INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL for Peter Porter AMERICAN STORIES. A History of the United States (Combined Vol by digitaldownload87

INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Peter Porter AMERICAN STORIES. A History of the United States (Combined Volume)SECOND EDITION

INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Peter Porter AMERICAN STORIES. A History of the United States (Combined Volume) SECOND EDITION CHAPTER 1 New World Encounters, Preconquest–1608 CHAPTER OUTLINE Diverse Cultures: De Vaca’s Journey Through Native America Native Americans Before the Conquest The Environmental Challenge: Food, Climate, and Culture Aztec Dominance Eastern Woodland Cultures Conditions of Conquest Cultural Negotiations Threats to Survival: Columbian Exchange West Africa: Ancient and Complex Societies Europe on the Eve of Conquest Spanish Expansion The Strange Career of Christopher Columbus Spain in the Americas The Conquistadores: Faith and Greed From Plunder to Settlement The French Claim Canada The English Take up the Challenge Birth of English Protestantism Religion, War, and Nationalism Conclusion: Campaign to Sell America

INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Peter Porter AMERICAN STORIES. A History of the United States (Combined Volume)SECOND EDITION

TOWARD DISCUSSION: THE “OTHER” It is argued that we make sense of important experiences by constructing stories that give them coherence and meaning. The unexpected meeting of Indians, Europeans, and Africans in the Western Hemisphere after 1492 was interpreted differently by each of the parties involved. The Europeans explained it as the triumph of Christianity and progress over ignorance and idolatry. But the European interpretation was only one of the ways in which the events of 1492 were understood. Indians and Africans constructed very different stories. Literary critics have recently turned their attention to the vast literature that accompanied the first contacts between Europeans and Indians in America. Two aspects of the stories told by both sides seem especially interesting. The first is the conscious construction of histories by the Spanish explorers and conquistadores to explain or justify actions that may not have been premeditated. Columbus, for example, was probably not as visionary before 1492 as he later believed himself to be. In the contract he made with Queen Isabella before starting out on his famous voyage, he seems to have expected that he would most likely find, not Asia, but islands like the Canaries and Azores. He may have expected to sail into the Ocean Sea, not across it. Similarly, the Spanish tale of the conquest of Mexico as a great Christian crusade probably disguises an original intention to establish peaceful trade. Ironically, the conquest narratives may make the Spanish seem more bloodthirsty in intention than they really were. The second interesting aspect of contact literature is how the Europeans, Indians, and Africans reacted to the “Other.” The concept of the “Other” derives mainly from structuralist theory, which argues that we shape the world through language by use of such polar opposites as “high and low,” “sacred and profane,” “raw and cooked,” “male and female.” One of the most potent of these pairs is “self and other.” It is argued that we construct a sense of self by differentiating ourselves from others, and that we construct a sense of otherness by differentiating others from ourselves. Since we usually impart values to the distinctions we make, the “Other” is never an equal. The “Other” is either vastly superior or grossly inferior, a god or a devil. Scholars working with such theories have produced interesting analyses of the First Contact period. Tzvetan Todorov, for example, argues that the Spanish victory over the Aztecs was more a triumph of language than of military technology. The Aztecs, in his opinion, used language primarily to communicate with the gods, with the result that their language, and the mental universe formed by language, was highly ritualistic, repetitive, and predictable. Europeans, on the other hand, used language in a more practical way to persuade and manipulate other humans. In their mental universe, the “Other” was unpredictable but manageable. Upon First Contact, the Aztecs were dumbfounded by an “Other” they found impossible to explain. Montezuma begged the gods to tell him what to do as the Spanish approached, but the gods fell silent. Cortés, however, was able to make false promises, to disguise his intentions, to distort the truth, and even to make seemingly supernatural omens conform to his own intentions. The Spanish defeated the Aztecs because they were more adept at manipulating the signs and symbols that make up a system of communication.

The subject of the “Other” is especially interesting at a time when the possibility of contact with life beyond our planet is the subject of so much speculation. Students should be encouraged to make comparisons between 1492 and that unknowable time when we first encounter extraterrestrials. Much will depend upon whether we first meet a big-eyed, sad-faced ET or a slimy creature baring a full set of razor-sharp teeth, because we too, like the Europeans, Africans, and Indians of 1492, have already met our “Other.”

RELIVING THE PAST Columbus recorded his first encounter with the Taíno people on the island they called Guanahani when he first made landfall in the Western Hemisphere. This meeting of two worlds and two cultures proceeded rather peacefully but for a strange incident. Columbus took out his sword to show it to one of the natives who apparently thought he was being offered a gift. He took it and cut his hand. What did a Stone Age people think when they first saw the power of metal? And why had Columbus unsheathed his sword? See the translation of The Log of Christopher Columbus by Robert Fuson (Camden, Maine: International Marine Publishing Company, 1987). The log itself is fascinating, and Fuson fully discusses the controversy over which island in the Bahamas was the one the Indians called Guanahani and Columbus called San Salvador. One of the most dramatic encounters in American history was the meeting between Hernan Cortés and Montezuma. Both men behaved with solemn courtesy until Cortés attempted to embrace the emperor in the friendly Spanish abrazo. Montezuma’s bodyguards grabbed Cortés by the arm and stopped him, explaining that an embrace would greatly insult the emperor. That small episode epitomizes the difficulties Europeans and Indians had in cross-cultural communication (Bernal Diaz, The Conquest of New Spain. New York: Penguin Paperback, 1967).

CHAPTER SUMMARY DIVERSE CULTURES: DE VACA’S JOURNEY THROUGH NATIVE AMERICA The author views some of the first contacts between Europeans and Native Americans in terms of narratives. Each side brought preconceptions molded by their long histories into their contacts with other peoples, and each side was molded by contact with the other. The narrative of the voyages of Christopher Columbus, on the other hand, was told in terms of adventure. This one-sided story can be nuanced by considering contacts as creative adaptations to encompass the entire range of experiences on both sides.

NATIVE AMERICANS BEFORE THE CONQUEST America was first inhabited some twenty thousand years ago when small bands of nomadic Siberian hunters chased large mammals across the land bridge between Asia and America. During this long migration, the people who became known as the American Indians stopped carrying several diseases, such as smallpox and measles their children thus lost the immunities that would have protected them against such diseases.

WHAT explains cultural differences among Native American groups before European conquest? Twenty thousand years ago, Paleo-Indians crossed into North America from Asia. During the migrations, they divided into distinct groups, often speaking different languages. The Agricultural Revolution sparked population growth, allowing some groups, such as the Aztecs, to establish complex societies. The Eastern Woodland Indians, who lived along the Atlantic coast, had just begun to practice agriculture when the Europeans arrived. The Environmental Challenge: Food, Climate, and Culture: During the thousands of years before the arrival of the Europeans, the continents of North and South America experienced tremendous geologic and climate changes. As the weather warmed, the great mammals died off, and the Indians who hunted them turned increasingly to growing crops, bringing about an Agricultural Revolution. View the Map Pre-Columbian Societies of the Americas on myhistorylab.com Aztec Dominance: In Central America, the Aztecs settled in the fertile valley of Mexico and conquered a large and powerful empire, which they ruled through fear and force. Eastern Woodland Cultures: Elsewhere, along the Atlantic coast of North America, for example, Native Americans lived in smaller bands and supplemented agriculture with hunting and gathering. In some cases, women owned the farming fields, and men the hunting grounds. CONDITIONS OF CONQUEST The arrival of Europeans profoundly affected Native Americans, who could be said to have entered a new world.

HOW did Europeans and Native Americans interact during the period of first contact? Native Americans initially welcomed the opportunity to trade with the Europeans. The newcomers insisted on “civilizing” the Indians. Neither Christianity nor European-style education held much appeal for Native Americans, and they resisted efforts to transform their cultures. Contagious Old World diseases, such as smallpox, decimated the Indians, leaving them vulnerable to many forms of cultural imperialism. Thomas Hariot, The Algonquian Peoples on Read the Document myhistorylab.com

Cultural Negotiations: Native Americans were not passive in their dealings with the Europeans. They eagerly traded for products that made life easier, but they did not accept the notion that Europeans were in any way culturally superior, and most efforts by the Europeans to convert or “civilize” the Indians failed. Threats to Survival: Columbian Exchange: Wherever Indians and Europeans came into contact, they exchanged ideas, goods, crops, technologies, and so on. Part of this “Columbian Exchange” included the transmission of diseases, like smallpox and measles. As a result, the Indian population declined rapidly. For example, the Arawak population in Santo Domingo fell from almost 4 million before the arrival of Columbus to just 125 in 1570. An entire way of life disappeared. View the Map Native American Population Loss, 1500–1700 on myhistorylab.com WEST AFRICA: ANCIENT AND COMPLEX SOCIETIES Contrary to ill-informed opinion, sub-Saharan West Africa was never an isolated part of the world where only simple societies developed. As elsewhere, West Africa had seen the rise and fall of empires, such as Ghana or Dahomey. West Africa had also been heavily influenced by the coming of Islam. The arrival of Europeans was just the latest of many foreign influences that helped shape African culture. The Portuguese came first, pioneering the sea lanes from Europe to sub-Saharan Africa in the fifteenth century. They found profit in gold and slaves, supplied willingly by native rulers who sold their prisoners of war. The Atlantic slave trade began taking about 1,000 persons each year from Africa, but the volume steadily increased. In the eighteenth century, an estimated five and one-half million were taken away. Altogether, Africa lost almost eleven million of her children to the Atlantic slave trade. Before 1831, more Africans than Europeans came to the Americas.

WHAT was the character of the West African societies that European traders first encountered? West Africans had learned of Islam long before European traders arrived looking for slaves. The earliest Europeans encountered powerful local rulers who knew how to profit from commercial exchange. Slaves who had been captured in distant wars were taken to so-called slave factories where they were sold to Europeans and then shipped to the New World. Ghana and Its People in the Eleventh Century on Read the Document myhistorylab.com EUROPE ON THE EVE OF CONQUEST The Vikings discovered America before Columbus, but European colonization of the New World began only after 1492 because only then were the preconditions for successful overseas settlement attained. These conditions were the rise of nation-states and the spread of the new technologies and old knowledge.

