Enhanced Instructor Manual forSiegel/McCormick, 2024,

Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

Enhanced Instructor Manual Siegel/McCormick, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

Table of Contents Summary .......................................................................................................................... 2 Chapter Overview .............................................................................................................. 3 Special Features................................................................................................................. 4 Learning Objectives ............................................................................................................ 4 What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these?................................................................................................................ 4 How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students? ................................... 5 Applying Criminology .......................................................................................................... 6 How can I engage my students? ......................................................................................... 6 What can I do in the way of assignments and projects? ........................................................ 7 What can I do online? ........................................................................................................ 7

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology Summary Criminology is the academic multidisciplinary science devoted to the study of crime patterns and trends, as well as the development of valid and reliable information regarding the causes of those patterns and trends. It deals with the processes of making laws, breaking laws, and society’s reaction to the breaking of laws. The study of criminal justice refers to a field of study that aims to describe and analyze the work of the police, courts, and correctional facilities, and how to better design effective methods of crime control. Although the two fields are different, they do overlap. Criminologists must know how criminal justice agencies operate, and criminal justice experts must understand the nature of crime and often use criminological research and theory.

There are many branches of criminology theory. Classical criminology developed in the 19th century with Beccaria arguing that people have free will and that crime can be controlled by punishment if it is severe, certain, and swift. On the other hand, Comte developed the positivist ideology, believing that an individual’s behaviour was a product of social, biological, psychological, and economic forces, and argued that not everything related to our behaviour is under our direct control. In disagreement, other positivists, such as Lombroso, claimed a more biological origin to crime, stating that serious offenders had inherited criminal traits. Around the same time, more sociological approaches were developed: Quetelet used statistics in criminological research to identify crime-related factors; and Durkheim pioneered sociological research on crime focused on the mismatch between an individual’s norms and societal norms (anomie). In the beginning of the 20th century, the Chicago School conducted research in social ecology and found that some neighbourhoods are natural areas for crime because of poverty and broken social institutions. The socialization view followed, proposing that people learn criminal attitudes or develop an inadequate self-image. Then the 1960s and 1970s brought conflict criminology that applied Marxist principles to the study of crime, stating that the power of those leading society is integral to our understanding of what constitutes crime.

In contemporary criminology, classical theory has evolved into rational choice and deterrence theories; positivism now considers how biological and psychological traits interact with the environment to influence criminality; sociological theories examine social structure, learning experiences, and socialization; conflict theorists examine how unfair economic structures impact high crime rates; and criminologists integrate developmental theories with personal, situational, and social factors.

Criminology has six major subareas in terms of the work criminologists do:      

First, criminal statistics describe and measure crime.

Second, the sociology of law analyzes how society shapes the law and how the law shapes society.

Third, theory construction focuses on crime causation.

Fourth, criminal behaviour systems focus on crime typology.

Fifth, penology deals with corrections, rehabilitation, and treatment.

Sixth, victimology focuses on the role of victims in crime.

There are three main perspectives of how criminologists view crime:

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

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First, the consensus view holds that the criminal law reflects the values, beliefs, and opinions of society’s mainstream and that there is a consensus in society on what behaviours should be illegal. It views the law as fair and impartial. This view is held primarily in North America.

Second, the conflict view holds that society is a collection of diverse groups that are in constant and continuous conflict and that there exist power differentials between the groups. The powerful use the law and the criminal justice system to advance or maintain their economic and social position.

Third, the interactionist view says that people (1) act according to their own interpretations of reality, according to the meaning things have for them; (2) learn the meaning of a thing from the way others react to it, either positively or negatively; and (3) re-evaluate and interpret their own behaviour according to the meanings and symbols they have learned from others.

There are six broad categories for how criminologists conduct research:      

Survey research, where the researcher solicits comments from many subjects about how they feel about a topic at the time of sampling.

Longitudinal (cohort) research, which involves the researcher conducting observations of a cohort of people over a period.

Aggregate data research, where a researcher uses a large database of information gathered by a larger agency such as Statistics Canada to explore trends and patterns.

Experimental research, in which the researcher develops a situation where they can manipulate events and observe the behaviours of subjects in reaction to those events.

Analyzing policy, where researchers review present or past policies for their impacts on offenders and the public.

Observational and interview research, by which researchers acquire in-depth data through longer interviews and observations of situations.

Chapter Overview What Is Criminology?

Criminology and Criminal Justice Criminology and Deviance A Brief History of Criminology Classical Criminology 19th-Century Positivism Positivist Criminology Cesare Lombroso and the Criminal Man The Development of Sociological Criminology The Chicago School and the McGill School Conflict Criminology Criminology Today What Criminologists Do: The Criminological Enterprise Criminal Statistics Sociology of Law Theory Construction

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

Criminal Behaviour Systems Penology Victimology How Do Criminologists View Crime?

The Consensus View of Crime The Conflict View of Crime The Interactionist View of Crime Defining Crime The Politics of Crime Doing Criminology Survey Research Longitudinal (Cohort) Research Aggregate Data Research Experimental Research Analyzing Policy Observational and Interview Research Ethical Issues in Criminology Summary

Special Features

Key Court Case: R. v. Sharpe (2001) Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Unmarked Burials Found at Former Residential School Focus on Research: Canadian Crime Trends, 2019 Profile of a Crime: Canada’s Deadliest Serial Killers Applying Criminology

Learning Objectives At the conclusion of this chapter, the student should be able to: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Understand the scope of the field of criminology.

Be familiar with different parts of the ―criminological enterprise.‖ Know the elements of what constitutes a crime.

Discuss the different views of crime.

Explain different criminological research methods and their use.

What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these? 



The difference between criminology and criminal justice o Have students create a visual that differentiates the two. o Have students in small groups create their own definitions for each and discuss these in class.

Differences between the theories

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

Draw a timeline to distinguish the different years and eras that theories emerged in and explain how developments in scientific thinking occurred in that progression. o Have students watch a video that has concrete examples of the differences. Let them develop a chart where they put in the example to fit the theory. Discuss the completed charts. o Have students watch a video that has concrete examples of the differences. Let them develop a chart where they put in the example to fit the theory. Discuss the completed charts. o Have students locate news articles of cases that might fit with the different theories.

The importance of verifiable evidence data to establish crime patterns o Use examples of media reports on crime rates and ask if the rates mean we live in a more dangerous time. o Have students discuss other circumstances in which they would want verified evidence instead of anecdotal evidence (e.g., their own personal health).

Differences in methodological analysis strategies and for various topics o Give examples of why specific methods are used to answer certain questions (e.g., experiments to make causal inferences, surveys to gather large amounts of data on personal opinions). o Have students work in small groups, each with a method, and come up with the pros and cons of that method and how it is used for answering specific questions. o Have students discuss possible ethical issues related to certain methodological analyses, and discuss how some groups who might be studied should be considered with more care. o

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How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students?

1. In a case like Robert Pickton, which theory might best explain his alleged serial killer behaviour?

2. How do we determine ―good‖ versus ―bad‖ behaviours? Who gets to decide this?

3. Who is considered a ―criminal?‖ What kinds of individuals/groups tend to get considered criminal? Are there any kinds of individuals/groups who do not tend to be considered criminal?

4. What kinds of deviant behaviour have you personally witnessed in your own community?

What social or cultural factors might have contributed to these behaviours?

5. Think of the reporting of crime and criminals. Which crimes/criminals tend to get the most coverage, and which get the least? Does this tell us anything about our culture?

How does that fit with Hagan’s typologies?

6. How does media coverage impact the public perception of crime? What might be some ethical implications regarding how media should or should not cover crime stories?

7. What factors explain why crime is related to class conflict? What about the importance of choice and free will?

8. How would the consensus, interactionist, and conflict views of crime define the actions of a politician seeking to change laws in order to pollute the environment for capital gain?

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

9. Are there any examples of the law in North America that appear to be applied differently to different individuals or groups (e.g., Indigenous groups)? What might be some reasons for this? What about other countries in terms of this concept of ―fairness‖?

10. What research approach would one have to take in order to answer why people think crime is on the rise? What limitations and ethical implications might we have to consider when trying to answer this question?

11. What can criminologists do to be more ethical in their research? Are there ways they could possibly empower marginalized groups with so they can use the data they create with the researcher?

Applying Criminology The Applying Criminology section at the end of this chapter asks students to consider how to best use research methods to predict violence-prone behaviour.

After the scenario, students are asked: Some of your colleagues argue that this type of testing is unconstitutional because it violates the subjects’ Charter guarantee of being considered innocent until proven guilty. There is also the issue of error: Some kids may be falsely labelled as violence-prone. How would you answer your critics? Is it fair or ethical to label people as potentially criminal and violent even though they have not yet exhibited any antisocial behaviour? Will such labelling lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy where the kids may become violent because it is now expected of them? Do the risks of such a procedure outweigh its benefits?

Here are some discussion points to link this section back to the chapter topics: In our society, being falsely accused of a crime is a serious matter. Attempts to screen people for violent tendencies they have not yet exhibited are fraught with error. Followers of the positivistic movement in the 19th century, however, would support your data-finding process.

Lombroso himself believed that teachers should be trained to identify future criminality in schoolchildren. Positivism believed that using techniques such as measuring the skull was a proper scientific method for understanding crime and deviance. The issue is that, though your method uses science to collect data, it does not take into account factors relevant to sociological criminology. If consideration of social factors such as poverty and inequality is absent from the study, though you might find consensus among some scientists, it would only come at the price of ignoring the factor of conflict. To be truly scientific in criminology, there would need to be a control group as well as the study of the incarcerated group. This would make the results stronger because you have a comparison, not an isolated sample.

Furthermore, decisions could be made about limiting the survey research to a particular cohort or engaging in a longitudinal study, which would give better data to analyze. Finally, could such a research project be ethical if some students are given pre-crime treatment and others are not? And does it individualize their problems when perhaps situational factors are at least as important? Such a study raises more questions than answers and may inflict serious damage on the subjects.

How can I engage my students?

1. Beccaria said that the threat of punishment controls crime. Aside from the threat of legal punishments, what else controls behaviour? What implications does this have in regard to capital punishment?

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

2. Ask students how criminological theories might be applied to help improve the criminal justice system. Why or why not may they help? Consider asking this again later as they have more information.

3. Divide the class into three groups, each group taking one of the three perspectives (consensus, conflict, and interactionist). Using recent news reports, have the groups come up with examples for their perspective and then share them with the rest of the class.

4. Get students to try coming up with research questions they might be interested in exploring related to criminology. Have them consider what types of methods might be used to assess their question, as well as what the advantages and disadvantages of their method.

5. Present students with a hypothetical situation (or have them make one up) in which a criminologist learns about unreported criminal behaviour during their research. Have students discuss the dilemmas the criminologist will face and how these might be solved.

6. Get students to look for news about crime in their home town or city. Ask them to observe what kinds of crimes they see being reported and reflect on why those crimes might make the news.

What can I do in the way of assignments and projects?

