/4/328?ijkey=PVKerq1VfkJKc&keytype=ref&siteid= nejm The story was also covered in Slate Magazine: www.slate.com/id/2171469/ ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics ▲ Return to Table of Contents Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 102

Chapter 2: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research ▼ CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, DEMONSTRATIONS, AND EXERCISES                   

Estimating the Frequencies of Our Own and Others’ Behaviours The Direction and Strength of Correlations Experimental Design Equating Groups on Multiple Variables Using Randomization Identifying the Parts of an Experiment Can Science Answer This Question? Observational Research in the Dining Hall Naturalistic Observation Understanding Correlations Correlational and Experimental Research Testing Random Assignment Small Samples Which Method Would You Use? Name That Research Method Using Memory to Demonstrate Methodology Give the Doctor Some Advice What Do Journals Look Like? Wonder Horse Dials 911 to Save Boy’s Life Softens Hands While You Do Dishes

▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Estimating the Frequencies of Our Own and Others’ Behaviours To demonstrate availability-related biases in estimating frequency, you can use this demonstration, which is an adaptation of a paradigm used in a study by Messick et al. (1985) titled “Why We Are Fairer Than Others.” Ask students to take out a piece of paper and say: “On this sheet of paper, please write as many things that you can think of that you do, or that other people do, that you would describe as inconsiderate. If you think that you do these things more often than others, begin the sentence with “I.” If you think that others do these things more often than you do, then start the sentence with “They.” You will be given 3 minutes for this task.” After 3 minutes, ask them to turn the paper over and say: “On this side, please write down as many things that you can think of that you do, or that other people do, that you would describe as considerate. If you think that you do these things more often than others, begin the sentence with “I.” If you think that others do these things more often than you do, then start the sentence with “They.” You will be given 3 minutes for this task.” Students should tend to associate others with inconsiderate behaviours and themselves with considerate behaviours, something Messick and colleagues call the “differential slope model.” Also, students may tend to use frequency modifier words such as sometimes with respect to their own inconsiderate behaviours, and always when referring to others’ inconsiderate behaviours. Discuss why others’ negative behaviours are more memorable and therefore more available. Conversely, students may consider why their own considerate behaviours are more memorable. They may also be asked to consider the implications of this difference in availability for over (and under) estimating good and bad behaviours. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 103

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science Demonstration: The Direction and Strength of Correlations This memorable visual demonstration shows incremental changes in scatterplots associated with incremental changes in the strength and direction of correlations. The demonstration is simple, and there is not much to ask in relation to it, but it does allow students to control the size of the correlation (numerically) and thus produce the changes in the scatterplot. www.stat.tamu.edu/~west/applets/rplot.html ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Experimental Design The overarching goals of the following exercise are to demonstrate how psychology and the scientific method can be used to address issues that interest your students, to teach them how the concepts they are learning influence experimental design, and to impress on them an appreciation for the challenges faced by experimental psychologists. Lead your class through the process of designing an experiment. Start with a hypothesis generated through brainstorming by the class. Allowing your students to provide the hypothesis ensures that it will interest them and that they will stay engaged. Students may start with topics such as alien abduction, crop circles, and the Loch Ness monster. Welcome this, as it gives you a terrific opportunity to talk about alternative explanations, existence proofs, and the fact that some topics, such as the proof of the existence of God, remain firmly outside the boundaries of science. The scientific method is not a panacea; it is a highly structured method for testing measurable factors and relationships. After your class has agreed on an issue to test, lead them toward a consensus and a testable hypothesis about the issue. Once your class has clearly defined a hypothesis, lead them through a discussion of possible alternative explanations. Challenge their hypothesis and their beliefs. Are there other possible explanations that are simpler and more likely? What assumptions and possible biases underlie their hypothesis? How would the hypothesis (and their assumptions and biases) generated by your class be different than explanations put forward by people from different cultures and different times? You might want to mention that spirit possession was a widely held explanation for mental illness until relatively recently. After listing a number of possible alternative explanations, allow your class to suggest a very basic methodology for testing the hypothesis and eliminating the alternative explanations. You might want to give them a head start by suggesting the kind of data that they would need to collect to measure the variables of interest. Depending on the hypothesis chosen and the sophistication of your class, outlining a reasonable experiment may be a difficult process. If the class begins to show signs of overload, you can quickly switch gears and use the exercise to demonstrate the difficulty in designing and executing well-controlled experiments. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Demonstration: Equating Groups on Multiple Variables Using Randomization An interesting demonstration of randomization is described in an article by Enders, Laurenceau, and Stuetzle, titled “Teaching Random Assignment: A Classroom Demonstration Using a Deck of Playing Cards.” The article is published in Teaching of Psychology, (2006), volume 33, No. 4, pages 239–242. The authors describe a simple strategy in which students “randomly assign” cards to two groups. The two groups of card/subjects are then compared with respect to the frequency of specific characteristics such as the number of face cards, red cards, etc. This will help students see how random assignment helps equate groups on characteristics beyond those the experimenter has in mind. Two packs of cards may also be used. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 104