What factors explain Spain’s central role in New World exploration and colonization? The unification of Spain under Ferdinand and Isabella, and the experience of the Reconquista, provided Spain with advantages in its later conquest of the New World. The Spanish Crown supported the explorations of Christopher Columbus, who thought he had discovered a new route to Asia. His voyages gave the Spanish a head start in claiming American lands. Spanish Expansion: Spain first vied as a world power after unification in the 1400s. The united kingdoms took on new life and prosecuted the Reconquista more fiercely than ever. Militantly Catholic, the Spanish crown pushed the last Muslim state out in 1492, forcing both Muslims and Jews to flee. The conquistadores took this religious war overseas. The Canary Islands were the first overseas possessions taken by the Spanish. The Strange Career of Christopher Columbus: Of Genoese origin, Christopher Columbus helped Spain to capture its American lands. Columbus went first to the Portuguese, but they pursued their goal of reaching the East by rounding the southern tip of Africa. He was more successful in petition the Spanish monarchs and was supplied with a fleet to sail to Cathay in August 1492. Miscalculating the distance required to reach Asia, Columbus sailed west across the Atlantic Ocean. He reached the Bahamas first, convinced that he had reached the East. In spite of three more voyages to the Americas, Columbus died in disgrace, ignorant of the fact that he had found a new continent. Amerigo Vespucci published a fictional account of his travels across the Atlantic and convinced Europeans that new lands had indeed been hit upon. His name was given to the Americas. Watch the Video How Should We Think of Columbus? on myhistorylab.com SPAIN IN THE AMERICAS Immediately after Columbus’s first voyage in 1492, Spain and Portugal quarreled over the hoped-for spoils from what they thought was Asia. The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divided the new lands along a line running from north to south through the Americas.

HOW did Spanish conquest of Central and South America transform Native American cultures? Spanish conquistadores conquered vast territories in the Caribbean, Mexico, and Central and South America during the sixteenth century. Catholic missionaries followed the conquistadors to convert the Indians to Christianity. Although the Spanish conquerors cruelly exploited the Indians as laborers, intermarriage between the groups soon led to the creation of a new culture blending Spanish and Indian elements. The Conquistadores: Faith and Greed: To expand Spain’s territories in the New World, the Crown commissioned independent adventurers (conquistadores) to subdue new lands. For God, glory, and gold they came. Within two decades they decimated the major Caribbean islands, where most of the Indians died from exploitation and disease. The Spaniards then moved onto the mainland and continued the work of conquest. Hernán Cortés went to Mexico in search of 6 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

legendary treasures. He came up against the Aztec emperor, Montezuma. Helped by tributary tribes, firearms and horses, and seen initially as a god, Cortés destroyed the Aztec Empire in 1521. An Early European Image of Native Americans on View the Closer Look myhistorylab.com From Plunder to Settlement: The Spanish crown kept her unruly subjects in America loyal by rewarding the conquistadores with large land grants—encomiendas—that contained entire villages of Indians. In spite of these grants, the Spanish crown tried to keep direct control over their American lands. The Catholic Church also became an integral part of the administrative system, and mitigated some of the damage done by the conquistadores. By 1650, about half a million Spaniards immigrated to the New World. Since most were unmarried males, they married Indian or African women and produced a mixed-blood population. Spain’s empire proved to be a mixed blessing. The great influx of gold and silver made Spain rich and powerful, but set off a massive inflation and the Spanish crown became dependent on bullion imports. Cruel Conquistadors Torturing Native Americans on View the Image myhistorylab.com THE FRENCH CLAIM CANADA French kings sent several expeditions to America. Jacques Cartier arrived in the Americas in 1534, and explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. The region was settled by Frenchman Samuel de Champlain, who founded Quebec in 1608. The French settlers saw cooperation with Native Americans as the best way to succeed. French coureurs de bois traveled deep into Canada searching for furs. This led Jacques Marquette and Sieur de la Salle down the Mississippi, ultimately reaching the Gulf of Mexico. French Catholics had fair success in converting Native Americans. The French empire however, was largely ignored by the French crown. The limited trading was easily controlled in Quebec, hindering economic growth. Jacques Cartier, First Contact with the Indians (1534) on Read the Document myhistorylab.com

WHAT was the character of the French empire in Canada? The French in Canada focused on building a trading empire rather than on settlement. The coureurs de bois and Catholic missionaries lived among the Indians and learned their languages and customs. French explorers followed the extensive river networks of North America and laid claim to vast stretches of land along the St. Lawrence and Mississippi Rivers. THE ENGLISH TAKE UP THE CHALLENGE When the Italian John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto), sailing for the English crossed the Atlantic in 1497, England won a claim to the Americas. However, this claim was not pursued until the late sixteenth century. The English crown, though growing in strength under Henry VII and his successors, was not in a position to undertake overseas ventures. An alliance between Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon in 1509 made English forays into what was perceived as the Spanish New World difficult.

WHY did England not participate in the early competition for New World colonies? During the early 1500s, religious turmoil occupied the full attention of England’s monarchs. After ascending the throne in 1558, Queen Elizabeth I ended internal religious struggle by establishing an English Church that was Protestant in doctrine but Catholic in ceremony. Under Elizabeth, English nationalism merged with anti-Catholicism in a campaign to challenge Spanish control of the Americas. Birth of English Protestantism: The Protestant Reformation turned England’s alliance with Spain into enmity. English Protestant zeal, strengthened by growing nationalism, made England a more notable European power. When Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church to achieve a divorce from his wife, anticlerical feelings in England led most of his subjects to countenance the split with Rome. In 1534, the Act of Supremacy made the English monarch head of the church and transformed rich church lands into crown lands. A negative consequence of the break with Rome, on the other hand, was sectarian division, which weakened the crown. The Catholic Mary became queen in 1553, bringing a tide of anti-Protestant persecutions. The succession of Elizabeth in 1558 brought a moderate course of compromise between Catholic and Protestant observance. Henry VII, Letters of Patent Granted to John Cabot on Read the Document myhistorylab.com Religion, War, and Nationalism: Protestantism and nationalism merged in England. Successful minor skirmishes against the Spanish—basically pirate raids—strengthened a growing patriotism. Annoyed by English ambitions, and the Protestant English queen, Philip II of Spain assembled the Spanish Armada to attack the English. In spite of its size, the Armada was easily overcome by the English fleet in 1588, and England emerged stronger than ever. Just before, in 1587, Sir Walter Raleigh had established the colony of Virginia. CONCLUSION: CAMPAIGN TO SELL AMERICA

Despite Ralegh’s failure, Richard Hakluyt kept English interest in America alive by tirelessly advertising the benefits of colonization. His book The Principall Navigations, Voyages and Discoveries of the English Nation subtly argued that England needed American colonies. He did not mention, however, that those English people who went to America would encounter other peoples with different dreams about what America should be. John White, Letter to Richard Hakluyt (1590) on Read the Document myhistorylab.com

KEY TERMS: 1. Twenty thousand years ago Earth’s climate was considerably colder than it is today. Huge glaciers extended as far south as the present states of Illinois and Ohio and covered broad sections of western Canada. Most of the world’s moisture was transformed into ice, and the oceans dropped hundreds of feet below their current levels. The receding waters created a land bridge connecting Asia and North America, a region now submerged beneath the Bering Sea that has been named Beringia. 2. The Agricultural Revolution helped liberate nomadic groups from the insecurities of hunting and gathering. During this period, Native Americans began to produce ceramics, a 8 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

valuable technology for the storage of grain. The vegetable harvest made possible the establishment of permanent villages, and as the food supply increased, Native American populations expanded, especially around urban centers. 3. The Eastern Woodland Cultures included Indians who lived on the Atlantic coast and supplemented farming with seasonal hunting and gathering. They organized diplomacy, trade, and war around reciprocal relationships that impressed Europeans as being extraordinarily egalitarian, even democratic. 4. Through the ecological transformation known as the Columbian Exchange, European conquerors exposed Native Americans to several new and fatal diseases. Some tribes suffered a 90 to 95 percent population loss within the first century of European contact. Beneficial effects included the exchange of plants and domestic animals between the two continents. 5. Sixteenth-century Spanish adventurers known as conquistadores, often of noble birth, subdued the Native Americans and created the Spanish empire in the New World. These men were eager for personal glory and material gain, uncompromising in matters of religion, and unswerving in their loyalty to the crown. 6. In 1494 the Treaty of Tordesillas between Spain and Portugal divided the entire world along a line located 270 leagues west of the Azores. Any new lands discovered west of the line belonged to Spain. The treaty failed to discourage future English, Dutch, and French adventurers from trying their luck in the New World. 7. The encomienda system rewarded Spanish conquistadores with control over Indian villages. The people who lived in the settlements (Native Americans) were forced to provide their labor in exchange for legal protection and religious guidance. 8. The figure known as the Virgin of Guadalupe is the result of a creative blending of Indian and European cultures, and it served as a powerful symbol of Mexican nationalism in the wars for independence fought against Spain almost three centuries later. 9. Frenchmen who followed Canada’s rivers to find fresh sources of furs were known as coureurs de bois. 10. With the coming of the Protestant Reformation, the English began to consider their former ally, Spain, to be the greatest threat to English aspirations. England became more and more a Protestant society, and the merger of English Protestantism and English nationalism affected all aspects of public life. The Reformation created a powerful sense of an English identity among all classes of people. 11. The failure of the Spanish Armada’s invasion meant that Spanish hopes for Catholic England were dashed completely.

ANSWERS TO QUICK CHECK QUESTIONS: 1. What was life like for the first humans living in North America and what role did Earth’s climate play in shaping their experiences? Global warming allowed the huntergatherers of Asia to cross into North America. Temperature change put many species at risk, while early humans finished off such animals as camels, mammoths, and horses. Many Native Americans combined agriculture with hunting, produced ceramics, and formed permanent villages. 2. What most impressed Spanish explorers about Aztec culture? Spanish explorers were most impressed with Aztec cities, which housed several hundred thousand people. 3. How was society structured among the Eastern Woodland Indians before the arrival of Europeans? Most of the Algonquian peoples that seventeenth-century English settlers encountered were matrilineal farm bands. The women owned the fields and houses, maintained tribal customs, and had a role in tribal government 4. Why did Europeans insist on trying to “civilize” the Indians? They wanted Native Americans to become more European by adopting their education, customs, and traditions. Of great importance was converting the Indians to Christianity. 5. What effect did the introduction of Old World diseases such as smallpox have on Native American societies and cultures? It decimated their numbers, especially those closer to the coast and within range of initial contact. As much as 90 to 95 percent of some tribes were wiped out and they found their culture unraveling under the strain. 6. Who were the conquistadores, and what were their motivations in the New World? The conquistadores were men who were eager for personal glory and material wealth. They were rigid in their religious beliefs and loyal to the crown. They were prepared to use fire and sword in any cause authorized by God or king. 7. What did educated Europeans believe about the shape and size of Earth prior to 1492? Educated Europeans of that time believed Earth was round; the problem lay in distance. Columbus and his supporters believed Earth’s circumference was only 3,000 nautical miles, but instead it was 10,600 nautical miles—a journey too long for the small ships of Columbus’s fleet. 8. How did Cortés and his small band of Spanish soldiers manage to conquer the Aztec empire? Cortés had a technological superiority, but it was the Aztec belief that the Spaniards were gods that gave him a psychological advantage as well. 9. Describe the character of Spanish-Indian relations following the conquest of Mexico. Indians were treated as laborers, sometimes slaves, who lived in villages. They provided labor tribute to encomenderos who were usually conquistadores given villages by the crown to keep them tied to the state. Their conditions were deplorable with only priests like Fra Bartolomé de las Casas to speak out on their behalf. 10 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

10. What was the impact of the Protestant Reformation on English politics? Henry VIII and Elizabeth I developed a strong central administration, while at the same time becoming increasingly more Protestant. England was propelled into a central role in European affairs by the merger of English nationalism and Protestantism. 11. How did Protestantism and English national identity become merged under Queen Elizabeth I? As each threat to England was put down, English nationalism grew and established deeper roots. The good Englishmen loved the queen, supported the Church of England, and hated Catholics, especially those from Spain. The Armada and other attempts to curb English expansion only helped the roots of English pride grow deeper.