1. Create envelopes with cards, each having a different behaviour on them (e.g., murder, rape, robbery, arson, alcoholism, sexual fetishes, pornography, prostitution, drug use, tattoos, body piercing, cross-dressing). Have students, in groups, order the cards into three groups based on rankings to the following criteria: a. The evaluation of the amount of social harm the behaviour causes b. The amount of agreement society has that the behaviour is unacceptable c. The level of response society is prepared to enact in response to the behaviour Discuss the similarities and differences of the groupings between the groups of students, and discuss based on Hagan’s typologies.

2. Have students work in groups and, using chart paper, compare and contrast the features of the three perspectives (consensus, conflict, and interactionist). Get them to share their results afterward, and discuss why the differences between them have emerged.

3. Have one group discuss possible social and economic factors that may shape criminal behaviour, and have another group discuss possible individual factors that may shape criminal behaviour. Discuss how different theories have addressed these issues. This topic can be readdressed later in the course as students gain more information.

4. Create small groups for each of the historical criminology theories. Have them come up with examples of news cases, quotes, media representations, and so on, and present them to the rest of the class.

What can I do online?

1. Isabella Robinson: Social Media’s Impact on Cases of Police Brutality. In this TEDx talk, Isabella Robinson uses her own personal experience of harassment by police

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

due to racial bias to discuss how social media can impact the discussion about racial profiling and harassment. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z_Y3_y_hzp8

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How this talk can be framed around criminological interpretations? What theories would help explain racial profiling?

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How do social media change the discussion of crime as compared to mainstream media?

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This is about racial profiling in the United States. What are some similar issues that you see in Canada? What are some differences?

2. Visualizing Crime Rates. Create your own visual representation of crime using your own approach. Using the crime data found on Statistics Canada (https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2022001/article/00013eng.htm), look at the police-reported offences and try creating an different kind of illustration than the charts used on the website.  Can you visualize the data in a way that makes it more appealing than bar charts or timeline graphs?  What kinds of crimes are more common than others? Do some surprise you?  How might you explain your image to others? Will they be able to make sense of your interpretation?

3. Brian Boutwell: The Future of Criminology. In this TEDx talk, Brian Boutwell questions the tendency for criminology to focus primarily on the social factors to explain criminal behaviour. He argues that the field needs to focus more on biosocial criminology and the need to consider the interaction between environment and genetics.

He discusses the need to consider the addition of twin studies to the more traditional methods of criminology in order to help determine the genetic influence on behaviour and environment. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xbikaH4GTSo 

Does the field of criminology focus only on environmental factors and ignore the biological? What theories might agree and conflict with Brian Boutwell’s premise?

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How can modern technology (genetics, neuro-imaging, etc.) help the study of criminology? What might we need to be careful about?

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What big take-away message should we learn about correlations? What is ultimately the only methodology that can infer a causal relationship?

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

Enhanced Instructor Manual Siegel/McCormick, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 2: The Criminal Law and Its Process

Table of Contents Summary .........................................................................................................................10 Chapter Overview .............................................................................................................11 Special Features................................................................................................................11 Learning Objectives ...........................................................................................................12 What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these?...............................................................................................................12 How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students? ..................................13 Applying Criminology .........................................................................................................13 How can I engage my students? ........................................................................................14 What can I do in the way of assignments and projects? .......................................................14 What can I do online? .......................................................................................................14

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

Chapter 2: The Criminal Law and Its Process Summary Criminal law in Canada controls the formal definitions and content of crime in society, developed over generations of iteration on historical tradition, changes in moral belief and social values, and the influence of political and economic developments. Law is a living concept that is constantly under construction yet also governs almost all human interaction.

The substantive criminal can law is a set of rules that specifies the behaviour society has outlawed. The criminal law be distinguished from the civil law on the basis that the former involves powers given to the state to enforce social rules, while the latter controls interactions between private citizens. The criminal law serves several important functions: 1) it reflects current public opinion and moral values; 2) it enforces social controls; 3) it acts as deterrence for behaviour against the social order; 4) it outlines punishment for transgressors; and 5) it prohibits private retribution. However, it can also entrench the interests of the powerful and be used to resist social change. The criminal law used in Canada traces its origin to the English common law, which was formulated during the Middle Ages when King Henry II’s judges began to use precedents set in one case to guide their decisions in future cases.

In Canada’s legal system, common-law crimes have been codified into the federal Criminal Code. Today, most crimes fall into the category of indictable offences—serious crimes usually punished by a prison term—or summary offences—minor crimes that carry a fine or a light jail sentence. Indictable offences include murder, rape, assault with a deadly weapon, and robbery; summary offences include simple assault and the possession of small amounts of drugs.

Crimes are classified by criminologists as either mala in se or mala prohibitum. Mala in se are crimes deemed to be universally understood as crimes, such as murder, sexual assault, or robbery. By contrast, mala prohibitum are crimes that are relative to public opinion and social values of the times, such as views on drug use, possession of certain weapons, or types of pornography.

Every crime has specific elements. In most instances, these elements include actus reus (guilty act), which is the actual physical part of the crime (e.g., taking money or burning a building), and mens rea (guilty mind), which refers to the state of mind of the individual who commits a crime—more specifically, the person’s intent to do the act. While actus reus is always required to determine whether a crime has occurred, there are some crimes that do not require mens rea, which are called strict liability offences.

At trial, accused individuals may also defend themselves by claiming to have lacked mens rea and, therefore, were not responsible for their criminal actions. One type of defence is an

altered mental capacity, such as 1) ignorance, 2) mental disorder, 3) intoxication, or 4) duress.

Another defence is that there was some justified reason for the act, such as 5) necessity, 6) self-defence or 7) entrapment. These types of defences have proven to be controversial within modern society. Cases involving these defences typically centre on the time frame in which the altered capacity occurs. If the defendant is of diminished capacity and cannot assist in their own defence, a question of fitness to stand trial is often raised before the court.

Alternatively, if the defendant was of altered or diminished capacity for mens rea at the time of

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

the crime, a question of not criminally responsible due to mental disorder is raised.

The criminal law is undergoing constant reform. Some acts are being decriminalized—their penalties are being reduced—while other laws are being revised to make penalties for some acts more severe. The law must confront social and technological change.

Chapter Overview The Origins of Law Early Legal Codes Early Crime, Punishment, and Law Origins of Common Law The Common Law Common Law and Statutory Law The Development of Law in Canada Classification of Law Criminal and Civil Law Indictable and Summary Offences Mala in Se and Mala Prohibitum Functions of the Criminal Law Providing Social Control Discouraging Revenge Expressing Public Opinion and Morality Deterring Criminal Behaviour Maintaining the Social Order The Legal Definition of a Crime

Actus Reus Mens Rea

Strict Liability Criminal Defences Ignorance or Mistake Not Criminally Responsible on Account of Mental Disorder Intoxication Duress Necessity Self-Defence Entrapment The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms Changing the Criminal Law Summary

Special Features Focus on Research: What Happens When People Go Outside the Law to Uphold Justice Profile of a Crime: Wrongfully Convicted Key Court Cases: Legal Rights and the Charter

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Lobster Fishery Dispute and the Rule of Law Applying Criminology

Learning Objectives At the conclusion of this chapter, the student should be able to: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Understand the sources of the criminal law.

Be familiar with different functions of the law.

Know the elements of what constitutes a defence.

Discuss the legal rights of the individual.

Explain different cases and their significance.

What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these? 

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



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The classifications of the law and its functions o Have students complete a chart of the different classifications of law with at least one legal example per classification. o Have students come up with examples mala prohibitum crimes that have changed over time. Discuss why they might have changed as a class. o Have students divide into 5 groups, one group for each function, and come up with examples of laws that represent that function. Have the groups present their examples to the other groups.

The legal definitions of crime o Have students look up court cases reported in the media and get them to identify when reports discuss actus reus and mens rea. Discuss why these things may be missing in most news reports. o Have students look up news articles of cases that can be understood as strictliability crimes. Have the students present their findings to the class and discuss as a group.

The application of different defences and how they safeguard justice o Have students search through media for examples of different cases that exemplify the different defences. Encourage searching for successful and failed defences, and discuss why they succeeded or failed. o Have students come up with times they feel the defences should or should not apply, and discuss as a class.

How constitutional rights apply to everyone, regardless of guilt or innocence o Discuss why this is important. Use case examples of when rights have been violated (e.g., due to race or gender) or suspended (e.g., due to national crises), and discuss the consequences. o Discuss cases of individuals, such as David Milgaard, who were convicted but later proved innocent.

How criminal law can change o Have students chart how the crime of possession of cannabis has changed in Canada.

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

o

Discuss the different iterations of the Youth Criminal Justice Act. Ask students whether any changes should be made to it based on their current understanding of youth crime.

How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students?

1. Many laws have originated in some form from religion (e.g., thou shalt not kill,). Do you think religion is necessary for moral and legal development? Provide evidence for and against.

2. What are the differences between common law and statutory law?

3. With reference to current social trends, what future changes may occur to the law over the next 20 years? What might become criminalized? What might become legal?

4. How does an indictable offence differ from a summary offence? Why is this an important distinction?

5. Give an example of a crime that requires mens rea and one that does not.

6. What is the difference between mala in se and mala prohibitum? Give an example of each.

7. Why do we have offences of strict liability? How are these created and outlined?

8. Why should law discourage revenge?

9. Compare and contrast being unfit to stand trial and the NCRMD defence.

10. How does general deterrence differ from specific deterrence?

11. There are times when the government can use the ―Notwithstanding Clause‖ to override the individual rights section of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Should this ever be used? If so, under what circumstances? If not, why was it included?

Applying Criminology The Applying Criminology section at the end of this chapter asks students what they as criminologists would advise Parliament about plans to prevent the distribution of problematic materials. After the scenario, students are asked: Would you advise Parliament to control content distribution on the Internet closely? What dangers might be presented by such an attempt at regulation? Is there a trade-off between individual rights and social security?

Here are some discussion points to link this section back to the chapter topics:  



The difficulty with such legislation is the presumption of guilt. How do you monitor people to see if they have done anything wrong without compromising their right to innocence?

Such a statutory law would have to be tested by the courts to see if it would uphold a Charter challenge. In particular, it would have to be given the Oakes test, to see if there was a justifiable limitation on rights and freedoms. Canadians are generally reluctant to allow such measures, seeing them as the actions of a carceral society, not a free one.

Arguably it would serve one of the functions of the criminal law, which is providing social control. But is there enough of a risk to warrant such an intrusion into individual lives? A strong argument would have to be made that the control of some types of speech, particularly hate speech, outweighs the loss of social security.

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

How can I engage my students?

1. Look at cases where the defence used a self-defence defence. Have students discuss their opinions of the case, and the merits and challenges of having a self-defence defence.

2. Discuss student opinions of the five functions of criminal law. Do students feel the law maintains stability, or is there a reason to believe the functions only protect some people over others?

3. Have students look over the section on the progression of criminal law in Canada.

Discuss the various historical events that led to new developments, such as the NWMP/RCMP’s role in the treatment of Indigenous peoples. Have students reflect on how law might change in relation to events such as these.