Chapter 2: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Identifying the Parts of an Experiment To help students learn to identify the components of an experiment, Handout Master 2.1 presents the abstract from a recent article from the Journal of the American Medical Association on an issue of some interest to many: Smoking cessation. The abstract is dense, but the independent and dependent variables are clear, along with the treatment and placebo. It is interesting to note that side effects are also reported within the placebo group. Students may suggest possible explanations for this “nocebo” effect. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Can Science Answer This Question? Students are asked to identify whether specific questions can be addressed using the methods of science. The student handout is included as Handout Master 2.2. Suggested answers and explanations are listed below. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

No. The question as stated is vague and the terms are not defined. What does “bad” mean? (Good and bad are value judgments.) Who or what is “society”? Bad for whom? However, specific correlates and consequences of abortion can be studied. Yes. The independent variable would be “before or after eating” and the dependent variable would be talkativeness, which could be operationally defined (e.g., as the length of replies to questions). Yes, so long as the variables are operationally defined. The independent variable would be jogging versus not jogging (or perhaps the frequency or duration of jogging); the dependent variable would be some measure of mental attitude, such as scores on a psychological test. Yes. This question requires only the computation of a correlation between doctors’ GPAs in medical school and their subsequent incomes. Such variables as “years in practice” would have to be controlled and a representative sample would have to be selected. No, probably not; it would be a little like comparing apples and oranges. Physiological measures of emotional strength would not be useful because there is not always a relationship between physiological arousal and subjective experience, and because love tends to be a more enduring emotion than anger. Yes. The independent variable would be “bottle-fed versus breast-fed.” The dependent variable would be alertness, which would have to be operationally defined in behavioural terms. If babies were randomly assigned to the two groups, the study would be an experiment. If the researcher used babies whose mothers had already made the decision about feeding method, the study would be correlational, and inferences about cause and effect could not be made. No. “Moral” is a broad, vague term that means different things to different people. Moreover, many unanticipated economic, political, and social developments could affect the outcome. Even if “moral” could be defined adequately, and projections from current trends and conditions could be made, the results might turn out to be meaningless, because definitions of morality change over time. What is “moral” in the 1990s might not be moral in 2020, and vice versa. No. The subjects would be very uncooperative!

◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Assignment: Observational Research in the Dining Hall Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 105

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Koschmann and Wesp (2001) provide several research activities for observational research, correlational research, and experimental research. One way to introduce students to research methods is to allow them to become more cognizant of their everyday surroundings and fellow classmates’ behaviours. Koschmann and Wesp suggest that the college or university dining hall is an excellent “laboratory” to observe human behaviour. Merely ask students to observe others during meals in the cafeteria, such as seat selection or food choices. You might encourage student research teams to decide which behaviours they wish to observe. Ask students to record their observations, maintain confidentiality, and “debrief” anyone who asked them what they were doing. During the next scheduled class, ask students to share their findings and to generate discussion about potential hypotheses that may provide a better understanding of the behaviours they observed. Koschmann, N. & Wesp, R. (2001). Using a dining facility as an introductory psychology research laboratory. Teaching of Psychology, 28, 105–108. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Assignment: Naturalistic Observation Objective: To collect data on spatial relationships Materials: None Procedure: Assign students to small groups of four or five individuals. Ask each to collect data on personal space in two distinct social situations, perhaps the student union building or other public areas on campus and a situation such as a party, a bar, or another area where individuals are talking. Ask the students to estimate the distance that individuals stand apart when they talk in this public area, noting any differences between same sex and opposite sex individuals. Encourage students to be creative in their data collection; for example, they could approach the participants with a yardstick, or they could count the number of tiles on the floor. Students will come up with their own ideas on the best methods of data collection. When students bring their data to class, summarize each group’s findings in terms of the mean distances individuals stand apart while talking and put the results on the overhead or chalkboard. Break out the data by sex and situation. Discuss any problems the students encountered with this type of data collection. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Understanding Correlations This exercise on correlations can be used as a classroom demonstration or as a take-home assignment following a lecture on the nature and uses of correlations. The student handout for this exercise is included as Handout Master 2.3. Suggested answers are provided below; however, there are other reasonable explanations. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Positive. Mutual influence. Similar life experiences. Negative. Orphanage environment has an adverse effect on cognitive development. Intelligent children are more likely to be adopted. Positive. Violent pornography stimulates violent behaviour. Both the violent crime and the number of stores are related to the size of cities. Violent criminals are attracted to violent pornography. Negative. Absent students miss pearls of wisdom from the mouth of the instructor. Students with jobs or other responsibilities find it difficult both to get to class and to find time to study. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 106

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Positive. The money appropriated to control crime was poorly spent. The city grew during the eight years, resulting in more crime and more tax revenues. Positive. Both variables are related to socioeconomic factors; children from affluent homes have both intellectual and physical advantages over children from substandard home environments. Age is the third variable that accounts for scores on both variables; older children have bigger vocabularies and are also stronger and better coordinated.

◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Correlational and Experimental Research Many students have difficulty understanding the difference between correlational research and experimental research. It might be useful to walk the class through an example where both kinds of research are illustrated with the same variables. Two examples that could be used this way are the relationship between violent television viewing and aggression, and the relationship between similarity and liking. In both examples either variable could plausibly be caused by the other (or by some third factor); so the step up from correlational to experimental research, where causality can be determined, can be seen as useful. Spend some time discussing how psychologists must be ingenious to turn concepts such as “liking” into measurable variables (this will help students appreciate the scientific process). As examples, you can present actual studies that have been done in these two areas. Byrne (1971) discusses extensive research on the influence of similarity on attraction, and Liebert and Sprafkin (1988) discuss the effects of television on children. Byrne, D. (1971). The Attraction Paradigm. New York: Academic Press. Liebert, R., & Sprafkin, J. (1988). The Early Window: Effects of Television on Children and Youth. New York: Pergamon Press. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Testing Random Assignment (Group activity) Students are often distrustful of random assignment, thinking that the people with the best memory or the worst sense of smell will all end up in the same group and make the results of research undependable. This demonstration is designed to show that random assignment does produce equivalent groups. Provide students with small cards and have them record their height in inches on the card. If the class is small, ask them to record the height of their best friend on a second card. Collect the cards and then randomly assign them to several groups of 20. Have students calculate means for the groups. The means should be quite close, illustrating that random assignment has produced equivalent groups. You might also explain that random assignment is not infallible and can be a source of experimental error. This activity can be extended by using groups of different sizes, such as 2, 5, 10, 20, and 50, to show that the probability of getting groups that are not equivalent decreases as group size increases. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science Activity: Small Samples Objective: To discover if small samples can really be representative Materials: A coin, copies of the chart in Handout Master 2.4 Procedure: Sometimes students have a hard time believing that 1,000 people or so can represent the entire population of the United States. This activity will help them see that small samples can be representative. Divide students into small groups and instruct them as follows: Point out to students that, as n gets bigger, the more balanced the percentage of heads and tails becomes. However, they should notice too that n=20 isn’t much better than n=15. And it took a lot longer to collect 5 samples of 20 coin tosses each. In other words, there wasn’t much gain in representativeness for the extra cost in time and energy. So, small samples can be representative, and increasing the size of a sample doesn’t always pay off when costs are balanced against benefits. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Which Method Would You Use? The following examples can be used to generate a class discussion on the research methods used by psychologists. Write the methods on the board: case histories, naturalistic observation, laboratory observation, surveys, tests, correlational studies, and experiments. Then, for each situation, ask students to decide which method is appropriate and briefly describe why. 1. Determining the favorite food of adolescents. Method: Survey Explanation: Adolescents constitute a large population and the information sought should be accessible through questionnaires or interviews. Care will be needed to construct a sample that is representative of the population under consideration. 2. Determining whether a person is introverted or extroverted. Method: Psychological test Explanation: The goal is to measure psychological qualities within an individual. Other methods (e.g., case history, naturalistic observation) might be employed, but they are more timeconsuming and do not offer the degree of standardization, reliability, and validity found in a wellconstructed test. 3. Determining if frustration causes aggression. Method: Experiment Explanation: Cause-and-effect information is being sought. In science this information is obtained through experimentation in which the proposed causal variable is manipulated under controlled conditions. 4. Determining if level of education is associated with crime. Method: Correlation Explanation: This technique is used to determine if and how strongly two variables are related. Establishing that a correlation exists, however, does not address the problem of why two things are related. 5. Determining how teenagers behave on their first date. Method: Naturalistic observation Explanation: A description of behaviour as it occurs in a real-life situation is being sought. Making the observations without arousing suspicion in subjects could be problematic, and the investigator will need to be careful to prevent “guinea-pig” reaction. 6. Determining the behaviour of subjects who are anxious about participating in research. Method: Laboratory observation Explanation: The goal here can be readily achieved within an environment artificially set up by Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 108

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the experimenter. The advantage of this approach is that the investigator has greater control over the situation being studied. Determining why a housewife gave up a flourishing career. Method: Case history Explanation: Making this determination requires in-depth information about the way a variety of psychological factors, expectations, values, motives, past experiences, and so forth, blend together within the person. This kind of information is unique to the person and could not be assessed through standardized tests.

◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Name That Research Method In this exercise, students are asked to match brief descriptions of research with the name of the method being used. Copy Handout Master 2.5 and distribute to students as a basis for this exercise. Answers: 1-c, 2-a, 3-e, 4-f, 5-d, 6-b. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Using Memory to Demonstrate Methodology This demonstration introduces the concept of the experimental method; however, it is equally applicable to the material in the memory chapter. Students are given the question “Can we improve memory by using a mnemonic technique?” and are asked to design an experiment to test the hypothesis. The experiment is then conducted using procedures summarized below. Through this procedure, students are guided through a typical psychological experiment and are introduced to the concepts of independent variable, dependent variable, experimental and control groups, and control procedures. Prepare a mnemonic technique and write it on small slips of paper to hand to some of the students (half of the class). Construct a list of common words to use in conjunction with the mnemonic. Here is one of many mnemonic techniques: PRESIDENTIAL Word List: Pet, Road, Eagle, Screen, Ink, Dog, Envelope, Number, Target, Income, Alley, Library Begin a discussion of the experimental method by asking for definitions of a hypothesis. After discussing the students’ definitions tell them that they are going to conduct an experiment in class and provide them with the question above as the hypothesis. After defining mnemonic techniques, inform the class that you have a mnemonic technique but need to know how to proceed from this point. Students are asked for input as to how to test the hypothesis. Usually someone proposes that the class be divided into two groups: one that receives the mnemonic and one that does not. Ask how the students should be assigned to each group. This leads us to a discussion of random assignment. The experiment begins by passing out the slips of paper with the mnemonic to the “experimental” group. All students are then given the following instructions: “I am going to read a list of words; when I’m finished I want you to recall as many words as you can IN THE SAME ORDER AS THEY WERE READ.” Tell the experimental group how to use the mnemonic: “The letters of the word correspond to the first letter of each word in the list, so you can use the word to help you remember the order of the Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 109

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science words in the list.” Read the list of words, pausing about 4 seconds between words. Then tell the students to write down as many words as they can remember in the same sequence as they were read. Allow about three minutes of recall time, then ask the students to correct their own paper and tabulate the results on the board. This demonstration typically yields a large difference between the two groups. If desired, you can initiate a discussion of statistical inference and perhaps conduct some preliminary analyses. Discuss how the results pertain to the original hypothesis. Adapted from Davis, S. F., & Palladino, J. J. (1994) Interactions: A newsletter to accompany Psychology, 1(Win), 1. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Give the Doctor Some Advice This exercise describes research on the effects of drinking and driving. However, this study is flawed and students are asked to suggest ways to correct the errors. Copy Handout Master 2.6 and distribute to students as a basis for this exercise. Suggested answers: 1. e 2. Possible confounding variables: The vodka and the placebo should be mixed in equal amounts of orange juice. Subjects should be chosen randomly and also assigned randomly to the different groups. (The same amount of alcohol affects males and females differently.) The researcher should not select friends, colleagues, or his own students as the subjects for this research, or any research, because of possible experimenter expectancy and demand characteristics. The subjects should participate at the same time of day since their last meal can determine how potent the effects of alcohol can be. Informed consent should be obtained before the research, not after. Given these many possible confounding variables, Dr. Moesteller should be more cautious in his conclusions. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: What Do Journals Look Like? Scientific journals and peer review are essential to the field, but even after they are fully described, may seem remote and abstract to students (especially when they have just entered college). Bring relatively recent journal issues to the class, pass them around and ask students to examine the tables of contents for articles that address issues that seem personally interesting to them; ask them to read the titles out loud to the class. Journals from the Association for Psychological Science are excellent for this exercise because they address diverse issues in psychology. The exercise is useful for demonstrating that psychological journals present findings that are of wide relevance and interest. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 110