CHAPTER 2 England’s New World Experiments, 1607–1732 CHAPTER OUTLINE Profit and Piety: Competing Visions for English Settlement Breaking Away: Decisions to Move to America The Chesapeake: Dreams of Wealth Entrepreneurs in Virginia Threat of Anarchy Tobacco Saves Virginia Time of Reckoning Maryland: A Catholic Refuge A “New” England in America The Puritan Migration to Massachusetts “A City on a Hill” Competing Truths in New England Mobility and Division Diversity in the Middle Colonies Anglo-Dutch Rivalry on the Hudson Confusion in New Jersey Quakers in America Penn’s “Holy Experiment” Planting the Southern Colonies Founding the Carolinas Founding of Georgia Conclusion: Living with Diversity

TOWARD DISCUSSION: FOLKWAYS College students are a well-traveled lot and have experienced for themselves some of the regional diversity that still characterizes the United States. When asked to describe such differences, they immediately mention sectional accents. Many students have also noticed regional differences in food, architecture, and what is vaguely referred to as “style.” Considering all the forces working to homogenize American culture, it is amazing that the United States still retains vestiges of cultural diversity that can be traced back to the colonial era. Early American historians have only recently begun to appreciate the astonishing variety of English cultures in the seventeenth century. England was a small island of little more than four million people in 1600, yet they lived in a series of subcultures that were often incomprehensible to one another. The basic division was between the heavily populated southeast and the still forested northwest, but differences between counties, or even between villages, were enormous. Only those who grew up in the vicinity, for example, would have understood that someone “stabbed with a Bridgeport dagger” had actually been hanged, the point being that Bridgeport produced excellent rope. Only local residents knew that a “Jack of Dover” was warmed-over food. Of greater interest are those English cultural traits that crossed the Atlantic. The high-pitched nasal twang of East Anglia migrated to Massachusetts Bay and became the “typical” Yankee New England accent. People in the west of England tended to speak in a soft drawl, drawing out their vowels until “I” sounded like “Ah.” It was possible in seventeenth-century Hampshire County to hear people say, “Ah be poorly,” meaning “I am ill.” That style of speech, it is assumed, laid the foundation for today’s “southern accent.” Students should be reminded that many of the immigrants called British had little in common with the people called English. Cornish was still a living language and ancient Gaelic ways of life held the allegiance of the people of Wales, Scotland and Ireland. Some historians today argue that it was the Celtic immigration that brought into America what is sometimes referred to as “Cracker culture.” If we further consider the large German immigration of the eighteenth century and the even larger influx of Africans, we can easily understand that English culture, varied as it was from the outset, would be transmuted into yet more varied regional subcultures in colonial America.

RELIVING THE PAST John Smith’s whole life was so filled with improbable adventures that some historians have written him off as a hopeless liar. In his Generall Historie of Virginia, printed in 1624, Smith described how he was captured by the Indians and rescued from imminent death by the Indian princess, Pocahontas (Book 3, Chapter II). It would be interesting to compare the story there with two earlier accounts covering the same period. There are striking discrepancies. Philip Barbour has edited The Complete Works of Captain John Smith (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1986), 3 volumes.

William Bradford described the departure of the Pilgrims from Holland and the last farewells exchanged between friends and relatives who knew they would never meet again. Bradford’s simple, graceful prose expresses the anguish that must have gripped the millions of Europeans for whom a better life in America was purchased and the heartbreak of those who stayed behind. The best edition of Bradford’s journal is the one edited by Samuel Eliot Morison, Of PIymouth Plantation (New York: Knopf, 1963).

CHAPTER SUMMARY PROFIT AND PIETY: COMPETING VISIONS FOR ENGLISH SETTLEMENT The early English colonies were characterized by diversity of goals and ideals. When the Virginia plantations came into conflict with Native Americans, the governor of Massachusetts failed to help. Thirty-one years later, in 1675, when the New Englanders came under attack, the governor of Virginia saw the attack as a deserved divine punishment and in his turn offered no help. The author uses the refusal of Massachusetts and Virginia to aid one another during times of crisis to illustrate the remarkable diversity that quickly characterized the different colonies. Although they were all English, they differed in religious practices, political institutions, and economic development. Differences rooted in conflicts in England were often increased in the colonies. BREAKING AWAY: DECISIONS TO MOVE TO AMERICA The English came to America for different reasons and with different backgrounds. Some wanted an opportunity to worship God in their own way; others wanted land. Some came in the early part of the century when England was relatively stable; others came at the end of the century after England had experienced a civil war. In America, the colonists had to adjust to different environments. The result was the development of different subcultures: the Chesapeake, New England, the Middle Colonies, and the Southern Colonies.

WHY did the Chesapeake colonies not prosper during the earliest years of settlement? In 1607, the Virginia Company established Jamestown as a profit-making venture. Early settlers relied on tobacco as a profitable cash crop. Sir George Calvert founded Maryland in 1634 as a sanctuary for Catholics. Both colonies depended on the labor of indentured servants, predominately single young men. Disease, oppression, and warfare contributed to social instability. The Chesapeake: Dreams of Wealth: After the disappearance of the Roanoke colony, there was little English interest in the Americas. Those who did advocate settlement viewed the Americas as a source of great natural resources. The English colonized the Chesapeake because they believed they could obtain instant profits. English anti-Spanish feeling also added a motivation, and prosecuting claims in North America would challenge Spanish ambitions. The Colonies to 1740 on myhistorylab.com View the Map 13 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

Entrepreneurs in Virginia: The great expense of colonization was solved in England with the joint-stock companies. These companies allowed pooling of wealth. The London Company, chartered in 1606, settled a colony at Jamestown in 1607 that met immediate disaster. The location in a swamp had been a mistake, but even worse was the failure of the colonists to work together for the common good. Mural of Jamestown Settlement on View the Image myhistorylab.com Threat of Anarchy: Captain John Smith, a tough professional soldier, saved the colonists by imposing order. The London Company helped, too, by reorganizing the government of the colony and by investing more money in the enterprise. A powerful Indian confederation under Powhatan, initially interested in alliance with the English, attacked the Virginia colony in 1622 and 1644. Jamestown was actually abandoned for a few days in 1610 and was saved only by the coincidental arrival of a new shipload of colonists. John Smith, “The Starving Time” on Read the Document myhistorylab.com Tobacco Saves Virginia: Tobacco had been growing as a common weed in the streets of Jamestown before John Rolfe recognized its value. He improved its quality and found a market for it in England. Finally, Virginians had discovered the way to wealth. The London Company, under Sir Edwin Sandys, encouraged large-scale immigration to Virginia by offering headrights, grants of land given to those who paid for the cost of immigration, and by giving the colonists a form of self-government in an elected body called the House of Burgesses. First House of Burgesses Meeting in Jamestown on View the Image myhistorylab.com Time of Reckoning: After 1619, a rush of immigrants arrived in Virginia; few, however, survived for long. Many found that promises made in England, especially indentures were often not honored. It was impossible to establish a normal family life because men outnumbered women by about six to one. The colony, therefore, could not count on a natural increase in its population. Disease and Indian attacks continued to take their toll, especially the sudden outbursts of violence in 1622 that almost wiped out the colony. Virginia remained a place to make a quick fortune and then leave before becoming one of the mortality statistics. The crown made Virginia a royal colony in 1624. The House of Burgesses continued to meet, and was recognized in 1639. Wessell Webling, His Indenture (1622) on Read the Document myhistorylab.com Maryland: A Catholic Refuge: The founding of Maryland resulted from the efforts of George Calvert to find a place of refuge for his fellow English Catholics. After his death, his son, Cecilius (Lord Baltimore), received a charter to settle Maryland in 1632. He expected that he would govern the colony along with a few of his wealthy Catholic friends, but he knew that most of the immigrants who would come from England would be Protestant. He therefore issued a law requiring Christians to tolerate one another. Lord Baltimore failed to create the society he wanted. His wealthy friends were unwilling to relocate to America, and the common settlers in Maryland demanded a greater voice in the government. Above all, religious intolerance wrecked Baltimore’s plans. Protestants refused to tolerate Catholics, and the Protestants were strong enough to rise up in arms and seize control of the colony in 1655. Maryland’s early history 14 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

differed from Virginia’s, but aggressive individualism, an absence of public spirit, and an economy based on tobacco characterized both colonies. George Alsop from “A Character of the Province of Maryland” on Read the Document myhistorylab.com A “NEW” ENGLAND IN AMERICA The legend of the Puritans who came to settle New England is mostly fiction built around a core of solid history. Separatists from Scrooby, England, they were forced abroad by their refusal to attend Anglican services. The Netherlands offered the group a home, but fear of assimilation into Dutch culture drove some of the Scrooby group to sail to America. With limited funds, they negotiated a land patent with the Virginia Company, and found backers. Their ship, the Mayflower, set sail in 1620. Arriving in New England instead of Virginia as planned, with division threatening, 41 of the passengers signed the Mayflower Compact. The new Plymouth settlement was immediately faced with starvation and debt. They were assisted by Squanto and Massasoit, two Native Americans that taught the colonists how to survive in their new surroundings. Mayflower Replica Plymouth, Massachusetts on Read the Document myhistorylab.com