4. Look at systems of law in other parts of the world (civil law societies in Europe, the socialist legal system in China, Islamic law, etc.). How do the criminal systems in English common law systems differ?

What can I do in the way of assignments and projects?

1. Have students draw the timeline of the development of criminal law in Canada. Have students research potential key events during the most prominent developments and reflect on why they may have started changes.

2. Have a debate on how Charter rights help both society and the accused. ―Be it resolved that the Charter of Rights and Freedoms is a needed safeguard for the rights of the accused in Canada.‖ 3. If possible, arrange for your students to sit in on a court hearing. Have them take field notes in which they detail the behaviours of the prosecutor, the defence attorney, and the defendant.

4. Create an online discussion forum and ask students to share social media posts they find that can be related to the different functions of law. Have students comment and reflect on how social media may allow for particular ways for people to discuss law and its consequences as opposed to the mainstream press (or observe ways they are similar).

5. Have students work in groups to come up with their own examples of how media representations shape our understanding of how law is applied, with an emphasis on the differences between Canadian and American procedures. For example: How do TV shows like Street Legal (Canadian) and Law & Order (American) influence a common understanding of how our system works? What rights do Canadians versus Americans have?

What can I do online?

1. Robin Steinberg: What if we ended the injustice of bail? Robin Steinberg discussed the mass incarceration of people who are unable to pay bail, which can range from $500 to amounts that are not possible to be reasonably paid, and the consequences of lost jobs, homes, and lives. https://www.ted.com/talks/robin_steinberg_what_if_we_ended_the_injusti ce_of_bail

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

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Hammurabi’s Code created different punishments based on social standing. Does our current system also suffer from systemic bias?

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What do you think of Robin Steinberg’s argument and proposal? Would that help alleviate the systemic bias? What are the pros and cons of her proposal?

2. Pamela Glatt: Wrongful Convictions: A Life Sentence. Pamela Glatt discusses the process of reintegration into society by those who have been wrongfully convicted. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_7TbfXZ2rUM  How can the consequences of wrongful conviction extend beyond simply being accused?  What does Pamela Glatt suggest can be done to help those impacted by wrongful conviction?  Does our criminal justice system allow for flexibility in aiding reintegration of offenders?

3. Cassandra Owei: The Most UNjust System, The Justice System. Cassandra Owei discusses how ―justice for all‖ does not necessarily apply to all in many countries. A wealthy person may be guilty of a crime, but they can mitigate the impact of that through their wealth. Conversely, a poor person may be innocent of a crime but will be adversely affected by the justice system due to not having the wealth to combat accusations. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kjSTwWgHEOs 

What are some other factors that may impact how someone differentially experiences the criminal justice system?

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How can modern technology (genetics, neuro-imaging, etc.) help the study of criminology? What might we need to be careful about?

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Cassandra Owei discusses why some people may turn to crime when they cannot gain access to legal employment. What can be done to help offenders navigate paths to gainful employment or to counter discrimination toward potential victims of the justice system?

4. Innocence Canada allows people to explore cases of wrongful convictions this group has helped exonerate since 1993. https://www.innocencecanada.com/exonerations

Enhanced Instructor Manual Siegel/McCormick, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 3: The Nature and Extent of Crime

Table of Contents Summary .........................................................................................................................17 Chapter Overview .............................................................................................................17

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

Special Features................................................................................................................18 Learning Objectives ...........................................................................................................18 What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these?...............................................................................................................18 How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students? ..................................19 Applying Criminology .........................................................................................................19 How can I engage my students? ........................................................................................20 What can I do in the way of assignments and projects? .......................................................20 What can I do online? .......................................................................................................21

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

Chapter 3: The Nature and Extent of Crime Summary Canada has three primary sources of crime statistics: the Uniform Crime Report (UCR), which is based on police data, accumulated by the Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics (CCJS); selfreports of criminal behaviour; and victim surveys. All three sources, pieced together, overlap to tell us about crime in Canada. Each data source has its strengths and weaknesses, and though quite different from one another, they agree on the nature of criminal behaviour. More recently, tertiary sources of crime data have provided a more powerful indicator of relationships than the results provided from a single study. Meta-analysis, data mining, and crime mapping can provide researchers and law enforcement with a way to look at patterns of crime and to focus their studies or allocate resources, such as through predictive policing and risk-based deployment.

The data sources show some stable patterns in the crime rate. Until the early 1990s, the amount of violent crime was increasing, only to go into two decades of decline. Some crimes are now at their lowest levels since the 1960s or 1970s.

Most crimes occur during the warm summer months, but murders occur more frequently in mid-winter. Crime rates are also highest in urban areas and in northern and western Canada.

Although crime rates are highest in inner city, high-poverty areas, crime is not primarily a lower-class phenomenon. Evidence also suggests a gender and age gap in the crime rate. Men usually commit more crimes than women do, and young people commit more crimes than seniors do. The crime data show that people commit fewer crimes as they age, but the significance and cause of this pattern is still not completely understood. A class pattern also exists in the crime rate. However, whether these are true differences or a function of discriminatory law enforcement remains unclear.

One of the most important findings of cohort research is the existence of the chronic offender, a repeat criminal responsible for a significant number of all law violations. Chronic offenders begin their career early in life and, rather than aging out of crime, persist in their criminal behaviour into adulthood. The discovery of the chronic offender has led to the study of developmental criminology—why people persist, desist, escalate, or terminate their deviant behaviour.

Chapter Overview The Uniform Crime Report (UCR) Collecting the UCR The Accuracy of the UCR Self-Report Surveys The Focus of Self-Reports The Accuracy of Self-Reports The ―Missing Cases‖ Issue Victim Surveys Are Crime Statistics Sources Compatible?

Alternative Sources of Information Explaining Crime Trends What the Future Holds Tertiary Sources of Crime Data

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review Data Mining Crime Mapping Crime Patterns The Ecology of Crime Social Class and Crime Age and Crime Gender and Crime Criminal Careers Summary

Special Features Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: The Pandemic and Crime Patterns, 2020 Focus on Research: The Politics of Statistics Profile of a Crime: A Serial Killer Stalked Toronto’s Gay Village Key Court Case: The Murder of Reena Virk

Learning Objectives At the conclusion of this chapter, the student should be able to: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Identify the various sources of information on crime.

Explain how crime data are collected.

Explain the compatibility of different information sources.

Discuss the large-scale factors that affect crime rates.

Explain different patterns of crime over time.

What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these? 



The limits of the evidence existing on crime and why there is attrition through the system o Use a visual aid to show the funnel of attrition through the system. o Use a specific example, such as statistics of sexual assault as it moves through the system, to illustrate each level where cases are dropped. Discuss why this happens.

Differences in data collection methods, what each method collects, and what the limitations are for each method o Discuss with students how each method is only as good as the data that can be collected. Highlight why some people may be more likely to report an incident in one format versus another, and what impact this can have on official data as opposed to national surveys. o Divide the class into three groups—one for UCR, one for self-report surveys, and one for victimization surveys—and have each group defend why their method of data collection is the best way to serve the public. o Have students look up UCR data and get them to highlight points of interest where reported crimes appear to be low compared to how frequently they feel

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

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

the crime is discussed in the news. Get them to discuss reasons why this might be the case.

How the media can distort crime patterns and create ―feedback loops‖ o Use current case examples or major ones to illustrate how the media spotlight influences public perception. Discuss as a class the factors that might influence media companies to report on some crimes over others. o Get students to research how much crime news they see in a particular week, with a focus on how many stories relate to the patterns discussed in the chapter (age, gender, race, culture, etc.).

How crime trends can be used to determine policy and action o Have students work in small groups to research some crime trends (e.g., Indigenous people and crime; gender and crime), and then discuss as a class what can be done about them.

How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students?

12. Many laws have originated in some form from religion (e.g., thou shalt not kill,). Do you think religion is necessary for moral and legal development? Provide evidence for and against.

13. What are the differences between common law and statutory law?

14. With reference to current social trends, what future changes may occur to the law over the next 20 years? What might become criminalized? What might become legal?

15. How does an indictable offence differ from a summary offence? Why is this an important distinction?

16. Give an example of a crime that requires mens rea and one that does not.

17. What is the difference between mala in se and mala prohibitum? Give an example of each.

18. Why do we have offences of strict liability? How are these created and outlined?

19. Why should law discourage revenge?

20. Compare and contrast being unfit to stand trial and the NCRMD defence.

21. How does general deterrence differ from specific deterrence?

22. There are times when the government can use the ―Notwithstanding Clause‖ to override the individual rights section of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Should this ever be used? If so, under what circumstances? If not, why was it included?

Applying Criminology The Applying Criminology section at the end of this chapter asks students to report whether harsh punishment would reduce young offender threats more than lesser punishments such as probation.

Here are some discussion points to link this section back to the chapter topics: One of the starting points in getting an answer to this question is to think about what we know about crime and why some people are in jail in the first place. For example, if we know that a problem with crime statistics is that it represents crimes that are known about, then the juvenile criminal population represents those individuals who have been caught. To come to the attention of the criminal justice system means that they had to be reported to the police or

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

been the target of police enforcement. Punishing them more harshly means ignoring how they were caught up in the system in the first place. Poverty, a lack of education, a dysfunctional family background—these are all reasons for getting in trouble with authorities. Thus, when discussing the potential stigma of labels versus the need for control and security, highlight how those who are under the attention of the justice system may find themselves subject to selffulfilling prophecies, where stigma can contribute to the continuity of crime. At the back of your mind are the social facts you must remember: many offenders lack educational skills and come from dysfunctional families, and punishment has been shown to do little to deter behaviour and may lead to escalation of activities. Knowing that they will ―age out‖ of crime anyway, you opt for designing a remedial program that will combine literacy training with life skills, and apply for funding to carry out a longitudinal study.

How can I engage my students?

1. What are the reasons usually given to explain differences in the crime rate? How has the COVID-19 pandemic affected these rates?

2. Why might minorities be overreported for some crimes (e.g., drug offences, assault)?

3. Why might women be underrepresented in white-collar crimes?

4. What are the benefits of Uniform Crime Reports? What are some limitations?

5. What information do we learn from self-report surveys? Give some examples of the type of information we learn about crime from these reports.

6. What is the value of tertiary sources, such as meta-analysis, data mining, and crime mapping?

7. Why wouldn’t people report a crime? What factors influence reporting?

8. How might ideas of the economy, opportunity, race, and age converge to effect crime rates? If you were advising politicians on the creation of social programs, how might you suggest they focus their attention? (These ideas are discussed further in Chapter 7 by social structure theorists.)

9. When considering the relationship between guns and crime, why do some people support gun control programs? Why do some people oppose them?

10. Polls show that Canadians tend to believe crime is increasing, despite statistics showing that crime has been decreasing since the 1990s. Why might this be, and what factors can contribute to the perception of safety?

11. What is the relationship between crime and drugs? Do you support a ban on certain drugs? Why, or why not? What about other types of drugs?

12. If we can identify chronic offenders, what should we do to control them? What type of policy would you implement to achieve this goal?

What can I do in the way of assignments and projects?