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Activity: Wonder Horse Dials 911 to Save Boy’s Life Jane Halonen suggests a fun class exercise that tests students’ understanding of experimental methodology principles. Once you have covered the basics of correlation, experimentation, and causal inference, challenge your students to apply these principles by examining the outrageous claims made in tabloid headlines, many of which imply a causal relationship (e.g., dreaming in black-and-white improves your sex life; garlic diet improves memory...but not breath; large gopher presence precedes volcano eruptions). For this exercise, bring in a variety of headlines from the Star, National Enquirer, Weekly World News, Globe, etc. that are psychology-related and causal-sounding (or ask students to bring in examples). Challenge students to design simple studies that will accurately test whether or not the relationship claimed in the headline is a valid one. Halonen reports that students enjoy the opportunity to “think like scientists” in response to humorous and outrageous claims and that this exercise helps stimulate them to scrutinize causal claims from all sources and to design experiments more carefully and creatively (and, if that isn’t enough, they can practice their newfound skills in line at the grocery store)! Halonen, J. S. (1986). Teaching critical thinking in psychology. Milwaukee: Alverno Productions. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents Activity: Softens Hands While You Do Dishes A variation of the tabloid exercise suggested above encourages students to apply experimental principles to claims they are bombarded with on a daily basis—television and magazine advertising. For this exercise, bring in (or have your students bring in) samples of advertising and have students critique the product claims of success according to principles of experimental methodology. Ads can be critiqued on several grounds, including the problem of personal testimony as unreliable, the absence of a control or comparison group, the presence of extraneous variables, the presence of plausible alternative explanations, unclear or undefined variables, and a lack of supporting statistics. Jane Halonen reports that students become enthusiastic about the usually dreaded topic of experimental methodology when they realize it has the potential to make them smarter consumers. Halonen, J. S. (1986). Teaching critical thinking in psychology. Milwaukee: Alverno Productions. ◄ Return to complete list of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises ▲ Return to Table of Contents

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science ▼ HANDOUT MASTERS      

Handout Master 2.1 Identifying the Parts of an Experiment Handout Master 2.2 Can Science Answer This Question? Handout Master 2.3 Critical Thinking Exercise: Understanding Correlations Handout Master 2.4 Small Samples Handout Master 2.5 Name That Research Method Handout Master 2.6 Give the Doctor Some Advice

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Chapter 2: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research Handout Master 2.1 Identifying the Parts of an Experiment Please read the following abstract (i.e., summary) of a recent article by Jorenby and colleagues that appeared in the Journal of the American Medical Association (July 2006). Identify the following: 1. Independent variable; describe the treatment in some detail. 2. Dependent variable; describe this outcome variable in detail. 3. Method of selecting participants. 4. Method of assigning participants to groups. 5. Hypothesis/Research question. 6. Outcome (i.e., results) of the study. You may also want to consider the following question: Why would members of the control group also experience “side effects”? Efficacy of varenicline, an alpha4beta2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor partial agonist vs. placebo or sustained-release bupropion for smoking cessation: a randomized controlled trial. CONTEXT: Varenicline, a partial agonist at the alpha4beta2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, has the potential to aid smoking cessation by relieving nicotine withdrawal symptoms and reducing the rewarding properties of nicotine. OBJECTIVE: To determine the efficacy and safety of varenicline for smoking cessation compared with placebo or sustained-release bupropion (bupropion SR). DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial conducted between June 2003 and March 2005 at 14 research centers with a 12-week treatment period and follow-up of smoking status to week 52. Of 1,413 adult smokers who volunteered for the study, 1,027 were enrolled; 65% of randomized participants completed the study. INTERVENTION: Varenicline titrated to 1 mg twice daily (n = 344) or bupropion SR titrated to 150 mg twice daily (n = 342) or placebo (n = 341) for 12 weeks, plus weekly brief smoking cessation counseling. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Continuous abstinence from smoking during the last 4 weeks of treatment (weeks 9–12; primary end point) and through the follow-up period (weeks 9–24 and 9–52). RESULTS: During the last 4 weeks of treatment (weeks 9–12), 43.9% of participants in the varenicline group were continuously abstinent from smoking compared with 17.6% in the placebo group (odds ratio [OR], 3.85; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.69–5.50; P<.001) and 29.8% in the bupropion SR group (OR, 1.90; 95% CI, 1.38–2.62; P<.001). For weeks 9 through 24, 29.7% of participants in the varenicline group were continuously abstinent compared with 13.2% in the placebo group (OR, 2.83; 95% CI, 1.91-4.19; P<.001) and 20.2% in the bupropion group (OR, 1.69; 95% CI, 1.19–2.42; P = .003). For weeks 9 through 52, 23% of participants in the varenicline group were continuously abstinent compared with 10.3% in the placebo group (OR, 2.66; 95% CI, 1.72–4.11; P<.001) and 14.6% in the bupropion SR group (OR, 1.77; 95% CI, 1.19–2.63; P = .004). Treatment was discontinued due to adverse events by 10.5% of participants in the varenicline group, 12.6% in the bupropion SR group, and 7.3% in the placebo group. The most common adverse event with varenicline was nausea, which occurred in 101 participants (29.4%). Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 113