WHAT role did differences in religion play in the founding of the New England colonies? Religious persecution drove thousands of Puritans to New England. John Winthrop hoped the settlers would reform English Protestantism and create a “City on a Hill.” The Puritans did not welcome dissent. They exiled Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson to Rhode Island for their religious beliefs. Stable nuclear families and good health helped Puritans to avoid the social turmoil that plagued the Chesapeake colonies. The Puritan Migration to Massachusetts: The second colony planted in New England was Massachusetts Bay, the home of the Puritans. The Puritans often have been caricatured as neurotics and prudes; in fact, they were men and women committed to changing the major institution of their society. Unlike the Separatists, the Puritans wished to remain within the Church of England, but they wanted the Church to give up all remaining vestiges of her Roman Catholic past. Puritans were also intensely nationalistic and desired a foreign policy that would align England with the Protestant states of Europe. They hoped to accomplish their goals by working within the system, but when King Charles I decided to rule the country without consulting with Parliament, the Puritans despaired. Some of them, led by John Winthrop, decided to establish a better society in America. The Massachusetts Bay Company was formed, and Charles, thinking the company no different from other joint-stock companies, granted it a charter in 1629. Ordinarily, the company should have kept its headquarters in England, where the king could supervise it, but the leaders of the Massachusetts Bay Company secretly agreed to bring the charter with them to America. Reasons for the Plantation in New England on Read the Document myhistorylab.com “A City on a Hill”: The Winthrop fleet established settlements around Boston in 1630. The first settlers were joined within a year by two thousand more, and the Bay Colony enjoyed a steady stream of immigration during its first decade: the “Great Migration.” Because the settlers 15 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

usually came as family units, because the area was generally healthy, and because most of the Puritan colonists were willing to sacrifice self-interest for the good of the community, Massachusetts Bay avoided the misery that had characterized colonization in the Chesapeake. Puritans proved to be pragmatic and inventive in creating social institutions. They had no intention of separating from the Church of England, but immediately dispensed with those features of the Church they found objectionable. The result was Congregationalism, a system that stressed simplicity and in which each congregation was independent. Puritans created a civil government that was neither democratic nor theocratic. A larger proportion of adult males could vote in Massachusetts Bay than in England because the only requirement for voting was a spiritual one. If a man was “born again” he became a “freeman,” or voter, whether he owned property or not. The rulers of the Bay Colony were not democratic in our sense, however; they did not believe that elected officials should concern themselves with the wishes of those who had elected them. On the local level, Puritans created almost completely autonomous towns, and it was on this level that most men participated in public life. Village life was intensely communal even though townships were commercial properties, shares of which could be bought and sold. John Winthrop, “A Model of Christian Charity” (1630) on Read the Document myhistorylab.com Competing Truths in New England: In order to protect individual rights and to clarify the responsibilities of citizenship, the General Court of Massachusetts Bay issued the Lawes and Liberties of 1648. This code of law marked the Puritans’ considerable progress in establishing a stable society. In the New World, the Puritans sought freedom of worship, but not for others. Not everyone was happy in Massachusetts Bay. The two most important dissidents were Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson. Williams, an extreme Separatist, condemned all civil states, even one governed by Puritans. He was expelled and settled in Rhode Island. Anne Hutchinson believed she was directly inspired by the Holy Spirit, and that once a person was “born again” he or she need not obey man-made laws (Antinomianism). Because of her religious ideas and because an assertive woman threatened patriarchal authority, she too was expelled and went to Rhode Island. Colonial Families, Adult and Child Reading on View the Image myhistorylab.com Mobility and Division: Massachusetts Bay spawned four other colonies: New Hampshire, New Haven, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. Of them, New Hampshire remained too small to be significant in the seventeenth century, and New Haven became part of Connecticut. Rhode Island received the Bay Colony’s outcasts (religious dissenters and Quakers for the most part), who continued to make as much trouble in Roger Williams’s colony as they had in John Winthrop’s. Connecticut, a well-populated colony that owed its first settlement to Thomas Hooker, duplicated the institutions and way of life of its mother colony. DIVERSITY IN THE MIDDLE COLONIES No section of the English empire was more diverse in its history, its ethnic and religious pluralism, or its political institutions than the Middle Colonies of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. These differences emerged from the very different goals that led to their settlement. Father Isaac Jogues’ Description of New York, 1640 on Read the Document myhistorylab.com 16 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

HOW did ethnic diversity shape the development of the Middle Colonies? After conquering the Dutch colony of New Netherland in 1664, the English renamed it New York. Despite the conquest, the Dutch remained an influential minority in the colony, and ethnic rivalries shaped the politics of New York for many decades. In 1681, Charles II granted William Penn, a Quaker, a charter for the establishment of Pennsylvania. Penn’s guarantee to respect all Christian settlers’ liberty of conscience drew immigrants from across Northern Europe. Anglo-Dutch Rivalry on the Hudson: The Dutch settled New York after the voyages of Henry Hudson. The colony became the property of the Dutch West Indies Company, which gave New York little attention and sent incompetent officials. New York was Dutch in little more than ownership. Few immigrants came from Holland, so the Dutch population remained small. Even so, it was polyglot. Finns, Swedes, Germans, and Africans made up sizable minorities in the colony, and these people felt no loyalty to the Dutch West Indies Company. When England sent a fleet to take New York in 1664, the colony fell without a shot being fired. New York became the personal property of James, Duke of York (later King James II). His colony included New Jersey, Delaware, and Maine, as well as various islands. James attempted to rule this vast domain without allowing its inhabitants a political voice beyond the local level. The Dutch retained their language, and their religion, seemingly indifferent to the change of government Confusion in New Jersey: James, the Duke of York, gifted two courtiers who had served his father in the English Civil War land in what is now New Jersey. Two proprietary claims emerged and East and West Jersey governments were formed. The Quakers who ran the West were so quarrelsome William Penn gave up on them. Eventually bankruptcy brought a remerger of the territory, but throughout all the turmoil James II never once showed a concern for New Jersey or her people. Quakers in America: Pennsylvania, the most important of the Middle Colonies, owed its settlement to the rise of a religious group, the Quakers, or Society of Friends, that was formed by George Fox in England in the 1650s. The Quakers lived a simple life, which included the principles of equality and pacifism. Their preaching raised antipathy in neighboring states, leading to imprisonment and even martyrdom. Penn’s “Holy Experiment”: William Penn, the son of an admiral and a wealthy aristocrat, converted to the Society of Friends and became one of their leaders. He used his contacts to obtain a charter for Pennsylvania, which he intended to settle as a “Holy Experiment”, a society run on Quaker principles. In 1682, Penn announced a plan of government for Pennsylvania that contained some traditional features and some advanced features. Nearly all of the political power would be held by men of great wealth, but an elaborate system was designed to protect the rights of those without political or economic power. The scheme, however, proved too complicated to work. Penn successfully recruited immigrants from England, Wales, Ireland, and Germany, and Pennsylvania grew rapidly in population. Many of these immigrants were not Quakers, however, and felt no sense of obligation to make the “Holy Experiment” work. Even the Quakers in Pennsylvania fought among themselves, and the people of Delaware, after Penn bought the colony from the Duke of York, preferred to rule themselves. Diversity typified

Pennsylvania’s emerging institutions. William Penn, “Model for Government” (1681) on Read the Document myhistorylab.com PLANTING THE SOUTHERN COLONIES The Carolinas differed so much from the Chesapeake Colonies that it would be wrong to speak of the existence of “the South” in the seventeenth century.

HOW was the founding of the Carolinas different from that of Georgia? Immigrants from Barbados began settling in the Carolinas in the 1670s. Barbadian immigrants to the Carolinas, many of whom were wealthy planters seeking new lands for plantations, brought slavery with them when they moved. Georgia was founded in 1732 as an alternative to debtors’ prison for impoverished Englishmen and as a military outpost to guard against the Spanish in Florida. Founding the Carolinas: King Charles II granted Carolina in 1663 to eight friends and political allies who expected to sit back and collect rents as the colony filled up. Unfortunately for them, nobody went to Carolina. One of the colony’s proprietors, Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper (the Earl of Shaftesbury), realized that a more active search for immigrants had to be made. He and John Locke, the famous philosopher, concocted a plan of government that would have given most power to a hereditary elite while at the same time protecting the rights of the small landowners. He also encouraged planters in Barbados, who were being crowded off the island, to take up land in Carolina. Cooper was somewhat successful. A string of settlements grew up around Charleston, but Cooper’s plan of government failed. The Barbadians, who dominated early Carolina, wanted as much selfgovernment as they had enjoyed in Barbados. The Barbadians, in turn, were opposed by French Huguenot settlers, who felt loyal to the proprietors. Carolina became a colony in turmoil. In 1729, the Crown took over Carolina and divided it into two colonies: North and South Carolina. Founding of Georgia: Arising from antagonism between Britain and Spain, Georgia was founded in 1732 as a buffer to safeguard the Carolinas from Spanish claims. Although conceived by James Oglethorpe as a refuge for persons imprisoned for debt in England, Georgia attracted few immigrants. Arguing that they could not farm without unfree workers, the settlers won the right to import slaves. By 1751, it had become a small slave colony, much like South Carolina. CONCLUSION: LIVING WITH DIVERSITY All of the colonies struggled for survival in their first phase, but as they developed, distinct regional differences intensified and persisted throughout the colonial period and even during the struggle for independence. Nevertheless, the colonists eventually developed a distinct identity, a phenomenon that historians have to explain.

KEY TERMS: 1. The joint-stock company allowed people to invest without fear of bankruptcy. A merchant or landowner could purchase a share of stock at a stated price, and at the end of several years the investor could anticipate recovering the initial amount plus a portion of whatever profits the company made. With many people investing in companies, some projects, such as the launching of a new colony in Virginia, were possible. 2. The House of Burgesses was the first elective representative assembly in colonial Virginia, and its creation was thought to make the colony more attractive to wealthy speculators. 3. A headright, a 50-acre lot for which a low rent was collected, was guaranteed to colonists who paid their own way to the colonies. Powerful Virginians corrupted the system. Headrights were awarded not to the newly freed servant but to the great planter who had borne the cost of the servant’s transportation to the New World and paid for the food and clothing during the indenture. And even though indentured servants were promised land at the moment of freedom, they were most often cheated. 4. An indentured servant agreed to serve a master for a prescribed period of time in exchange for passage across the Atlantic. Most of these emigrants were single males who came across in their teens or early twenties and were critical to the early colonies’ development. 5. An agreement among the Pilgrims to create a civil government at Plymouth Colony, the Mayflower Compact helped to preserve a struggling community. Because they had arrived in New England and did not have the authority to form a civil government in the region, there was a threat of mutiny. 6. Products of the Protestant Reformation, Puritans accepted a Calvinist notion that an omnipotent God predestined some people to salvation and damned others throughout eternity. They tried to live every day according to Scripture with the hope that they would be among God’s “elect.” 7. A large percentage of those Puritans participating in the “Great Migration” originated in an area northeast of London called East Anglia. London, Kent, and the West Country also contributed to the stream of emigrants. Large numbers came from industrial centers, such as Norwich. By the early 1640s, more than 16,000 men and women had arrived in Massachusetts Bay. 8. Antinomianism counters everything that the Puritans believed with regard to religion, and the Puritans were not supporters of religious toleration. Antinomianism rejects moral law and affirms that an individual could experience divine revelation and salvation without the assistance of formally trained clergy. 9. Unlike the Puritans, the Quakers rejected formal theology and stressed each person’s “Inner Light,” a spiritual guide to righteousness.