1. Have students write a short report on how crime in their hometowns might be understood with reference to data found in the UCR.

2. Have students go on social media and observe posts, reactions, or comments on crime

statistics. Have them discuss what kinds of trends in discussions they see occurring and what this might mean regarding how people publicly discuss crime data.

3. In a short paper, describe the impact of media on our perceptions of crime and the professional roles in criminal justice.

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

4. Have students collect news articles about any local crimes. Have them write a few brief

paragraphs on whether the stories influenced their perceptions of safety of the area, their perception of the amount of crime in the area, and whether they felt there was any particular bias being shown by the story.

What can I do online?

1. Jessica Ladd: The reporting system that sexual assault survivors want Jessica Ladd discusses the dark statistics of sexual assault, and how we can change reporting systems to support survivors and reduce or prevent sexual assaults. https://www.ted.com/talks/jessica_ladd_the_reporting_system_that_sexua l_assault_survivors_want 

This website that Ladd created is used for reporting sexual assaults. Discuss the pros and cons of such a system.



Could a similar system be used for other types of crimes? Is it needed? Why, or why not?

2. Statistics Canada UCR database: Allows students to quickly and easily access different surveys and reports on Canadian crime data. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/surveys/3302 3. Hany Farid: The danger of predictive algorithms in criminal justice In this video, Hany Farid, a computer scientist, discusses how he and his research team reverse-engineered an AI risk-assessment predictive program used to determine who might be a high risk to reoffend and found that, even when the AI was not made aware of the race of the offender, previous arrest history was a reliable substitute for race, due in part to overpolicing of visible minority groups. As a result, visible minority offenders found themselves denied parole due to their arrest history. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p-82YeUPQh0 

Why are some criminal justice services turning to technology to determine risk to reoffend? What are potential issues in an uncritical adoption of AI technologies in criminal justice?



In terms of incarcerating or releasing offenders, if our goal is to retain those deemed dangerous, are we doing a good job? If not, how might we improve?

Enhanced Instructor Manual Siegel/McCormick, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 4: Victims and Victimization

Table of Contents Summary .........................................................................................................................23 Chapter Overview .............................................................................................................23

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

Special Features................................................................................................................24 Learning Objectives ...........................................................................................................24 What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these?...............................................................................................................24 How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students? ..................................25 Applying Criminology .........................................................................................................26 How can I engage my students? ........................................................................................26 What can I do in the way of assignments and projects? .......................................................27 What can I do online? .......................................................................................................27

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

Chapter 4: Victims and Victimization Summary Criminologists now consider victims and victimization a major focus of study, with more than one quarter of Canadian citizens being victims of crime each year, and the social and economic costs of crime in the billions of dollars. These problems are varied and include, for example, treatment costs, economic loss, lost earnings and time away from work, and psychological and physical pain.

Like crime, victimization has stable patterns and trends. In general, victims of violent crime tend to be young, poor, single males living in large cities. Crime takes place more often at night and in public places. However, many victimizations also occur in the home, and women and female children are often the target of intrafamilial violence. Many women who are killed are the victims of their husbands.

Several theories of victimization have been developed. One view, called victim precipitation, contends that victims provoke criminals, sometimes just by their identity. Lifestyle theories suggest that victims put themselves in danger by engaging in high-risk activities. The equivalent group hypothesis indicates that most criminals and victims share similar groups and high-risk lifestyles. Routine activities theory maintains that a pool of motivated offenders exists and will take advantage of unguarded, suitable targets. The proximity hypothesis suggests that living in places considered to be more deviant is what increases the chances of being victimized and that the behaviour of an individual has little to do with being victimized.

Numerous programs help victims by providing court services, economic compensation, public education, and crisis intervention. However, victims still complain about feeling victimized by the criminal justice system, whether it is being interviewed by unsympathetic police officers, being forced to wait for their court hearing in the same area of the courthouse as the defendant, not qualifying for legal aid, or not receiving compensation. Recent changes in federal law, such as the Canadian Victims Bill of Rights, are important to consider as we look to see whether some of these concerns with the legal system begin to improve.

Rather than depend on the justice system, some victims have attempted to help themselves. In some instances, this self-help means communities organize for self-protection.

In other instances, victims have armed themselves and fought back against their attackers.

Evidence suggests that fighting back reduces the number of completed crimes but is also related to victim injury.

Chapter Overview Problems of Crime Victims: Loss and Suffering The Perception of the Risk of Being a Victim Problems of Crime Victims: Antisocial Behaviour The Nature of Victimization The Social Ecology of Victimization Victim Characteristics Repeat Victimization Theories of Victimization Victim Precipitation Theory Lifestyle Theories

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

Routine Activities Theory Caring for the Victim The Government’s Response Victim Impact Statements Victim Compensation Court Services Public Education Crisis Intervention Victim–Offender Reconciliation Programs Victims’ Rights Self-Protection Reasons for Not Reporting Crime Fighting Back Community Organization Summary

Special Features Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Police Shootings and the Reaction Profile of a Crime: A Woman Who Killed Key Court Case: R. v. Keegstra Focus on Research Research: The Impact of Wrongful Convictions on Crime Victims Focus on Research: Victims’ Rights

Learning Objectives At the conclusion of this chapter, the student should be able to: 1. Understand the general characteristics of victimization.

2. Be familiar with different patterns of being a victim.

3. Know the theories of victimization.

4. Discuss the programs developed to assist victims.

5. Explain different approaches to prevent victimization.

What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these? 



Victimization trends show that crime is not random but is patterned and predictable. o Have students outline what are the most stable factors related to crime trends.

Use current media reports of crime as examples. o Have students look at crime reporting from local law enforcement about where crimes occur in their city. Are these random, or are certain neighbourhoods more predisposed to certain types of crime?

Victim precipitation theory is often seen as blaming the victim and needs to be clarified using an ―exchange‖ theory of victimization. o Have students discuss how the language of precipitation theory could be used in victim blaming and how they might clarify what is meant.

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

Have students discuss whether the perception of victim blaming occurs more with active precipitation or passive precipitation, why that might be the case, and whether engaging in risky behaviour by a victim ever really excuses a perpetrator.

The routine activities approach explains how some people become victims but has difficulty explaining other aspects of victimization. o Have students discuss how routine activities can help explain some forms of victimization but not others. Have them consider what places in their city might be explained using routine activities, as well as its limitations in explaining crime there. o Have students discuss how social, ecological, and economic conditions might influence when an offender might not pick a target despite ideal conditions. This can be returned to when discussing Chapter 5 and choice theories.

Not reporting crime is one of the major factors that impacts how we understand how much crime occurs in society. o Discuss why some people may fear actually reporting crime, particularly victims of sexual assault and domestic abuse (fear of revenge; not wanting to get the offender in trouble; etc.). Explain how this can lead to a prevalence of reporting some types of crime and not others. o Discuss how some ideas of target hardening may help deter some types of crime but not other, hidden types.

Fighting back has a resonance for students because it seems just; however, there are strict limits on what potential victims can do to protect themselves. o Discuss how the media encourage the idea of the vigilante (e.g., superheroes). o Discuss the pros and cons of fighting back, in terms of both immediate victim safety and societal order if vigilantes are condoned. o







How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students?

1. What patterns do we know about crime and victims (e.g., age, gender, activities, location)?

2. What does the pattern of crime experienced by each gender tell us about who might be the most likely perpetrators?

3. What is victim-blaming? What are the issues with victim-blaming?

4. How do lifestyle theories change our approach to thinking about criminal events?

5. Hate crime has risen in Canada in the past decade. What are some of the reasons why?

6. Describe routine activity theory. What are the theory’s three main elements?

7. Do criminals always act rationally and take into account all factors before they commit a crime? What examples can you think of where this is the case? What examples can you think of where this is not the case?

8. If deviant place theory can be used to explain crime and victimization, then what is a major concern with police using this information to profile and subsequently stop and frisk citizens?

9. The case of Lyn Lavallee challenged our society’s thinking about the lengths to which victims can reasonably go to protect themselves. Discuss student opinions about what they consider to be reasonable, and under what circumstances.

10. What are some of the costs associated with being a victim?

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

11. Advocates raise the issue of gun ownership acting as a deterrent to crimes such as burglary. What do you think? What aspects must be present for deterrence to take place (such as the offender knowing of the victim’s gun ownership)?

12. Calls of systemic racism have increased due to increased public knowledge of people of colour becoming victims of encounters with police. Have students discuss the evidence of systemic racism and what kinds of theories best explain this phenomenon.

Applying Criminology The Applying Criminology section at the end of this chapter asks students to interpret the results of a self-report survey they conducted, which links physical abuse and criminal acts among adolescents. After the scenario, students are asked: What is your interpretation of the association between physical abuse and adolescent crime?

What recommendations would you make about current discussions to reform the Youth Criminal Justice Act to make it more responsive to underlying factors that affect youth crime?

Here are some discussion points to link this section back to the chapter topics: Understanding patterns is key to understanding rates of victimization. Because of this, criminologists have collected research on victimization for approximately the last 30 years. Self-report surveys and interviews have been central to understanding the extent of intimate abuse in our society. We know that it is widespread and underreported. Understanding the ―cycle of violence,‖ as Cathy Spatz Widom calls it, helps us see how victimization turns a victim into the victimizer. Abuse committed within families is perpetuated in the victim’s family years later, but not before it results in acting out and behaviour problems. Failing to do well in school as a result means lower educational achievement, which is reflected in the profiles of juvenile offenders who have been institutionalized. Understanding this, you could argue that reforming the Youth Criminal Justice Act by statutory change could make it incorporate more of a welfare approach rather than a punitive one. A team of social workers and psychologists could work with the offender to address the problems that got them in trouble in the first place. In addition, building in an evaluative component in the legislation would require researchers to test its effectiveness in cohort studies rather than relying on ideology.

How can I engage my students?

1. Have students work in groups to think up a victim crisis or advocacy agency. In which aspects of the victimization process would they want to intervene? How might they go about letting the public know of this service?

2. Have students discuss the kinds of reasons people have for not reporting crime. Are there particular groups (based on age, gender, race and ethnicity, etc.) who might feel there are more problems in reporting to the police than in not reporting?

3. Using relevant media examples, have students discuss the prevalence of hate crimes.

How has this shifted over time? Are some groups targeted more or less than others?

What factors can contribute to shifts in public perception?

4. Have students review Victims’ Rights in the Focus on Research feature on page 124 of the textbook. Which rights do students agree with or disagree with, and why? Why has it taken so long for these rights to emerge?

5. Following a discussion of theories of victimization, ask students which theories are most appealing to them and why they think some theories are better or worse than others.

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

What can I do in the way of assignments and projects?

1. Have students get into groups, develop questions, and survey their own fears of crime and trust in police. Have them write a brief summary of their findings on people’s perceptions of risk, compare the perceptions to actual data regarding crime statistics, and discuss the comparison using academic literature about why there may be similarities or differences.

2. Have students work in small groups to create a one-minute Public Service Announcement to address a factor associated with victimization and safety. Discuss the pros and cons of using these types of methods to inform the public.