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CONCLUSIONS: Varenicline is an efficacious, safe, and well-tolerated smoking cessation pharmacotherapy. Varenicline's short-term and long-term efficacy exceeded that of both placebo and bupropion. ◄Return to Activity: Identifying the Parts of an Experiment ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents

Chapter 2: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research Handout Master 2.2 Can Science Answer This Question? Psychology is an empirical science; that is, its knowledge is obtained through observation, experimentation, and measurement. Some questions cannot be answered empirically and are, therefore, outside the realm of science. Decide whether scientific research can answer the questions below and respond “yes” or “no” to each question. Do not try to answer the question itself. Just say whether or not scientific research can, in principle, address the question. Briefly explain why each question is, or is not, a good candidate for scientific inquiry. For the questions that can be studied scientifically, identify what the independent and dependent variables would be in the experiment. 1.

Is abortion on demand bad for society?

Do people talk more after they have eaten than they do when they are hungry?

Does jogging lead to a positive mental attitude?

Are the incomes of doctors related to the grades they make in medical school?

Which emotion is stronger, love or anger?

Are breast-fed babies more alert than bottle-fed babies?

Will people be more moral in the year 2020 than they are now?

Are people who commit suicide sorry after they have done it?

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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science Handout Master 2.3 Critical Thinking Exercise: Understanding Correlations Correlational studies show relationships between variables. If high scores on one variable predict high scores on the other variable, the correlation is positive. If high scores on one variable predict low scores on the other variable, the correlation is negative.

variable 1 variable 2 Positive Correlation

variable 1 variable 2 Negative Correlation

Showing that two variables are related does not justify claiming that a causal relationship exists. There may be a causal relationship, but other explanations usually exist. For example, the variables may be related because both have a causal relationship with a third variable. causes A

causes B

causes A

A C B

For each of the correlational studies described below, decide whether the correlation is positive or negative and give two alternative explanations for each finding. 1.

A study of married couples showed that the longer they had been married, the more similar their opinions on social and political issues were. Positive or negative? Explanation 1: Explanation 2:

An intelligence test was given to all the children in an orphanage. The results showed that the longer children had lived in the orphanage, the lower their IQ scores. Positive or negative? Explanation 1: Explanation 2:

In a study of American cities, a relationship was found between the number of violent crimes and the number of stores selling violence-depicting pornography. Positive or negative? Explanation 1: Explanation 2:

Chapter 2: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research 4.

A college professor found that the more class absences students have, the lower their grade in the course tends to be. Positive or negative? Explanation 1: Explanation 2:

A politician running against a candidate who had been in office for eight years pointed out that violent crime had increased steadily during those eight years even though the administration appropriated more and more money to fight crime. Positive or negative? Explanation 1: Explanation 2:

It was found that elementary-school children who made high scores on a vocabulary test also tended to make high scores on a test of physical strength and muscular coordination. Positive or negative? Explanation 1: Explanation 2:

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IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science Handout Master 2.4 Small Samples You probably know that when you flip a coin, the chance of getting a head or a tail is 50%. But this probability is based on an infinite number of coin tosses. But how well does tossing the coin twice represent the whole population of tosses, or the infinite number of tosses? If a sample of 2 tosses, or n=2 as a statistician would express it, doesn’t represent the population, what about a sample of 5 or 10 or 15 or 20? To answer these questions, you have to take repeated samples of the same size. Toss a coin twice (n=2), and then write the number of heads and tails in the column labeled #1. Repeat the process four more times, recording your results the second time under #2, the third time under #3 and so on until you have a total of five samples, each of which consists of two coin tosses. When the n=2 row is completely filled in, calculate the overall percentage of heads and tails. Now use the same process to collect data on samples of n=5, n=10, n=15, and n=20. Sample size n=2 n=5 n=10 n=15 n=20

Toss #1 H T

Toss #2 H T

Toss #3 H T

Toss #4 H T

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Toss #5 H T

Overall % H T

Chapter 2: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research Handout Master 2.5 Name That Research Method Here are the major research methods used by psychologists. Match each with one of the following examples of research. a. case history b. naturalistic observation c. laboratory observation d. survey e. psychological tests f. experiment 1.

Frank is a full professor who is interested in the factors that affect the performance of rats who are learning to find their way through a complex maze. Every afternoon he gives each of his 50 rats ten trials in the maze, counting the number of wrong turns each rat makes on its way through the maze.

Ben is counseling with Fennimore Jones in a small room in the neuropsychiatric hospital. Ben is a graduate student in clinical psychology and Fennimore is his client. Fennimore was admitted to the neuropsychiatric hospital when he came to the student health clinic complaining that he hears voices shouting obscenities at him, and confiding that he thinks he is going through a spontaneous sex change. After each session with Fennimore, Ben writes a report describing Fennimore’s verbal and nonverbal behaviour and his interpretations of the behaviour.