ANSWERS TO QUICK CHECK QUESTIONS: 1. Why did some people continue to advocate colonies in the New World? They believed that the North American mainland contained resources of incalculable value. It was argued that a resourceful group might reap great profits while providing England with raw materials it would otherwise be forced to purchase from rivals like the Dutch. 2. Why did Jamestown come so close to failing in its early years? The low-lying ground chosen for the site of the colony was actually a disease-ridden death trap. Although it seemed the ideal location to build a fort, it was mosquito infested and the available water was contaminated with salt. 3. Why did the first Virginia settlers not cooperate for the common good? Members of the council in Jamestown debated petty politics. It was not until John Smith instituted tough military discipline without showing special privilege to anyone that things turned around for the colony. 4. In what sense did tobacco save the Chesapeake colonies? John Rolfe’s discovery produced a crop appealing to Europeans in that it was easy to grow and it made money. Colonists who had once avoided work threw themselves into its cultivation. 5. What explains the extraordinary death rate in early Virginia? The horrendous mismanagement of the colony combined with dangerous conditions contributed to high death rates. Rampant contagious diseases, salt in the water, and massacres such as the Good Friday Powhatan massacre in 1622 all contributed to a sense of impermanence among the surviving colonists. 6. What motives led Lord Baltimore to establish the colony of Maryland? Lord Baltimore wanted to create a sanctuary for England’s persecuted Catholics; he also wanted to make money. 7. Why did the Puritans choose to leave England? The Puritans became convinced that the Church of England and the vices of the rest of the country could no longer be reformed from within. They believed “God will bring some heavy affliction upon this land,” as John Winthrop put it, but God would have somewhere safe set aside for those like Winthrop. 8. What did the founders of Massachusetts mean when they referred to their colony as a “City on a Hill”? The first settlers drew strength from the idea of creating an Old Testament “City on a Hill” that would stand as a beacon of righteousness to the rest of the Christian world. They were expected to live according to Scripture and reform the Church. If they did this, they could expect to live in peace and prosperity. 9. In what ways did Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson pose a threat to the Massachusetts Bay Colony? In both cases Williams and Hutchinson challenged not just the religious authority of leaders but their political authority as well. Williams challenged the validity of the colony’s charter because the land was not purchased from the Indians. Hutchinson’s heresy went even further, stating that it could not be tested by Scripture. Her accusations coupled with the fact she was a woman made Hutchinson a danger to the very social fabric of the colony. 10. What religious and economic factors led to the settlement of other New England colonies beyond Massachusetts Bay? Rhode Island maintained a strong independent streak, while Connecticut followed a religious path similar to Massachusetts Bay and prospered in the Connecticut valley. New Hampshire remained reliant on trade with the Bay Colony. 20 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

11. Why were the Dutch unable to establish a permanent colony in what became New York? New Netherland lacked individuals capable of leading a colony. The Dutch sent several director-generals to govern, but they invariably lined their pockets and ruled autocratically. One even stumbled into a war that killed great numbers of settlers and Indians. 12. What caused chaos during the settlement of New Jersey? Ownership of the colony was confused from the start. The Duke of York, future James II of England, gave land to Lords Carteret and Berkeley. However, before they had begun to give out land, the governor of the new colony had allowed farmers to move in and charged rents. Some colonists claimed the governor had authorized their assembly, while others claimed Berkeley and Carteret had the authority. Eventually the lands split into East Jersey and West Jersey, but when West Jersey went bankrupt, the king reunited the two sections into the single royal colony of New Jersey. 13. What explains Puritan hostility toward Quakers? Quakers as antinomianists saw no need for a learned ministry. They preached conversion constantly and believed everyone was equal. These views led to their persecution by English and Puritan authorities, which only increased the Quakers’ efforts. 14. How did the Quaker religion influence the development of Pennsylvania? Penn’s Quaker beliefs and need for money led him to establish a colony open to all peoples. Rights to worship, no taxation without representation, and due process of law appealed to many people throughout Europe. 15. How did the Barbadian background of the early settlers shape the economic development of the Carolinas? Before 1680 almost half the men coming into the Carolinas were from the island of Barbados. They moved inland and established plantations like they had in Barbados with slaves and thus established a planter elite class unlike any other English colony. They fought with the proprietors and Huguenot refugees who settled in the area as well. They went through multiple crops and products, like naval stores, before finally settling on rice. 16. Why did Georgia settlers object to the government imposed upon them by James Oglethorpe? Georgia’s early settlers objected to Oglethorpe’s original government because it forbid slavery, rum, and the acquiring of land in excess of 500 acres and allowed for only the eldest son to inherit. If a father died childless, the land reverted to the trustees.

BLUEPRINT FOR EMPIRE Until the 1660s the English Crown ignored the colonies. During the Restoration of the English monarchy, the king finally realized the profits to be made by regulating colonial trade. This section discusses the mercantile system in general and the Navigation Acts in particular.

WHY did England discourage free and open trade in colonial America? During the seventeenth century, Parliament passed a number of mercantilist laws declaring that the raw materials and commerce of their colonies would benefit only the mother country, and not a European rival. Parliament passed a series of seventeenth-century commercial regulations, representing England’s new blueprint for the empire. Response to Economic Competition: Mercantilism was the dominant economic ideology of the colonial period. Its leading tenet was that one nation’s gain must be another nation’s loss. Influential interest groups pressured the English government for protection, while the crown was primarily interested in revenue. Taken together, these forces provided a model for the first British Empire.

Regulating Colonial Trade: The Navigation Act of 1660 was the heart of England’s system of regulation. It restricted trade within the empire to English (including American) ships and enumerated certain cargo, such as tobacco, which could not be sold to foreigners until it had first landed at an English port. Another act, the Staple Act of 1663, required that most goods going to America had to come from or through England. The Dutch resented these laws, which spoiled their profitable intermediary position, and Holland fought three wars against England to force their abrogation. The Dutch failed, but New England merchants were more successful in violating the regulations or finding loopholes in them. The English government retaliated by passing even stricter regulations and by sending agents to the colonies to prosecute smugglers. The most important agent was Edward Randolph, who made himself obnoxious by sending damning reports about New England back to London. England’s imperial officials were hardly competent to regulate colonies so far away. Often one office did something that completely contradicted what another was trying to accomplish. Nevertheless, for every new problem, England passed more laws. The most important colonial agency was the Board of Trade, created in 1696. The Navigation Acts became effective over time, mainly because colonial merchants found it to their benefit to obey them. View the Map Colonial Products on myhistorylab.com COLONIAL POLITICAL REVOLTS The uniform legal system that Britain imposed on the colonies did not erase well-established differences. While in the past historians saw these rebellions as practice for the American Revolution, more recent research has cast them in a different light. Ideology played only a small role, and the rebellions were mainly factional, not between rulers and ruled.

HOW did colonial revolts affect the political culture of Virginia and New England? During Bacon’s Rebellion, landless freemen rose up against the governor and demanded Indian lands. Although the rebellion failed, it unified Virginia’s ruling elite. In 1684, James II restructured the Massachusetts Bay government to increase crown authority. New Englanders threw off the Dominion of New England in 1689 and negotiated for government charters that allowed significant local autonomy. Nathaniel Bacon’s Declaration (July 30, 1676) on Read the Document myhistorylab.com Civil War in Virginia: Bacon’s Rebellion: In the years after 1660, a long depression hit the Virginia economy. In 1676, Nathaniel Bacon, an Indian-hating recent immigrant, led a rebellion against the royal governor, William Berkeley. Berkeley had ordered a line of forts to defend the plantations against Indian attacks, but his plans could be construed as protecting his own interests. Bacon’s attack allowed small farmers, blacks and women to join together to demand reforms. The rebellion, however, collapsed after Bacon died. The gentry recovered their positions and in the eighteenth century became a united force in opposition to a series of royal governors. Declaration Against Nathaniel Bacon (1676) on Read the Document myhistorylab.com The Glorious Revolution in the Bay Colony: The Puritan sense of independence was challenged by the Navigation Acts. The Puritans found it hard to adjust to English regulations. Metacomet—also known as King Philip—joined with the Narragansett Indians in attacks on New England villages. The colony was left in debt and uncertain of its future. In 1684, King James II annulled the charter of Massachusetts Bay and incorporated the colonies stretching from Maine to New Jersey under a single governor, Sir Edmund Andros. In 1689, when news reached America that James II had been overthrown in England, a rebellion broke out in Boston and Andros was deposed. The new monarchs of England, William III and Mary, gave Massachusetts a charter that took the franchise away from “saints” and gave it to those with property. Contagion of Witchcraft: The crises of the late seventeenth century culminated in the Salem witchcraft panic. Although witches had been arrested and executed before 1691, large numbers were involved in this outbreak of hysteria. After the death of twenty victims, the panic subsided and a shocked community confessed its guilt. Woodcut of Witch Hangings on View the Image myhistorylab.com CONCLUSION: FOUNDATIONS OF AN ATLANTIC EMPIRE England’s attitude toward its North American colonies changed in the seventeenth century, and life in the New World changed in consequence. Yet English rule did not erase the deep regional differences that had developed before 1660. No sense of common cause among the colonies had yet emerged.