3. Have students create a list of the various victim services in their area, including phone numbers, addresses, and websites. Have them observe what types of victimization may be underserved by these services.

4. Have students research instances where people have fought back against crime. Have them discuss the similarities and differences in cultural attitudes toward guns between Canada and the United States.

5. Divide the class into 5 groups, and assign each group one of Victim Precipitation Theory, Lifestyle Theory, Equivalent Group Theory, Routine Activity Theory, and Proximity Hypothesis. Have them come up with an intervention that they think would lower crime using their theory and present it to the class.

What can I do online?

1. Statistics Canada: Police-reported hate crime in Canada, 2020. This report focuses on the rise of hate crime incidents in Canada since reporting began in 2009. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2022001/article/00005eng.htm   

Which groups are reported as more frequently targeted in hate crimes reported to the police?

What theories would best explain their victimization?

What processes might explain why there are more recent reports of hate crimes?

2. Laura L. Dunn: It’s time for the law to protect victims of gender violence Laura L. Dunn discusses how our system needs to change in order to address gender inequality and violence. She focuses on the need for policy reform, not just at the institutional level but as a national strategy, in order to overcome systemic issues that prevent our legal system from being a justice system. https://www.ted.com/talks/laura_l_dunn_it_s_time_for_the_law_to_protec t_victims_of_gender_violence   

While this is focused on the US. system, how is Canada’s system similar or different?

What laws in Canada were developed to give victims more rights? (Canadian Victims Bill of Rights – July 23, 2015; Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms; provincial human rights laws, etc.)

Can students find examples of media reports of recent court cases where victim voices were or were not heard?

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3.

Leslie Morgan Steiner: Why domestic violence victims don’t leave Leslie Morgan Steiner discusses the numerous misconceptions we hold about victims of domestic violence through the story of her relationship with a man who routinely abused her and threatened her life. She focuses on how we might be able to assist in stopping the cycle of abuse. www.ted.com/talks/leslie_morgan_steiner_why_domestic_violence_victims _don_t_leave   

Domestic violence is frequently portrayed as ―a women’s issue.‖ Discuss why this is a major problem.

As mentioned in the talk, what are the typical steps in domestic violence? Do you agree with these?

Why do individuals who are abused stay in abusive relationships?

Have students look at the One Life Lite app, which is designed to help people recognize if they are in an abusive relationship.

4. Michelle Raymond: The Invisible Victims of Crime Michelle Raymond discusses how the discussion of victims of crime can overlook how, when a perpetrator of crime is publicly revealed, their actions can radiate out and affect the immediate family and community. These victims can be further victimized when they are blamed for not seeing signs of impending criminality. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HEFezmxePAk   

Can students find examples of how people related or close to offenders are vilified for not controlling the actions of the offender?

Can students find examples of how such invisible victims might take to social media to defend themselves? If so, how were their defences reacted to by the responding public?

Is there room in our culture to develop compassion for people who are victims of the fallout from someone else’s offending?

Enhanced Instructor Manual Siegel/McCormick, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 5: Choice Theory

Table of Contents Summary .........................................................................................................................30 Chapter Overview .............................................................................................................31 Special Features................................................................................................................31 Learning Objectives ...........................................................................................................32

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What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these?...............................................................................................................32 How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students? ..................................33 Applying Criminology .........................................................................................................33 How can I engage my students? ........................................................................................34 What can I do in the way of assignments and projects? .......................................................34 What can I do online? .......................................................................................................35

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

Chapter 5: Choice Theory Summary Choice theory assumes that criminals carefully choose whether to commit criminal acts. However, people are influenced by their fear of the criminal penalties associated with being caught and convicted for law violations. The more severe, certain, and swift the punishment, the more likely it is to control crime. The roots of rational choice theory are contained in the classical school of criminology. The main proponents of this perspective were Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham. According to classical theory, the purpose of the law is to produce and support the total happiness of the community it serves. Punishment is designed to prevent crime, and if punishment cannot prevent crime, then punishment is used to convince the offender to commit a less serious offence.

The growth of positivist criminology, which stresses external causes of crime and rehabilitation of known offenders, reduced the popularity of the classical approach in the 20th century. However, in the late 1970s, the concept of criminal choice once again became an important perspective of criminologists. Today, choice theorists view crime as offence- and offender-specific. Research shows that offenders consider their targets carefully before choosing a course of action. By implication, crime can be prevented by convincing potential criminals that the risks of violating the law exceed the benefits. Several personal factors condition people to choose crime. Among these are economic opportunity, learning and experience, and knowledge of criminal techniques. For example, boosters use complex methods to avoid detection of their shoplifting, and burglars prefer permeable neighbourhoods. Heavy drug users and dealers show signs of rationality and cunning. Street robbers choose vulnerable targets, while serial murderers pick targets with care. Serial rapists look for targets that will require them to expend little effort.

Understanding that crime is—at its basis—a rational process, situational crime prevention originated with the concept of defensible space in an effort to raise the risks associated with crime and to reduce the rewards offenders achieve from committing crime.

From situational crime prevention emerged the prevention technique of target hardening and the development of new security products designed to reduce opportunities for crime. The benefits of situational crime prevention are diffusion and discouragement, while the problems are displacement and extinction.

Deterrence theory holds that if criminals are indeed rational, an inverse relationship should exist between punishment and crime. However, numerous factors confound the relationship. For example, if people do not believe they will be caught, even harsh punishment may not deter crime. Deterrence theory has been criticized on the grounds that it wrongfully assumes that criminals make a rational choice before committing crimes, ignores the intricacies of the criminal justice system, and does not take into account the social and psychological factors that may influence criminality. Research designed to test the validity of the deterrence concept has not indicated that deterrent measures actually reduce the crime rate.

Specific deterrence theory holds that the crime rate can be reduced if known offenders are punished so severely that they never commit crimes again. However, there is little evidence that harsh punishments actually reduce the crime rate. Incapacitation theory maintains that if deterrence does not work, the best course of action is to incarcerate known offenders for long periods so that they lack criminal opportunity. Research efforts have not provided clear-cut proof that increasing the number of people in prison and increasing prison sentences will reduce © 2024 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

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crime rates.

Choice theory has been influential in shaping public policy. The criminal law is designed to deter potential criminals and fairly punish those who have been caught in illegal acts. Some courts have changed sentencing policies to adapt to classical principles, and the correctional system seems geared toward incapacitation and special deterrence. This is testimony to the importance of classical theory.

Chapter Overview The Development of Classical Theory Choice Theory Emerges Does Crime Pay? The Concepts of Rational Choice Offence and Offender Specifications Rational Choice and Routine Activities Is Crime Rational?

Are Street Crimes Rational?

Is Drug Use Rational?

Can Violence Be Rational?

What Are the Seductions of Crime?

Eliminating Crime Situational Crime Prevention Crime Prevention Strategies Targeting Specific Crimes Crime Discouragers Ramifications of Situational Prevention General Deterrence Certainty of Punishment Severity of Punishment Perception and Deterrence Informal Sanctions Public Surveillance General Deterrence in Review Specific Deterrence in Review Pain versus Shame Rethinking Deterrence Incapacitation Strategies The Logic of Incarceration Selective Incapacitation: The Special Case of Three Strikes and You’re Out Policy Implications of Choice Theory Summary

Special Features Profile of a Crime: The Curious Career of Edwin Alonzo Boyd Focus on Research: How Auto Thieves Plan Their Crimes Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: MAID and the Right to Choose

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Key Court Cases: Effects of the Charter on Deterrence

Learning Objectives At the conclusion of this chapter, the student should be able to: 1. Understand the background of rational choice theory.

2. Be familiar with different crime prevention strategies.

3. Know the elements of general versus specific deterrence.

4. Discuss the logic and limits of incapacitation strategies.

5. Explain the policy implications of choice theory.

What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these? 









The development of choice theory from classical criminology o Discuss how debates about what caused crime led to the decline of classical criminology by the end of the 19th century. o Have students review the four objectives of Bentham’s utilitarian perspective on punishment. Discuss whether elements of these objective still exist today, and in what way they may exist.

How rationality is a culturally dependent way of explaining crime o Divide the class into two groups, one group creating a list of social factors that are related to criminality, and the other creating a list of individual factors related to criminality. o Discuss how political shifts in a culture can place more emphasis on either individual factors or societal ones, and what that means for crime prevention and punishment as a whole.

How crime is tailored to the characteristics of the offender o This is linked to the concept that crime is an event and that criminality is a personal trait. These individuals tend to act purposefully and evaluate their skill at accomplishing the crime. o Have students discuss movies depicting professional criminals (e.g., The Score, The Italian Job) and how these criminals create a plan to use their skills in the best manner to accomplish the job.

The triad of factors explained in routine activities theory and the importance of the interaction among the three factors o Motivation, opportunity, and targets are all interactive. Would a motivated criminal who had found a suitable target be able to commit a crime without an opportunity presenting itself? o Have students evaluate movies of professional criminals (e.g., Heat, The Score) and how these criminals plan, do surveillance, know what they are after, etc.

How crime can be both rational and ―seductive‖ o Discuss how our culture promotes a certain lifestyle. Have students identify how ads and media perpetuate this. For groups without the means to attain these ideals except through crime, this can be tempting. o Discuss how the human species tends to make life as easy as possible for itself.

Ask students if they would commit a crime if they could make a lot of money quickly and were guaranteed that they would not be caught. Would that crime involve violence?

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How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students?

1. Compare and contrast the basic ideas of choice theory with classical theory. How has choice theory changed some of the basic ideas of classical theory?

2. Given that most young offenders age out or desist from crime, why do some continue to violate the law and risk apprehension, trial, and punishment well into adulthood?

3. Many people post plans for vacation or pictures while on vacation on social media. Using the idea of routine activity theory, discuss why this may be problematic. Are there specific practices you would recommend people take to avoid issues with posting their absence from their homes?

4. You are a police officer whose captain has just stated a new initiative. The department will now selectively focus on the areas of the city with the highest crime rates. The captain recognizes that this will leave adjacent areas understaffed; however, he argues that crime is low in those areas. Using your knowledge of rational choice, what do you anticipate will happen to the crime rates?

5. Discuss the similarities and differences between rational choice theory and routine activities theory.

6. Discuss the pros and cons of the primary, secondary, and tertiary levels of prevention.

7. Using the concept of mapping, discuss how your city might use maps to develop calls for service zones.

8. Describe how general and specific deterrence strategies differ in their approach to deterrence.

9. Within rational choice theory, what is the difference between offence-specific and offender-specific crime? Why is this distinction important?

10. When discussing the effects of police actions, discuss whether having a police presence makes all individuals feel safer. Are there groups that may feel less safe? Why? How can this be changed?