Carl is a graduate student who plans to become a psychometrician. He, like Ben, is working at the neuropsychiatric hospital. His job is to administer a battery of tests to new patients. He will send the test results, along with his summary and interpretation of them, to the patient’s clinical psychologist or psychiatrist.

Ada is testing the hypothesis that color preference can be influenced by associating a color with a pleasant experience, such as eating. This afternoon she is delivering a supply of red, yellow, blue, green, and white nursing bottles to the mothers of newborns who have consented to let their infants be subjects in her research.

Dee is an assistant professor who will teach introductory psychology for the first time next term. She has chosen some films to show to her class of more than 200 students, and is now preparing a questionnaire to administer to her students after each film. She thinks getting student reactions to the films will be helpful next time she teaches the class.

Ed is an undergraduate psychology major. For his senior thesis he is investigating the nature of the audience for pornography. This afternoon he is sitting in his car across the street from one of the pornographic bookstores in the area. He is taking notes on the sex, approximate age, and ethnicity of the patrons as they enter and leave the store.

◄Return to Activity: Name That Research Method ▼ Return to List of Handout Masters ▲ Return to Table of Contents

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science Handout Master 2.6 Give the Doctor Some Advice Dr. Moesteller has long been interested in the effects of alcohol on human behaviour. His latest experiment involved giving college students one of three kinds of drinks: 3 oz. of 100 proof vodka mixed with a standard size glass of orange juice, 2 oz. of 100 proof vodka mixed with a small glass of orange juice, or 3 oz. of a nonalcoholic but vodka-flavored substance mixed with a standard size glass of orange juice. Dr. Moesteller recruited some of his subjects from the school’s track team, which was easy because he is the assistant coach. He recruited the rest of his subjects from his introductory psychology class. Dr. Moesteller assigned the women on the track team to the 2 oz. vodka group, the men from his class to the 3 oz. vodka group, and the women from his class to the nonalcoholic group. The women on the track team participated right after they finished practicing, and students from his class participated at various times during the day. After each group had a chance to drink the beverage, he had them sit in an automobile simulator where their task was to step on the brake every time they saw a red light. Much to his surprise, the 2 oz. group showed slower reaction times to the red light than the 3 oz. group. The nonalcoholic group was the quickest to react. As soon as the experiment was over, he explained to the subjects the true purpose of the experiment and had them sign an informed consent form. From his analysis of the results, Dr. Moesteller concluded that drinking alcoholic beverages can slow reaction time for braking in college students who drive after drinking. 1.

Based on his experiment, was Dr. Moesteller’s conclusion correct? a. No, because he did not randomly select his subjects. b. No, because he knew some of his subjects better than others. c. Yes, because subjects in both experimental groups had slower reaction times than the control group. d. Yes, because his results agree with what we all know from our experience with those who drink and drive. e. No, because there were too many confounding variables in his experiment, including both a and b.

On the other side of this page, give Dr. Moesteller some advice on how he might improve his research on drinking.

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Chapter 2: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research ▼ WEB RESOURCES ▲ Return to Table of Contents Simeon’s Cave of Magic and the Confirmation Bias: www.caveofmagic.com/pickcrd2.htm Discovering Psychology Episode on Decision Making: www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/11/e11expand.html# Correlation Is Not Causation: www.msnbc.msn.com/id/19918336/ APA Code of Ethics: www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx Ethics and Animal Experimentation: www.apa.org/science/leadership/care/index.aspx Rice Virtual Lab in Statistics: www.onlinestatbook.com/rvls.html VassarStats: http://faculty.vassar.edu/lowry/VassarStats.html Illusion and Statistical Analysis: www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1010470 Oscar the “Deathcat”: www.youtube.com/watch?v=9cqiylGLAvg Research Design Simeon’s Cave of Magic and the Confirmation Bias: www.caveofmagic.com/pickcrd2.htm This site presents an amusing and effective example of the confirmation bias, briefly mentioned again in this chapter. In this magic trick, participants pick a card from six, are asked to memorize it and then are shown a second array with their card magically “deleted.” The trick works because of confirmation bias; in fact, all of the cards are different, but participants notice only that the card they selected has been deleted. Ask students to figure out how the trick is done. Discovering Psychology Episode on Decision Making: www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/11/e11expand.html# The first 10 minutes of this video features an interview Nobel Prize winner Daniel Kahneman and the late Amos Tversky as they discuss the availability and representativeness heuristics. Correlation Is Not Causation: www.msnbc.msn.com/id/19918336/ Recently, researchers reported that drinking pop, even diet pop, is related to heart disease and diabetes; some possibilities are suggested in the news story from MSNBC. Students may write a brief paper generating additional possible causal mechanisms underlying this surprising correlation and describing how this association could be investigated experimentally, including the independent and dependent variables, and what difficulties they might encounter creating a double-blind study and ensuring that the experiment is consistent with ethical guidelines. Ethics APA Code of Ethics: www.apa.org/ethics/code.html American Psychological Association’s Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. Your students may be required to participate in experiments as part of their introductory course. Introduce them to this website either at the start of the semester (to allay their fears about participating in studies) or at the end (as a “wrap-up” paper comparing their research experiences with the ethical guidelines stated by APA). Ethics and Animal Experimentation: www.apa.org/science/animal2.html Read arguments for the importance of animal research for promoting the understanding and welfare of human beings. The Committee on Animal Research and Ethics (CARE) has produced two videos on the importance of animal research. The first describes research in sensation and perception; the second describes research on pharmacology. Descriptions of the videos may be found at www.apa.org/research/responsible/care-video.aspx. They may be ordered through the APA order department: order@apa.org. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 121