KEY TERMS: 1. Participation in village meetings, church-related matters, and militia training were all facets of life for the yeoman (independent) farmer. Possession of land gave agrarian families a sense of independence from external authority. 2. Indentured servants were freemen who signed contracts in which they sold their labor for a set number of years in exchange for passage from Europe. Unlike the gentry, indentured servants were never going to become great planters. Most indentured servants lived on the edge of poverty. 3. The Royal African Company was chartered to meet the colonial planters’ demands for black laborers. In other words, it was formed exclusively for the African slave trade. Between 1695 and 1709, more than 11,000 Africans were sold in Virginia alone. 4. Mercantilism is an economic policy that centers on the notion that if a nation controls the world’s resources, it will increase its wealth while simultaneously decreasing the wealth of other nations. Therefore, England would not allow its colonies to trade certain desirable resources to other nations. 5. Proponents argued that since trading nations were engaged in a fierce competition for the world’s resources—mostly for raw materials transported from dependent colonies—one nation’s commercial success translated directly into a loss for its rivals. They argued that trade tightly regulated by the central government represented the only way to increase the nation’s wealth at the expense of competitors. As stipulated by an act of Parliament in 1660, certain enumerated goods of great value that were not produced in England—tobacco, sugar, cotton, indigo, etc.—could be transported from the colonies only to an English or other colonial port. 6. The Navigation Acts attempted to eliminate the Dutch as the intermediaries of American commerce. In other words, the acts were designed to regulate colonial commerce in such a way as to favor England’s accumulation of wealth. 7. Governor Berkeley’s reaction in 1676 to Indian raids against outlying plantations sparked a revolt in Virginia. Bacon’s Rebellion could have been avoided, but when Berkeley refused to send troops and revealed plans to build a series of useless forts, Nathaniel Bacon led a rebellion. Even the planter elite recognized that Bacon and his soldiers, often poor white servants and black slaves, had legitimate grievances. The revolt was short as Bacon’s followers dispersed shortly after his untimely death due to illness. 8. The Dominion of New England incorporated Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Plymouth, New York, New Jersey, and New Hampshire under a single appointed royal governor, Sir Edmund Andros. Andros was tyrannical and immediately alienated everyone in the colonies. He enforced the Navigation Acts with rigor and he brought about commercial depression. He also declared normal town meetings illegal, collected taxes the people never approved, and packed the courts with supporters who detested the local population. For these reasons, the colonists overthrew the Dominion of New England. 9. In 1688 the ruling class of England deposed the Catholic king and placed his Protestant daughter Mary and her husband William on the throne. William and Mary accepted a Bill of Rights, stipulating the constitutional rights of all Englishmen. Upon hearing the news of this Glorious Revolution, the Bay colonists overthrew the Andros regime and jailed him immediately. 30 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

10. Because spectral evidence consists of reports of dreams and visions, clergymen considered this sort of testimony accepted by the courts regarding witchcraft to be dubious at best.

ANSWERS TO QUICK CHECK QUESTIONS: 1. How did families contribute to the social order in seventeenth-century New England? It was believed that God ordained the family for social benefit. Maintenance of the family ensured that men and women would not fall into carnal temptation. The social order would be unsettled because unmarried people had no one to remind them of Scripture. 2. What was life like for women in seventeenth-century New England? Women played subordinate yet prominent roles in the society. They earned the title “deputy husband” during this period, indicating their reliance upon their spouse but also their role in the decisionmaking process. Divorce was nearly impossible to get in pre-revolutionary New England. It was just as unlikely for women to own property. Women occupied a role between rich entrepreneur and slave, usually finding a middle ground in relations with their husband and their perceived role in the society. 3. What counted more in determining social status in early New England—piety or wealth? Both wealth and piety mattered in determining social status in New England. If one had wealth, but did not belong to the Congregational Church one could get nowhere. Yet, there were sumptuary laws to prevent those of lower income from presuming too much in their relations with the community. 4. How did the high mortality rates in the early Chesapeake colonies affect economic and family life? Economically the high mortality rate meant a shortage of labor, causing difficulties in agricultural production. More important were the social ramifications with families in a constant state of flux. Few marriages lasted longer than seven years, as one spouse would usually die after that. Children rarely knew their grandparents and sometimes did not even grow up with someone who was a blood relative. 5. Why did the great planters purchase so many indentured servants during this period? High mortality rates and the need for cheap labor on plantations led to a high rate of hiring contract labor. Conditions in the Chesapeake colonies were much harsher than in New England. Many workers died during the course of their labors. 6. Why did the slave population in British North America remain relatively small for most of the seventeenth century? Slavers sold their cargo in the Caribbean sugar isles where they could get a higher price than Virginians and other colonists could pay. Plantation owners showed no preference for indentured servants over slaves—it was simply a matter of supply. 7. How did African American slaves preserve cultural practices associated with west African societies? The size and density of the black population determined how successful and extensive black cultural identities were and how well they could be maintained. 8. Why did seventeenth-century English rulers support mercantilism? Supporting mercantilism benefited one country’s interests over another. So it made sense for the British to work against Dutch and French interests, as this would enhance their economic and 31 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

political power at the expense of the other nations. Mercantilism also benefited certain segments of the society, which then supported mercantilist policies even more. 9. How did the Navigation Acts establish the foundation for a commercial empire? The prohibition of Englishmen, including colonists, from trading with other nations strengthened the English merchant trade and brought in additional revenues to the crown. The acts, which forbade trading with any vessel not built in and staffed by a crew at least 75 percent English, hurt outside trade with nations like Holland. The list of enumerated goods included not only staples like rice but also tar, turpentine, indigo, and even molasses. 10. What were the underlying causes of Bacon’s Rebellion? Bacon’s Rebellion was triggered by the failure of the governor to provide protection for colonists whose farms and plantations were being attacked by Indians. The governor insisted, instead, that a series of forts be built to deter Indian attacks and protect the frontier. The colonists saw the forts as useless and just another way for the governor to reward his cronies with the contracts to build the useless forts. 11. Why did colonists overthrow the Dominion of New England in 1689? The Dominion of New England was deposed because of the tyrannical rule of Sir Edmund Andros. He made all assemblies illegal and strictly enforced the Navigation Acts, causing a commercial depression. The courts were packed with his supporters who detested the colonists and he collected taxes the people never agreed to. 12. Why were so many apparently innocent people convicted of witchcraft in Salem in 1691 to 1692? No one is sure why so many trials were held and people killed. The anarchy following the fall of the Andros regime certainly allowed a climate of instability to exist. Some older, poorer families accused newer, more commercially prosperous families of witchcraft. Discord had existed in the area for some time and the misogynistic nature of New England certainly further fueled the atmosphere.

CHAPTER 4 Experience of Empire: Eighteenth-Century America, 1680–1763 CHAPTER OUTLINE Constructing an Anglo-American Identity: The Journal of William Byrd Tensions in the Backcountry Scots-Irish Flee English Oppression Germans Search for a Better Life Native Americans Stake Out a Middle Ground Spanish Borderlands of the Eighteenth Century Conquering the Northern Frontier Peoples of the Spanish Borderlands The Impact of European Ideas on American Culture American Enlightenment Benjamin Franklin Economic Transformation Birth of a Consumer Society Religious Revivals in Provincial Societies The Great Awakening Evangelical Religion Clash of Political Cultures Governing the Colonies: The American Experience Colonial Assemblies Century of Imperial War The French Threat King George’s War and Its Aftermath Seven Years’ War Perceptions of War Conclusion: Rule Britannia?

TOWARD DISCUSSION: PROVINCIALS Modern American students will need help to understand the provincialism of colonial culture. American culture today, especially American popular culture, the one most familiar to your students, dominates the world. Pearl Jam is played as ardently in Naples as in Seattle. Michael Jordan is as much an icon in Tokyo as in Chicago. Madonna is as adored in Caracas as she is in Tampa. And O.J. Simpson is as notorious in Cairo as he is in Boston. It is true that most popular culture is created in only a few places, like New York and Los Angeles, but one of the characteristics of modern pop culture is that it happens where it is consumed, not where it is produced. Wherever the television set or shopping mall is, there is the vital center of popular culture. It was altogether different in eighteenth-century America. Nobody would have understood the concept of popular culture and what we call “folk art” was then considered inferior workmanship. In the eighteenth century, culture was “high” culture: art, architecture, literature, opera, or sacred music. The high culture of the American colonies in that era may be defined as provincial, but that word must be carefully defined. In the narrowest definition, a provincial is simply a person who lives in a province, and a province is just a district governed by a geographically remote capital, but the usual connotation of the word provincial is that of a person unaware of living out of the cultural mainstream and therefore ignorantly proud of the second-rate culture of his or her vicinity. In European literature, the provincial is always smug and boorish. The colonial American could not have been provincial in that sense. There was too much moving around and too many people constantly arriving from foreign places. Americans in the eighteenth century did not value multiculturalism, but they had to adjust to reality. Ben Franklin, for example, normally a reasonable and tolerant man, proposed restrictions on German immigration to Pennsylvania because Germans were not “White.” Nevertheless, Franklin learned to speak German. There is a less familiar connotation of the word provincial, and it is this one that better describes colonial culture. In this sense, provincials are those so in awe of the culture of the capital that they scorn everything local and slavishly buy or copy whatever is produced in the metropolis. The feeling of being culturally displaced may have existed at all levels of colonial society. Africans taken by force across the Atlantic dreamed still of the blessed lands in Africa to which they would return in the afterlife. German and Scottish immigrants looked to Heidelberg and Edinburgh for cultural inspiration, not to Boston or Philadelphia. It is, however, among the English-Americans, and especially among the wealthiest, the most prestigious and most articulate, that we can best document the provincialism of colonial America. Mrs. Jonathan Edwards, for example, glued black silk patches all over her face before going to church to hear her husband describe with vivid relish the terrors of Hell. She wore face patches because fashionable English women in the mid-eighteenth century wore them. George Washington, before he became a rebel, had his clothes made by a tailor in Old Fish Street in London. The clothes did not fit well, Washington admitted, but they were “genteel” because they were made in England. Every American male with a shilling’s worth of prestige in the 34 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

eighteenth century wore a wig only because the better sort of Englishmen wore wigs. Every colonial who could hire an architect had a house built in the Georgian style already becoming outmoded in England. When aspiring Americans sought to improve their writing style, they copied the essays of Addison and Steele. When deep-thinking colonials wished to ponder philosophic questions, they began, and usually ended, with John Locke or George Berkeley. When less ponderous but equally earnest Americans wanted to examine moral questions in a dramatic setting, they read novels, most notably Pamela by Samuel Richardson. Provincial Americans combined their love for everything English with an often expressed contempt for their own society. Samuel Johnson, who taught at Yale around 1720, remembered that “the condition of learning in Connecticut (as well as everything else) was very low.” Cadwallader Colden, a prominent figure in New York City society, lamented that “few men here have any kind of literature.” John Singleton Copley complained that there was not a single painting in Boston “worthy to be called a picture.” William Byrd II, one of the richest, best educated of the Virginian planters, sent his daughter to be educated in England because he feared that her character would be corrupted by the savagery of Virginian society. Thomas Jefferson described the state of music in eighteenth-century America as one of “deplorable barbarism.” This contempt for American culture resulted in a brain drain from the colonies. Benjamin West, the best painter born in the colonies before the Revolution, is the prime example, but people like Franklin, Washington and Jonathan Edwards tried, at some time in their lives, to move permanently from America to Great Britain. American provincialism is long gone. Just ask your students if they are impressed by an English university accent. Political independence did not at once result in cultural independence, but new nationhood produced people like Emerson who nudged Americans into trusting their own modes of thought, their own styles of dress, their own accents and their own artifacts. Today, we Americans, heirs to a successful political and cultural revolution, expect others to imitate us.