Applying Criminology The Applying Criminology section at the end of this chapter asks students to provide recommendations for sentencing practices. After the scenario, students are asked: As someone who has studied choice theory, you have some ideas on how crime rates might be affected if we radically change the way we punished offenders. Initially, you favour selective incapacitation. However, you have come across research called ―Deterrence and Homeless Male Street Youth‖ in the Canadian Journal of Criminology (1998), which causes you to question yourself. The research has found that, although street youths fear legal sanctions, more serious offenders do not. Instead, their fear of punishment is reduced by their poverty. Drug use and association with criminal peers cause a lack of normative constraints. The more serious street youth offenders are immersed in a lifestyle in which crime, drugs, and criminal peers feed off one another, isolating them from conventional society. What would you propose with regard to sentencing for this group of offenders?

Here are some discussion points to link this section back to the chapter topics: Selective incapacitation works, or so says research from the United States, which has employed the concept extensively in targeting chronic criminal offenders. The idea is intuitively attractive because it seems oriented to punish those who offend the most, and who could argue with © 2024 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

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that? However, that policy ignores what happens when punishment is harsher, such as the brutalization effect. In one form of harsher punishment—the three-strikes-and-you’re-out policy—it can actually increase violent crime. It also ignores other factors that might be relevant, such as chronic drug use, which should be treated medically rather than criminally.

That is the problem with such policy initiatives: they seem compelling but they are not based enough on solid research. In this case, it seems that lifestyle, and association with others who support a criminal lifestyle, as well as addictions, compromise any attempts at rehabilitation. As a researcher, you find it hard to support the just desert model, even though it is a utilitarian approach. Instead, you recommend therapeutic intervention, comprised of life-skills training in a discussion group environment, where offenders get a chance to hear and discuss their problems with others. On statutory release, it is recommended that a condition of their probation be that they continue in the groups, with counselling on drug addiction and life skills to support their use of good choices.

How can I engage my students?

1. Have a debate about whether capital punishment should be reinstated in Canada.

2. Discuss the new developments in surveillance. Have students discuss the amount of surveillance they see in their day-to-day lives, as well as the impact that techniques such as data-mining may have on the public if it continues to be poorly regulated.

3. Have students debate why incapacitation strategies have not been as successful for some offenders.

4. Have groups of students make lists of different types of violent, drug, and property crimes, and on chart paper, divide them into those that appear to be more rational and those that do not. Have the groups share their lists and discuss examples that do or do not fit.

5. Discuss the uses and outcomes of various social media shaming techniques. Are there limits to what should and should not be acceptable for shaming someone? What might be the enduring stigmatization or degradation effects of such shaming techniques?

What can I do in the way of assignments and projects?

1. Have students divide into three groups. Develop a prevention plan for crime, with each group taking one level of prevention. Have them estimate what resources (e.g., staffing, money) they might need to carry out their prevention strategy.

2. Review a film about crime (such as Ocean’s Eight, Tower Heist, The Italian Job, etc.) that describes choice theory and routine activity theory. Include a discussion of how the media can perpetuate the idea that ―crime pays.‖ 3. Have students divide into groups and research different social media shaming events.

Have them present on whether the practices used reintegrative shaming, or if they resulted in stigmatization and degradation.

4. Have students form groups and go out and observe how many surveillance cameras they encounter just by going through their day-to-day activities. Have them report back to the class how many they spotted, where they were spotted, and what the purpose of the cameras might be in those locations in terms of deterrence strategies.

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5. Split the class into an even number of groups. Have them research and debate the following: ―Be it resolved that a safe society is paramount; therefore, citizens should accept having no expectation of privacy.‖

What can I do online?

1. Crime Mapping: The Toronto Police Service has provided a number of different kinds of maps to explore different representations of crime in the Toronto region to ―improve the understanding of policing, improve transparency and enhance confidence through the creation and use of open data for public safety in Toronto.‖ Students can use the maps to explore what data are collected, what categories are created, and what types of crime may go unreported or underreported on maps such as these. https://data.torontopolice.on.ca/pages/maps 

What appear to be the most frequently reported incidents? What are the fewest?

What does this say about the types of crime that are reported?



How might choice theory be used to interpret the data on these maps? In what ways might choice theory be limited?



What kinds of suggestions would you make based on the data on these maps? What might you suggest to deter crime?

2. Algorithmic policing: This WIRED video overviews the practice of predictive policing, where various crime data are used to create hot-spot maps that can then be used to direct where to send police on patrol. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7lpCWxlRFAw 

What is the purpose of predictive policing and how does it relate to the concepts of choice theory?



What are some of the arguments against predictive policing made by the critics in the video? What factors do they discuss in relation to how police collect and use crime data?



Hot-spot policing is oriented toward the idea that crime is predictable. What concepts from the chapter support this understanding of crime, and what concepts might challenge that?

3. Steven Levitt: The freakonomics of crack dealing Steven Levitt discusses the idea of whether crime is rational by talking about the economics of drug dealing. Despite what many believe, being a street-corner crack dealer pays below minimum wage, and many people do not take into account other factors, such as personal safety, when making the decision. https://www.ted.com/talks/steven_levitt_analyzes_crack_economics 

Based on what Steven Levitt talks about in terms of the wage disparity, why would people join and work in a gang? What is the likelihood of ―promotion?‖

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

If choice theory is correct, why aren’t people thinking about things like death rates (or arrest rates, etc.) when making their decision? How did the senior gang members ―fool‖ people into getting involved?



Looking at the idea of gangs’ behaviour being rational choices, how are their behaviours similar to those seen in economics and corporations?

Enhanced Instructor Manual Siegel/McCormick, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 6: Trait Theories

Table of Contents Summary .........................................................................................................................37 Chapter Overview .............................................................................................................37 Special Features................................................................................................................38 Learning Objectives ...........................................................................................................38 What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these?...............................................................................................................38 How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students? ..................................39 Applying Criminology .........................................................................................................40 How can I engage my students? ........................................................................................40 What can I do in the way of assignments and projects? .......................................................41 What can I do online? .......................................................................................................41

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Chapter 6: Trait Theories Summary The foundations of trait theory are found in Cesare Lombroso’s work in criminal anthropology and in early biological theory. This early work influenced many later developments, such as sociobiology, which stresses that biological and genetic conditioning influence how social behaviours are learned and perceived. Sociobiologists argue that the gene is the ultimate unit of life that controls human destiny. Under this argument, since biology controls human behaviour, biology is also responsible for a person’s choice to violate the law.

Modern trait theories are not overly concerned with the legal definitions of crime. Trait theorists focus on human behaviour and drives, and argue that traits do not produce criminality; rather, they hold that crime involves both personal traits and environmental factors (i.e., chronic offenders suffer some biological/psychological condition or trait that renders them incapable of resisting social pressures and problems).

Interest has been revived in several areas: (1) biochemical factors, such as diet, hormonal imbalances, and environmental contaminants (e.g., lead, mercury, etc.); (2) neurophysiological factors, such as brain disorders, problems with executive functioning (e.g., fetal alcohol spectrum disorder [FASD], ADHD), EEG abnormalities, tumours, and head injuries; and (3) genetic factors, such as XYY syndrome and inherited traits. Research on the relationship between genetics and crime has focused on the criminal behaviour of offenders and their parents, the criminal behaviour of twins (identical and fraternal), and the criminal behaviour of adopted individuals. Evolutionary theory addresses the idea that violent offences are driven by evolutionary and reproductive factors.

Psychological trait theories include a wide range of theories. Among them are the psychodynamic perspective developed by Sigmund Freud, behavioural theories, social learning theory, cognitive theory, personality and crime, and intelligence and crime. Current research into the Big Five Personality Traits has led to better understanding of individuals who are more likely to engage in criminal activity. Additionally, the categorization of an individual’s behaviours provides a useful tool when determining the risk of future violence, such as those behaviours that make up the concept of psychopathy.

Trait theories have two major implications for public policy related to crime prevention.

The first policy implication involves primary prevention programs that focus on the prevention of risk factors in a broad population before they manifest as crime. The second policy implication involves secondary prevention programs that provide treatment and support to higher risk groups to prevent further delinquent activity.

Chapter Overview Biological Trait Theory Development of Biological Theories Biochemical Conditions and Crime Neurophysiological Conditions and Crime Genetics and Crime Evolutionary Views of Crime Evaluation of the Biological Branch of Trait Theory Psychological Trait Theories

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Psychodynamic Perspective Behavioural Theories Cognitive Theory Mental Illness and Crime Personality and Crime Intelligence and Crime Social Policy Implications

Special Features Focus on Research: Diet and Crime: An International Perspective Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Environmental Factors Implicated in Crime Focus on Research: Teenage Behaviour: Is It the Brain?

Profile of a Crime: Kenneth Parks, Sleepwalker Key Court Case: Women and Insanity in Canadian Society

Learning Objectives At the conclusion of this chapter, the student should be able to: 1. Explain the background of trait theories.

2. Explain biological trait theory.

3. Outline the elements of the psychological trait theory.

4. Discuss the implications of the trait theory approach.

5. Explain the social policy implications of trait theory.

What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these? 





Why do people characterize those who commit horrific crimes, such as mass shootings, as ―crazy,‖ ―deranged,‖ etc.? o Look at media examples (use examples of mass shootings, for instance). Have students form a narrative about what happened, and discuss why we need to form this narrative. o Why do we label the perpetrator in such a way? What is useful about doing this?

How does this perpetuate stereotypes about offenders?

Why do people believe ―others‖ (e.g., not like me) are usually ―bad‖ people, and how might this relate to biological theories? o Use Jane Elliott’s Blue Eyed/Brown Eyed experiment to illustrate how easy it is to form groups. o Discuss the topic in the context of recent media events regarding racism (such as Charlottesville, the Quebec mosque shooting, etc.). o If biology makes people look different, and we are predisposed to form groups, what can be done to decrease racism?

What is the difference between offenders who are mentally ill, those who have other psychological profiles, and psychopaths?

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Media frequently use the generic label of ―mentally ill‖ to categorize all offenders.

Have students discuss how this influences public perception. o How might this affect the public perception for things like Not Criminally Responsible?

Why has social policy changed so much over the centuries? o Have students sketch out the timeline of the progression of biological theories.

What major historical events can be dropped into points in the timeline to show what may have caused shifts in thought? o Discuss Canada’s history with eugenics. How has Canada shifted its policies away from such a practice? In what ways does Canada still have work to do on this front? o



How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students?

1. In terms of television shows and movies, certain physical body types tend to be associated with specific criminal types (e.g., large muscled brutes, scrawny nerdy hackers). Why have these body types become associated with these types of activities?

2. In television shows and movies, certain racial groups tend to be presented as criminals or villains. Why have these portrayals become so common? What is a possible outcome of this in terms of public perceptions?

3. What other factors might be related to both environmental contaminants and violence? (e.g., low income, homelessness, poor housing, and menial jobs) Should these factors be important to consider when writing social policy? If so, why? If not, why not?

4. Why might problems of executive functioning be related to increased criminal behaviour? (e.g., lack of impulse control; learning problems and difficulty with planning make gainful employment difficult; difficulty learning from consequences; tendency to seek excitement) 5. If someone assessed by the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire tests highly for impulsive and aggressive tendencies, should they be detained for the protection of the public?

6. Are individuals who are mentally ill at greater risk for being violent? Discuss the implications when the public perceives this to be the case.