IRM for Krause/Corts/Smith/Dolderman, An Introduction to Psychological Science Research/Statistics Rice Virtual Lab in Statistics: www.onlinestatbook.com/rvls.html Includes links to an online statistics textbook, simulations and demonstrations, case studies, and basic statistical analysis tools. VassarStats: http://vassarstats.net/ Richard Lowry from Vassar College maintains this excellent site for statistical calculations. Illusion and Statistical Analysis www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1010470 Psychological scientist Thomas Gilovich is interviewed during the first 10 minutes of this NPR show. The topic is the illusory “hot hand” in basketball, that is, the much-held belief in “streak shooting.” This illusion illustrates well the importance of statistical analyses. Oscar the “Deathcat” http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c-R5wdywfZEThe story was also covered in the news; a brief video clip is available.

Chapter 2: Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research ▼ MULTIMEDIA RESOURCES ▲ Return to Table of Contents On-line Resources: MyPsychLab www.mypsychlab.com See/Hear/Learn/Explore More Icons integrated in the text lead to web-based expansions on topics, allowing instructors and students access to extra information, videos, podcasts, and simulations. The intext icons are not exhaustive—there are many more resources available to instructors and students on-line at www.MyPsychLab.com. What Is MyPsychLab? MyPsychLab is a learning and assessment tool that enables instructors to assess student performance and adapt course content. Students benefit from the ability to test themselves on key content, track their progress, and utilize individually tailored study plan. In addition to the activities students can access in their customized study plans, instructors are provided with extra lecture notes, video clips, and activities that reflect the content areas their class is still struggling with. Instructors can bring these resources to class, or easily post on-line for students to access. Instructors and students have been using MyPsychLab for over 10 years. To date, over 600,000 students have used MyPsychLab. During that time, three white papers on the efficacy of MyPsychLab were published. Both the white papers and user feedback show compelling results: MyPsychLab helps students succeed and improve their test scores. One of the key ways MyPsychLab improves student outcomes is by providing continuous assessment as part of the learning process. Over the years, both instructor and student feedback have guided numerous improvements, making MyPsychLab even more flexible and effective. Pearson is committed to helping instructors and students succeed with MyPsychLab. To that end, we offer a Psychology Faculty Advisor Program designed to provide peer to-peer support for new users of MyPsychLab. Experienced Faculty Advisors help instructors understand how MyPsychLab can improve student performance. To learn more about the Faculty Advisor Program, please contact your local Pearson representative. In addition to the eText and complete audio files, the MyPsychLab video series, MyPsychLab offers these valuable and unique tools: MyPsychLab assessment questions: Over 3,000 questions, distinct from the test bank, but designed to help instructors easily assign additional quizzes and tests, all that can be graded automatically and loaded into an instructor’s grade book. MyPsychLab study plan: Students have access to a personalized study plan, based on Bloom’s Taxonomy, arranges content from less complex thinking–like remembering and understanding–to more complex critical thinking–like applying and analyzing. This layered approach promotes better criticalthinking skills, and helps students succeed in the course and beyond. Experiments Tool – On-line experiments help students understand scientific principles and practice through active learning – fifty experiments, inventories, and surveys are available through MyPsychLab. APA assessments: A unique bank of assessment items allows instructors to assess student progress against the American Psychological Association’s Learning Goals and Outcomes. These assessments have been keyed to the APA’s latest progressive Learning Outcomes (basic, developing, advanced). ClassPrep available in MyPsychLab. Finding, sorting, organizing, and presenting your instructor resources is faster and easier than ever before with ClassPrep. This fully searchable database contains hundreds and hundreds of our best teacher resources, such as lecture launchers and discussion topics, inCopyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. 123