RELIVING THE PAST One of the most interesting encounters in history occurred when Ben Franklin went to hear George Whitefield preach in November 1739. Here the Enlightenment came face to face with the Awakening, and Reason met Piety. Franklin’s description of Whitefield’s power as a preacher in his Autobiography is amusing, but one must remember that Franklin intended his autobiography to be published. In anonymous newspaper articles, Franklin described Whitefield as a crook who was stealing funds from an orphanage. One should keep this in mind when reading Franklin’s description of Whitefield in the Autobiography. This work is available in many good editions, but the most elaborate is that edited by J. A. Leo Lemay and P. M. Zall, The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin: A Generic Text (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1981). George Washington made his first appearance on the historical stage in the period covered by this chapter. It is interesting to see him as a young officer describing his defeat by the French at Fort Necessity and telling his brother that there was something “charming” in the sound of bullets whizzing past his head. King George II is supposed to have remarked that Washington could not have heard many bullets. Washington’s account of the battle can be found in the Papers of George Washington edited by W.W. Abbot, Dorothy Twohig and others, published 35 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

by the University Press of Virginia. The incident described above is in the Colonial Series, volume.

CHAPTER SUMMARY CONSTRUCTING AN ANGLO-AMERICAN IDENTITY: THE JOURNAL OF WILLIAM BYRD The author uses the journal kept by the wealthy Virginian, William Byrd, during his tour of the “backcountry” to illustrate such key developments discussed in this chapter as the amazing growth in population, the continued diversity of cultures, the tendency toward accepting English norms, and the growing sense of an American identity. Byrd’s account gives an image of the backcountry that is quite different from that implied by period maps. Areas indicated as empty were in fact populated. Moreover, contacts between colonial Americans and England were increasing in this period. This nuances a more simplistic view of Americans growing apart from the mother country. TENSIONS IN THE BACKCOUNTRY Although population estimates before the first census in 1790 are problematic, between 1700 and 1750, the population of the colonies increased from 250,000 to over two million. Much of it was through natural increase and also through the immigration of non-English Europeans. The population not only grew but also changed, becoming more diverse and dispersed. Many of these new immigrants moved into the “backcountry,” an 800-mile fringe of territory west of the seaboard, populated by Native Americans.

WHAT difficulties did Native Americans face in maintaining their cultural independence on the frontier? Britain’s American colonies experienced extraordinary population and economic growth during the eighteenth century. German and Scots-Irish migrants poured into the backcountry, where they clashed with Native Americans. The Indians successfully played off French and British imperial ambitions in the “middle ground” but disease and encroachment by ordinary European settlers undermined the Indians’ ability to resist. Scots-Irish Flee English Oppression: The Scots, many who had been “planted” by the English in Northern Ireland, concentrated on the Pennsylvania frontier and filled the Shenandoah Valley. They were initially welcomed as a buffer between older European settlements and Native Americans, but their tendency to take whatever land they wanted and to challenge authority made them troublesome to the Penns. Germans Search for a Better Life: Many Germans came to North America in search of religious toleration. Among these were the Mennonites. By the mid-1700s, however, Lutheran immigrants were more numerous and more inclined to be looking for more material considerations. German immigrants—called Pennsylvania Dutch—made up of over one-third of the Pennsylvania population by 1766. The Germans and Scots-Irish moved on after 1740 into the Shenandoah Valley. Both groups often moved beyond the range of governments, and religious 36 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

identity came to figure largely in their communities. Peter Kalm, a Swedish Visitor to Philadelphia 1748 on Read the Document myhistorylab.com Native Americans Stake Out a Middle Ground: The immigration of non-English people added to the diversity of American society, but so did Native Americans who had survived conquest and disease. Many Indians moved into the trans-Appalachian region, a “middle ground” where no colonial power was yet established, and where Indians could play Europeans against one another. In this middle ground, remnants of different Indian peoples regrouped and formed new nations that successfully interacted with each other and with Europeans. Their interactions with Europeans varied and evolved. In time, however, the lure of European goods encouraged Indians to deal individually with traders, thus weakening collective resistance to European aggression. The continued existence of the Native Americans in the “middle ground” was subject to changes in relations between France and England and, of course, to white diseases. William Penn Making a Treaty with theIndians 1682 on View the Image myhistorylab.com SPANISH BORDERLANDS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY The influence of Spanish colonization was felt far beyond the borders of its empire. Although they maintained the northern border with difficulty, their presence left a lasting effect.

WHY was the Spanish empire unable to control its northern frontier? During the late 1600s and early 1700s, the Spanish empire steadily expanded its authority north of Mexico. New Spanish settlements were established in the Southwest and California. Although the Spanish constructed missions and forts, a lack of settlers and troops made it impossible for them to impose effective imperial authority and much of the territory they claimed remained under the control of Indian peoples. Conquering the Northern Frontier: Lands north of the Rio Grande were claimed for Spain by Juan de Oñate, although the area was temporarily lost for a decade. In the Southeast, French pressure led the Spanish to settle St. Augustine in 1565. Although California was not of great concern to Spanish ambitions, Fra Junípero Serra and Don Gaspar de Portolá established missions and presidios along the coast. Testimony of PedroNaranjo to Spanish Authorities on Read the Document myhistorylab.com Peoples of the Spanish Borderlands: Spanish colonies grew slowly Those Indians who agreed to live under Spanish rule suffered economic discrimination but not racial segregation. Although the northern border was only weakly held, the cultural impact in the southern United States was deep. The Alamo on myhistorylab.com View the Image

THE IMPACT OF EUROPEAN IDEAS ON AMERICAN CULTURE The established British colonies changed at almost the same pace as communities in the backcountry, impressing contemporaries with a sense of growing opportunities.

HOW did European ideas affect eighteenth-century American life? During the Enlightenment, educated Europeans and American colonists, like Benjamin Franklin, brought scientific reason to the study of religion, nature, and society. By midcentury, economic growth sparked a consumer revolution that introduced colonists to an unprecedented array of imported manufactured items. New ideas and new goods helped integrate the American colonies into mainstream British culture. American Enlightenment: The 1700s in Europe are called the Age of Reason, or the Enlightenment, and produced profound changes in perceptions of the natural world, and man’s place in it. Unlike the European Enlightenment, the colonial American version was less radical. Science was esteemed, but mainly because of its practical uses, and only if it did not threaten religious ideas. Benjamin Franklin: Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) epitomized American Enlightenment thinking. Enraptured as a boy by British literature, Franklin became a writer himself, offering practical advice in a witty way. Uninterested in religion, he dedicated himself to reason and science, always with the practical use of scientific theory in mind. Franklin promoted the formation of learned societies, which became important in spreading learning in the colonies. Franklin, Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind on Read the Document myhistorylab.com Economic Transformation: America’s prosperity created a rising demand for English and West Indian goods. The colonists paid for their imports by exporting tobacco, wheat, and rice and by purchasing on credit. In addition to the laws described in Chapter 3, England restricted colonial manufacture or trade of timber, sugar, hats, and iron, though the laws were not strictly enforced. British demands for American goods increased throughout the century. The Connecticut Peddler on Listen to the Audio File myhistorylab.com Birth of a Consumer Society: As England entered the Industrial Revolution and began to massproduce items of everyday use, American industry lagged behind and was even retarded. American imports of English goods rose, and wealthy Americans began to build up large debts to English merchants. Americans also traded extensively with the West Indies and with each other. These trades usually earned a surplus and enabled the colonists to pay for English imports. Intercolonial commerce also gave Americans a chance to learn about one another. RELIGIOUS REVIVALS IN PROVINCIAL SOCIETIES The Great Awakening, a series of religious revivals, occurred at different places at different times. These revivals, like the one led by Jonathan Edwards at Northampton, Massachusetts, encouraged the “awakened” to question many aspects of their church and their institutions.

HOW did the Great Awakening transform the religious culture of colonial America? The Great Awakening brought a new form of evangelical religion to ordinary colonial Americans. It emphasized personal salvation through a “new birth” and membership in a large community of believers. Itinerant preachers, such as George Whitefield, drew huge crowds throughout the colonies. Other ministers followed Whitefield, inviting ordinary Americans to question traditional religious authorities. Benjamin Franklin on George Whitefield (1771) on Read the Document myhistorylab.com The Great Awakening: It appears that the first part of the 1700s were an optimal time for religious revival. Jonathan Edwards, beginning in Northampton, Massachusetts, initiated the Great Awakening, emphasizing predestination. George Whitefield, an itinerant minister from England, made revivalism a mass movement. Using his abilities as an orator, Whitefield preached outdoor sermons to thousands of people in nearly every colony. Whitefield and his many imitators urged congregations to desert unconverted ministers, thereby disrupting established churches. He used the press to spread his message, frequently using newspaper ads. Jonathan Edwards, “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” on Read the Document myhistorylab.com Evangelical Religion: Itinerant preachers were inspired by Whitefield. Their followers were often called “New Lights.” They were seen as a threat to other ministers who doubted their methods as well as their message. The New Lights laid the foundations of Princeton, Dartmouth, Brown, and Rutgers. Laypeople, including women and blacks, finally had a chance to shape their own religious institutions. The Awakening thus promoted a democratic, evangelical union of national extent before there was an American political nation. In addition, most of the revivalists had optimistic attitudes toward America’s religious role in world history, thus fostering American patriotism and preparing for the development of a revolutionary mentality. Richard Allen Portrait on View the Image myhistorylab.com CLASH OF POLITICAL CULTURES Politically, tensions grew in the British colonies. Respect for English political institutions led colonists to wish to reproduce them, even as they became aware that they differed significantly from the British The colonials tried to copy British political institutions, but in doing so, discovered how different they were from the English people.

WHY were the eighteenth century colonial assemblies not fully democratic? Most eighteenth-century colonial governments contained three parts: a royal governor, an appointed governor’s council, and an elected assembly. Although these representative assemblies did not allow women, blacks, or the poor to vote, they did enfranchise a significant percentage of the white adult male population. Assemblies jealously guarded their privileges and powers, often coming into conflict with royal governors who attempted to expand their own authority.