7. If environmental contaminants are linked to increased criminality, what are the implications of lowering environmental standards? Can you think of any examples? (e.g., Grassy Narrows, Flint, Michigan, etc.) Should governments be held accountable, and if so, how?

8. Links between media and violence are frequently discussed, particularly after mass shooting events. What is the relationship between media and violence? Should the government control the violent content on television shows or video games? Why, or why not? What would the implications of such control be?

9. If in utero genetic testing detects a gene for violence, should the fetus be aborted?

Why, or why not? What would the implications of such a policy be?

10. IQ has been found to have some relationship to risk for criminal activity. Why might this be useful knowledge for prevention strategies (primary, secondary, etc.)? Why might reliance on IQ scores be problematic?

11. Social learning theorists view violence as something learned through a process called behaviour modelling. Explain this concept and its three principle sources.

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

Applying Criminology The Applying Criminology section in this chapter asks students to consider the laws about whether a person can be held legally responsible for a crime. After the scenario, students are asked: As a criminologist with expertise in trait theories of crime, do you think this description goes far enough in explaining aberrant behaviour?

Here are some discussion points to link this section back to the chapter topics: As a criminologist, you know there are many theories of what causes criminal behaviour, which are often in conflict with theories that seem to excuse it. However, more basic is that there is conflict between those theories that are micro-social and those that are macro-social. Do we choose explanations that emphasize factors impacting the individual directly, or factors that get at larger contextual variables? Various theorists have attempted to highlight psychodynamic factors, such as Sheldon and his work on somatypes, and more recent research on diet or on environment and how these affect behaviour, evidenced in research that focuses on such seemingly minor factors as sugar and the impact of environmental allergies. Some object to this approach, but cases such as that of Kenneth Parks point to the importance of issues beyond ordinary concepts of mental control. Such theories fly in the face of legal concepts of responsibility, which are very individualistic, and also seem to ignore sociological theories that focus on concepts such as class and gender. However, what such cases show, and the theoretical explanations, is that we live in bodies, not in trees!

How can I engage my students?

1. Have students present examples of how nature (e.g., genetic predisposition) is influenced by nurture (e.g., the environment). For example, height has increased in the population since industrialization. Why? What are some other examples of nurture influencing nature?

2. In discussing environmental contaminants, have students discuss what other factors might be related to both environmental contaminants and violence (e.g., low income, homelessness, poor housing, menial jobs). Why might these contribute to violent tendencies?

3. Following some mass shootings, when people are asked about the shooter(s), they may describe them as having shown signs they might turn to violence. Have groups of students find examples of such descriptions and observe what possible links there might be to trait theories. What descriptions tend to come up more often than others?

4. When discussing primary and secondary prevention strategies, ask whether schools should be required to provide a proper lunch for all children as a crime prevention strategy. Why, or why not? And should this be a primary or secondary level of intervention? Also, would it make sense to provide those programs in some areas more than others or to provide them generally to all?

5. Use a high-profile case as a case study (e.g., Bruce McArthur, Paul Bernardo, Luka Magnotta, etc.), and have students discuss the personality traits that are evident in the information available.

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

What can I do in the way of assignments and projects?

1. Write a review of the movie American Psycho. Patrick Bateman, the main character in

the film, murders several people. Using psychological theories, what might be some of the explanations for his behaviour? How does Bateman describe his own motives, and what does this say about how crime is treated depending on who the offender is? What are some other explanations for his crimes?

2. Have students create PowerPoint presentations that compare and contrast various

biopsychosocial factors influencing crime. Have them include example cases where those factors were highlighted by the reports. Have them reflect on what kinds of factors might be more commonly reported on (e.g., individual factors) as compared to others (e.g., environmental factors).

3. Have students in groups create either a primary (general public) or secondary (at-risk

groups) prevention presentation for educating people about fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD). Students should state how their presentation is targeted to their group and how they think this will work as a prevention tool.

4. Have students pick a scene from a movie or television show that relates to the

psychological or biological aspects of a criminal. When discussing their choice, have them write about what they think made it a good and/or a bad portrayal of the psychological or biological factors. Have them reflect on why such portrayals are so ―entertaining.‖

5. Have students find a media article that is related to mental illness and crime. Have

them discuss how the subject is framed, what type of language is used in the article, and how this contributes to or combats the stigma of mental illness.

What can I do online?

1. Kim Gorgens: The surprising connection between brain injuries and crime: Kim Gorgens discusses how brain injuries are quite common in people who currently are in the criminal justice system. Cognitive impairment can mean they may not necessarily reoffend in violent ways but may miss regular scheduled appointments or court dates due to their injuries and be automatically rearrested. She notes some programs her research group is currently working on to address such issues. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fO2htapfNhA 

Why might the criminal justice system be inadequate to handle brain injuries in inmates?



Are there any programs in your city that might address brain injuries in inmates?

2. Psychopathy Online Test: The following online test is based on the Hare Psychopathy Checklist. It is meant to be fun only and is not intended for diagnosis. However, students may enjoy learning about the test by answering questions for themselves. https://psychology-tools.com/test/pcl-22 However, have students discuss the nature of the questions: 

Does this fit with the idea that ―psychopaths‖ are uncommon in our society?

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

What does this say about how common some of the same traits are in people who are not considered ―psychopaths?‖



Why might some of these traits be important in the evolution and survival of the human species? How might some of these traits be useful in modern society?

3. Executive Function: The Air Traffic Control Centre of the Brain: At this site there is a short video on what executive functions are, why they are important, how we can develop them, and what happens in conditions where there are problems such as ADHD. There are also some follow-up questions by following the ―Think‖ link, and more information by following the ―Dig Deeper‖ link. https://ed.ted.com/on/DN7ZLOtY 

What are the biological components in regard to executive functions? (genes, neurophysiology, etc.)



What social factors might influence the development of, damage, executive functions? What does this mean for nature/nurture?



What might be some important primary and secondary interventions to help ―build better brains?‖

4. Joel Caplan: Focus on places, not people, to prevent crime: Joel Caplan discusses how environmental factors can influence the seriousness and longevity of crime problems. The talk focuses on Caplan and colleagues’ risk terrain modelling tool, which can test a variety of geographic factors to assess how likely a particular environment is to promote crime. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5hKWLY1lZrs  

Does the visualization of the various factors help or hinder our understanding of factors than can influence crime?

How does this model relate to previous chapter’s discussions of crime mapping and modelling?

Enhanced Instructor Manual Siegel/McCormick, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 7: Social Structure Theories

Table of Contents Summary .........................................................................................................................44 Chapter Overview .............................................................................................................44 Special Features................................................................................................................45 Learning Objectives ...........................................................................................................45 What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these?...............................................................................................................45 How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students? ..................................46 Applying Criminology .........................................................................................................47

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How can I engage my students? ........................................................................................47 What can I do in the way of assignments and projects? .......................................................48 What can I do online? .......................................................................................................48

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Chapter 7: Social Structure Theories Summary Social structure theories propose that being in the disadvantaged economic class is the primary cause of crime and that lower-class crime is often violent and committed by gang members or marginally employed young adults. The three branches of social structure theory are social disorganization, strain, and cultural deviance.

Social disorganization theories were influenced by the work of Burgess, Park, Shaw, and McKay, who studied Chicago, a city typical of transitions taking place in many urban areas.

Transitional neighbourhoods had excessive crime rates, while the zones farthest from city centres had the lowest crime rates.

Durkheim said that anomie occurs when the rules of behaviour (norms) break down during periods of rapid social change, undermining social control. Merton modified the concept for modern society, saying that the disjuncture between culturally defined goals and socially approved means to obtain those goals produces anomic conditions. Legitimate means of achieving success are stratified across class and status lines, so those with little education and few economic resources are denied the ability to acquire wealth, which leads to crime.

Institutional anomie theory states that antisocial behaviour is a function of cultural and institutional influences. The North American dream emphasizes the accumulation of material goods and says that prosperity is an achievable goal. Institutions that might control exaggerated emphasis on financial success have been rendered powerless or obsolete because noneconomic functions and roles have been devalued.

Furthermore, general strain theory identifies micro-level or individual influences of strain arising from failure to achieve positively valued goals. The greater the intensity and frequency of strain experiences, the greater their impact and the likelihood of crime. Thus, lower-class youth can protest against the norms and values of middle-class culture. The delinquent gang is a separate subculture that results from socialization practices of ghettos and slums. Middle-class measuring rods that arise from the failure to meet the standards of the middle class are the primary cause of delinquency.

Finally, differential opportunity means that people share the same success goals but some have limited means of achieving them. Those who cannot advance by legitimate means join with like-minded peers to form criminal groups. Opportunities for success, both illegal and legal, are closed for the ―truly disadvantaged‖ youth. These young people join one of three gangs: criminal gangs, conflict gangs, or retreatist gangs.

Public policy implications of social structure theory centre on providing inner-city dwellers with opportunities to share in the rewards of conventional society. Approaches of this nature include financial assistance via welfare; improving the community structure in highcrime, inner-city areas; employment assistance programs and other ―War on Poverty‖ efforts; and crime reduction strategies.

Chapter Overview Sociological Criminology Economic Structure and Crime Inequality

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

Are the Poor Undeserving?

Unemployment and Crime Branches of Social Structure Theory Social Disorganization Theory Concentric Zone Theory The Social Ecology School Strain Theory Anomie Theory Institutional Anomie Theory Relative Deprivation Theory General Strain Theory Cultural Deviance Theory Conduct Norms Focal Concerns Theory of Delinquent Subcultures Theory of Differential Opportunity Evaluation of Social Structure Theories Social Structure Theory and Social Policy Community Policing Summary

Special Features Profile of a Crime: Seeds of Hope at the Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Inquiry Focus on Research Research: Carl Dawson and the McGill School Profile of a Crime: Women Who Kill Their Children Key Court Case: Henry Morgentaler Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Muskrat Falls and the Controversy over Hydro Development

Learning Objectives At the conclusion of this chapter, students should be able to: 1. Identify the various structural factors underlying crime.

2. Explain the difference between social structure and trait theory.

3. Describe the elements of social disorganization theory.

4. Discuss strain theory and its overlap with cultural deviance.

5. Explain how to evaluate policy initiatives based on this approach.

What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these? 

How crime and economic structure are related

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

Discuss how inequality sometimes has less to do with the people themselves and more to do with the lack of resources available to them in order have similar opportunities as those living in well-off areas. o Discuss Hagan’s concept of social embeddedness and how youth who manage to get early work experience and contacts have more opportunities to embed themselves into those situations as compared to those who become embedded in early criminal experiences.

The concept of anomie o Discuss how situations of rapid social change (e.g., situations where the rules and measures to be taken are in constant flux) can lead to situations where society cannot maintain control over the population’s wants and desires, possibly leading to strain and criminal behaviour. o How can this concept help explain the idea of executive functioning from the previous chapter? (e.g., ADHD links with increased youth crime) How institutional anomie is related to social structure o What are some status symbols in our society? How do we learn these represent status? How do people with lesser means gain access? o Discuss media representations of success. What are common symbols of success and achievement as depicted in popular media? How might this be related to gang recruitment?