Governing the Colonies: The American Experience: Americans liked to think that their colonial governments were replicas of Parliament, but they were not. Royal governors, as a rule, were incompetent political hacks who could not have governed the colonies even if they had taken an interest. They were so bound by instructions from England and had so little patronage with which to buy votes that they were, in effect, given the task of ruling as despots without having the power to force their will on the colonists. The colonial assemblies bore no resemblance to the House of Commons. Most white males could vote in America, so elected officials knew they could not do something too unpopular without suffering at the polls. In spite of being only democratic in a limited sense, the assemblies were always subject to the will of their constituents. Colonial Assemblies: The protection of colonial liberties ranked high on the agenda of the colonial assemblies. The 1700s were a period of great growth in their power and abilities. The assemblies were not bound to cooperate with royal governors. America’s ties with the mother country became closer in the eighteenth century, especially in the law courts, where English usage became more common. Americans grew increasingly aware that they shared similar political ideas, institutions, and problems with England and with each other. CENTURY OF IMPERIAL WAR In the eighteenth century the colonies participated in four major imperial wars that pitted England against France. This section shows how the wars led to greater intercolonial association and cooperation.

WHY did colonial Americans support Great Britain’s wars against France? France and Great Britain waged almost constant war in North America. By 1750, Britain’s American colonists believed that the French in Canada planned to encircle their settlements, cutting them off from the rich lands of the Ohio Valley. The Seven Years’ War (1756–1763) drove the French from Canada, a stunning victory that generated unprecedented enthusiasm for the British Empire throughout the colonies. View the Map European Claims in America, c. 1750 on myhistorylab.com The French Threat: In theory, the British colonies were greatly superior to those of the French in military terms. In practice, however, separate governments in the British colonies weakened made them less easily defended. In the early 1700s, English colonists became convinced that they could not tolerate French ambitions. The French, similarly, thought the British intended to take the entire continent. King George’s War and Its Aftermath: From 1743 to 1748, the War of the Austrian Succession dragged Americans into conflict. New England troops won an impressive victory when they captured Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island, but the fort was returned to France in the peace treaty. In the 1750s both sides realized the strategic importance of the Ohio Valley, which became the cockpit for the next round of skirmishes. The French built a fort at the head of the Ohio River, at present-day Pittsburgh. Virginia considered the area its own and sent its militia under a young officer, George Washington, to expel the French. Washington was defeated, illustrating the need for greater cooperation. Benjamin Franklin reacted by presenting 40 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

his Albany Plan, including a Grand Council headed by a President General. The plan was initially well-received but was not approved of by the assemblies. In 1755, England sent an army under General Edward Braddock to drive the French out of the Ohio Valley. On his march west, Braddock fell into an ambush, and his army was destroyed. Seven Years’ War: Braddock’s defeat signaled the lowest point in the war for the English. In 1756 England declared war on France and the two nations fought in every corner of the globe. William Pitt, George II’s most powerful minister, concentrated British efforts on North America and captured Quebec in 1759. The century of struggle for control of the wealth of a continent was now ended. The Peace of Paris of 1763 ended the war, and made the British Empire unrivaled as a world power. The colonists, for their part, saw the victory as a new beginning. The Seven Years’ War on View the Map myhistorylab.com Perceptions of War: The Seven Years’ War was formative for Americans. Cooperation had proved vital, had brought large numbers of young colonial soldiers to other colonies, and had taught a generation of American officers that the British were not invincible. The British later felt that the Americans were never fully appreciative of their close shave with French imperialism, while the Americans felt their contribution had been significant. CONCLUSION: RULE BRITANNIA? In 1763, most colonial Americans believed that they were bound in brotherhood with the English people. British culture, British consumer goods, British evangelists, and British military victories swept all Americans, even the non-English, into what seemed to be a great empire tied together by admiration and affection. The British on the other hand saw the colonists not as brothers but as “not quite English.”

KEY TERMS QUESTIONS: 1. Several different groups of people traveled to the backcountry, a region stretching 800 miles from western Pennsylvania to Georgia, attempting to live together in the same region. Their differences led to a complex, fluid, and often violent society. 2. The “middle ground” helped Native Americans survive in the backcountry because it was an area of land in which neither European nor Native American cultures held a clear upper hand, and both interacted with each other. 3. Enlightenment thinkers replaced the concept of original sin with a much more optimistic view of human nature. A benevolent God, having set the universe in motion, gave human beings the power of reason to enable them to comprehend the orderly workings of his creation. Everything, even human society, operated according to these mechanical rules. The responsibility of men and women, therefore, was to make certain that institutions such as church and state conformed to self-evident natural laws. 4. English exports to the American colonies increased by 360 percent, dramatically picking up the economy and thus creating a consumer revolution. 41 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

5. A new, highly personal appeal to a “new birth” in Christ, the Great Awakening, caused men and women of all backgrounds to rethink basic assumptions about church and state, institutions and society. 6. Ministers were suspicious of itinerant preachers, who traveled from settlement to settlement throughout the colonies spreading their message, because of their somewhat dubious methods. They raised some serious questions regarding itinerant preachers, such as “How could the revivalists be certain God had sparked the Great Awakening?” They also felt that the itinerants relied too much on emotion. 7. Benjamin Franklin proposed the Albany Plan as a blueprint for colonial union and cooperation. The plan failed because it never got the support of the separate colonial assemblies as well as Parliament. The assemblies were jealous of their fiscal authority, and the English thought the scheme undermined the crown’s power over American affairs. 8. Not until William Pitt became effective head of King George II’s ministry did a minister of the king exhibit the energy to break the military stalemate in the Seven Years’ War, which was also known as the French and Indian War in America. Colonial assemblies were extremely resistant to provide money or men and British forces lacked leadership. 9. The treaty signed at the Peace of Paris of 1763 marked the beginning of Great Britain’s expansion of its empire outside of Europe. The British suddenly had control of almost all French territory in North America.

ANSWERS TO QUICK CHECK QUESTIONS: 1. Why did so many Scots-Irish migrate to America during the eighteenth century? During the seventeenth century, English officials had tried to use Presbyterian Scotts to dominate Catholic Ireland, but they failed. They were persecuted by Anglican officials and laws were passed that hurt Scots-Irish trading with England. They began to migrate to America after several poor harvests in the 1720s, hoping to recreate their fiercely independent culture on the frontier. 2. Why did the new German and Scots-Irish immigrants to America move west after they arrived in the colonies? They pushed west to find new lands and maintain their own unique and independent cultures. 3. How did Native Americans manipulate the “middle ground” to their advantage? As long as the Native Americans had military strength, they were able to demand respect in trade relations occurring in the “middle ground.” They played English against French traders to get the best deals. 4. Why did the Spanish not more aggressively develop California and the Southwest? Native American hostility and failure to find precious metals tempered Spanish zeal for the Southwest, while California showed only poor Indians along the coast. The difficulty in getting to California caused it to be ignored until the Russians appeared ready to take it over. 42 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

5. How successful were the Spanish in assimilating the Pueblos to imperial rule? The Pueblos resisted Spanish attempts to convert them to Christianity, often at great personal risk. It was reported that angry Pueblos at Taos fed Spanish priests corn tortillas seasoned with urine and mouse meat. 6. What were the basic intellectual assumptions of the American Enlightenment? For many Americans the appeal of the Enlightenment was its focus on a search for useful knowledge, ideas, and inventions to improve the quality of human life. What mattered was practical experimentation. Applying reason to solve political and social problems was encouraged. 7. What characteristics did Benjamin Franklin possess that made him an Enlightenment figure? It was Franklin’s sense of reason and science that led Europeans to regard him as a fellow philosophe, a role he cultivated. His curiosity and drive to explore and find useful knowledge made him much like the European philosophes. 8. Why did Americans in the first half of the eighteenth century not complain about the Navigation Acts? The growth of population and expansion of the economy to keep pace kept most white colonists happy. It was, however, a fact that most British officials ignored the new laws and enforcement of the Navigation Acts was lax. 9. How did Americans manage to pay for so many new consumer goods? To assist Americans in purchasing the newly available items from England, the British offered very generous terms of credit. Many colonists forestalled their final payment by paying interest on their debts. 10. What explains the Reverend George Whitefield’s extraordinary popularity among colonial Americans? He was an extraordinarily effective public speaker who, like his friend Franklin, symbolized the cultural forces that were then transforming the Atlantic world. Whitefield didn’t care what denomination people came from, so his audiences came from all walks of life. 11. What message did evangelical ministers bring to ordinary Americans? Itinerant preachers encouraged a new sense of independent thinking to their “New Light” followers. They felt they could no longer rely on traditional authority figures or institutions. Combined with the Enlightenment thinkers, they prepared a way for revolutionary thinking in the colonies. 12. What was the structure of royal government in eighteenth-century America? While the colonists argued that their colonial government mirrored government in England, the reality was starkly different. The governors were primarily appointed by the crown and consisted of middling bureaucrats looking to get ahead. They practiced greater power than the king himself, and the councils advising the governors had lost most of their power by the eighteenth century. While many more Americans could vote than Englishmen, their vote tended to count for little.

13. Why were the plans of royal governors so often defeated by colonial assemblies? These elected members of legislatures viewed themselves as preserving colonial liberties and an attack on them was an attack on the rights of Americans. Many historians have described the political developments in eighteenth-century America as “the rise of the assemblies.” While perhaps a little strong, the climate they developed seemed designed to create hostility with the court-appointed governors. 14. Why during the eighteenth century did Britain’s American colonists come to view the French as a serious threat? It was believed by many that the French were trying to encircle the colonists and confine them to a narrow strip of land along the Atlantic coast. The French establishment of forts and New Orleans did nothing to ease these fears. 15. Why did Benjamin Franklin’s Albany Plan receive so little support? Both the separate colonial assemblies as well as Parliament needed to approve the plan but rejected it. The colonial assemblies jealously guarded their fiscal prerogatives and the British thought Franklin’s scheme undermined the crown’s power over the colonies. 16. How did the Peace of Paris of 1763 transform North American politics? The treaty almost fulfilled Pitt’s dream. With the peace, the French were driven out of North America and 80,000 French-speaking Canadians, mostly Catholic, became subjects of King George III. 17. Why did victory over France not generate greater mutual respect between American colonists and the British? Americans had developed a greater understanding of themselves and learned the British were not invincible. The British charged that the Americans were unappreciative of their efforts and that they had provided troops and funds to fight the French while the Americans had dragged their feet at every turn. Although this claim had merit, the Americans did not want to play the role of junior partner.

CHAPTER 5 The American Revolution: From Elite Protest to Popular Revolt, 1763–1783 CHAPTER OUTLINE Moment of Decision: Commitment and Sacrifice Structure of Colonial Society Breakdown of Political Trust No Taxation Without Representation: The American Perspective Justifying Resistance Eroding the Bonds of Empire Paying Off the National Debt The Protest Spreads Fueling the Crisis Surge of Force The Final Provocation: The Boston Tea Party Steps Toward Independence Shots Heard Around the World Beginning “The World Over Again” Fighting for Independence Building a Professional Army “Times That Try Men’s Souls” Victory in a Year of Defeat The French Alliance The Final Campaign The Loyalist Dilemma Conclusion: Preserving Independence