How social structure can place ―strains‖ on individuals who have no legitimate means of obtaining middle-class goals, as well as on those who do o Use media examples to show how individuals can be made to feel pressure to achieve. o Discuss whether students have ever felt pressure to obtain ―status goals.‖ What contributes to the creation of this pressure?

How culture can mean different groups have different behavioural expectations and norms. o Use media examples to show how different groups in the same society places value on different measures of success. What differences can be seen in life expectations of those groups? o Discuss differential opportunity and how perception of one’s place can lead people to join gangs or other criminal groups. o

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



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How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students?

1. Have students discuss the link between economy and crime. In what ways does this relationship differ from trait theories and choice theories?

2. Have students discuss which status symbols are important to them. If there are a number of examples, discuss how those differences hint at the idea that different people have different norms and values they follow even in the same society.

3. Discuss the concept of social disorganization. What are the characteristics of a disorganized community?

4. Does ―lower-class‖ culture exist? If so, how is it different from the ―average‖ culture?

5. How might a strain theorist explain crime among the middle class? What about the upper class?

6. Have students define Cloward and Ohlin’s three different gangs and what the main

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differences are between each.

7. List Merton’s five modes of adaptation and provide examples of each mode.

8. Why don’t all people who experience strain commit crimes?

9. What are the differences between social disorganization theory and cultural deviance theory?

10. What might be some ways for police to engage with various marginalized groups (e.g., the Indigenous population, LGBTQ, the black community)? What might be some barriers for police trying to engage those communities, and how might they overcome them?

Applying Criminology The Applying Criminology section of this chapter asks students to come up with a plan for a mayor that will increase collective efficacy of local neighbourhoods in an attempt to reduce crime. After the scenario, students are asked: Your problem is threefold: (1) How can collective efficacy be improved through social programs? (2) What test will show whether the social programs are responsible for lower violent crime rates? (3) How will participation in the programs be encouraged?

Here are some discussion points to link this section back to the chapter topics: The challenge is a test of your research abilities. How are you going to measure the lack of collective efficacy and attempts to increase it? Furthermore, if you can measure it, how will you see whether it is related to crime rates? First, you need a sample of what collective efficacy looks like, such as a community survey of satisfaction, before introducing a community crime control measure to understand its potential impact. Second, you need an initiative, such as an after-school recreational program, which draws on volunteers to help divert youths from boredom activities such as graffiti and smoking in the park, with the intention of decreasing disorganization and increasing community involvement. This has been identified by youths as a need, although adults had not seen it as an issue or a solution until now. Third, you need a follow-up survey of both youths and community to see whether the needs of both groups are now being met. The short-term costs will not be high, and the long-term benefits will be considerable.

How can I engage my students?

1. Divide the students into three groups and assign them a branch of social structure

theory. Have each group prepare to debate why that theory makes the most sense for understanding crime in their city.

2. Following a discussion of social structure theories, have students debate the following topic: ―Be it resolved that social structure does have an impact on whether one commits crime.‖ 3. Have students look at media examples for community policing policies (e.g., carding in certain neighbourhoods, or increased police presence in neighbourhoods as a response), and for community-oriented policing (special initiatives among refugee communities, etc.).

4. Have students look at crime maps (either from their city or in a city they know has crime map data). Using their knowledge of the city, how would the three branches of social structural theory explain the types of crime they see being reported in different areas?

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

What can I do in the way of assignments and projects?

1. Have students reflect on the three forms of collective efficacy by having them write about the neighbourhoods they grew up in. Have them write about how their neighbourhoods may or may not have promoted collective efficacy, as well as why or why not some people may have been impacted by them.

2. Using local maps, have students locate areas that might be transitional. What features are likely to make them transitional? Have them explain why they think those areas are transitional.

3. Have students create a PowerPoint to present to the class showing why and how ―the rich get richer.‖ Show how current favourite movies, television shows, and music seem to reinforce this idea.

4. Have students write a report on how strain theory explains some of the rise in hate speech and crimes against immigrants.

What can I do online?

1. Merton’s Strain Theory in The Wire. Have students go to the following website, which deals with elements of Merton’s strain theory and links these to clips from Season 3 of HBO’s The Wire.

https://www.thesociologicalcinema.com/videos/mertons-strain-theory-inthe-wire 

Detail the points of the conversation between Avon and Stringer that would link Avon to an innovator and Stringer to a conformist.



Detail the points of the conversation between Bubbles and Jonny to highlight those instances that demonstrate that they are retreatists.

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Detail the points of the conversation indicating that Bubbles may be becoming more of a conformist.

2. Julien Bourrelle: How culture drives behaviours: Julien Bourrelle may not discuss crime in this TED talk, but this talk helps demonstrate how culture can shape different expectations in accepted behaviour and actions. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l-Yy6poJ2zs 

How does this talk help us understand why different groups may have different conduct norms?



Through this talk, how can we begin to understand how strain is experienced by different groups?



How can community-oriented policing benefit through an understanding of how culture drives behaviour?

3. Tracie Keesee: How the police and the public can create safer neighborhoods: In this TED talk, Tracie Keesee discusses the need to build trust and communication between communities and policing and why these are essential in creating public safety. https://www.ted.com/talks/tracie_keesee_how_police_and_the_public_can

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_create_safer_neighborhoods_together?language=en

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What is the concept of ―co-production‖ and why is it important to increase public safety?

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Why is having police learn about implicit bias important?



Why is it vital to understand how officers are treated within the policing organization? How can those in power within the organization help frontline officers to deal with stress and trauma?

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Do you think that all communities are ready to have conversations with police about how to increase public safety? What if they aren’t? How do we remedy this and move forward together (three fundamental ideologies)?

4. Ann-Helen Bay: Why is it so hard to escape poverty? Ann-Helen Bay explains in this short video why poverty can be difficult to escape. While this video is not about the links between crime and poverty, it will be useful to show to students in order to reinforce why the links between poverty and crime are not necessarily the fault of individual decisions but have more to do with social structural forces. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D9N7QaIOkG8 

Bay discusses the concept of universal basic income (UBI). Using what they know about crime and economic structure, have students discuss how UBI might impact certain types of crime in Canada.



Have students consider how status frustration may occur for people who are unable to escape poverty and achieve success legitimately.

Enhanced Instructor Manual Siegel/McCormick, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 8: Social Process Theories

Table of Contents Summary .........................................................................................................................51 Chapter Overview .............................................................................................................52 Special Features................................................................................................................53 Learning Objectives ...........................................................................................................53 What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these?...............................................................................................................53 How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students? ..................................54 Applying Criminology .........................................................................................................54 How can I engage my students? ........................................................................................55

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What can I do in the way of assignments and projects? .......................................................55 What can I do online? .......................................................................................................55

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Enhanced Instructor Manual: Siegel/McCormick, Criminology in Canada, 8e, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology

Chapter 8: Social Process Theories Summary Social process theories view criminality as a function of people’s interactions with society’s various organizations, institutions, and processes. Everyone has the potential to become a criminal if he or she maintains destructive social relationships. The more social problems encountered, the greater the likelihood that youths will encounter difficulties and obstacles.

Social process theory has three main branches: social learning theory stresses that people learn how to commit crimes, control theory analyzes the failure of society to control criminal tendencies, and labelling theory maintains that negative labels produce criminal careers.

The social learning branch of social process theory suggests that people learn criminal behaviours much as they learn conventional behaviours. Family structure and crime are related when high rates of divorce are considered, especially if family conflict is involved. Adolescent achievement in school has also been linked to criminality, and school dropouts face a significant chance of entering a criminal career. Peer influence is universal because adolescents feel pressure to conform to group values.

Differential association theory, formulated by Edwin Sutherland, holds that criminality is a result of a person perceiving an excess of pro-crime definitions over definitions that uphold conventional values. Differential associations vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity and involve mechanisms found in any other learning process. Criminal behaviour is not excused by general needs because noncriminal behaviour expresses those same needs. In addition, direct conditioning or differential reinforcement and negative reinforcement also shape the learning process. Ronald Akers has reformulated Sutherland’s work using principles of reinforcement and punishment. He calls his approach differential reinforcement theory.

Neutralization theory says that delinquents defuse conventional values as they drift back and forth between legitimate and illegitimate behaviour. Techniques of neutralization include denial of responsibility, denial of injury, denial of a victim, condemning of condemners, and an appeal to higher loyalties.

Control theories maintain that all people have the potential to become criminals but that our bonds to conventional society prevent most of us from violating the law. Walter Reckless’s containment theory suggests that a person’s self-concept aids his or her commitment to conventional action. On the other hand, Hirschi’s social bond theory says that the onset of criminality is linked to the weakening of bonds to society. All individuals are potential law violators, and without these social ties or bonds, a person is free to commit criminal acts. The four elements of the bond are attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief.

In social reaction theory, crime is defined by how people react to crime and the subsequent effects of that reaction. The law is differentially applied, favouring the powerful members of society who direct its content, and penalizing people whose actions represent a threat to those in control. Social reaction theory (labelling theory) is concerned with the creation of stigma and the effect on self-image. Such labels as criminal, ex-con, and junkie serve to isolate people from society and lock them into lives of crime. Labels become the basis of personal identity, and while primary deviance has little influence on the actor, secondary deviance occurs when the deviant event comes to the attention of significant others or social control agents who apply a negative label, which resocializes the person into a deviant role.

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The last section looks at so-called integrated theories. Life-course theories integrate biological, psychological, and social factors, looking at transitions from one stage of life to another. Crime is a developmental process impacted by positive and negative life experiences that occur throughout the lifespan. Integrated theories interconnect personal, social, socialization, cognitive, and situational factors to examine why people enter a criminal way of life. For instance, the social development model specifies that a child must maintain prosocial bonds to control the risk of antisocial behaviour. An individual reacts to constraints and motivations shaped by five key domains of human development—self, family, school, peers, and work—that continuously evolve, with each life domain influencing the others. Latent trait theories, on the other hand, explain crime over the life cycle as the result of personal attributes that may be present at birth and can remain stable over time. People who are antisocial during adolescence are the most likely to persist in crime as opportunities to fluctuate arise over one’s life course.

This chapter sees a criminal career as a passage along which people travel, affected by structural, socialization, biological, psychological, and opportunity factors. The theories differ in their view of human development, with life-course theories suggesting that people constantly change and latent trait theories claiming the opposite. Developmental theories have prompted multidimensional treatment strategies.

Chapter Overview Social Processes and Crime Family Relations Educational Experience Peer Relations Institutional Involvement and Belief Branches of Social Process Theory Social Learning Theory Differential Association Theory Differential Reinforcement Theory Neutralization Theory Are Social Learning Theories Valid?

Social Control Theories Self-Concept and Crime Containment Theory Social Control Theory Labelling Theory Crime and Labelling Theory Differential Enforcement Becoming Labelled Consequences of Labelling Primary and Secondary Deviance General Theory of Deviance Differential Social Control Research on Labelling Theory Is Labelling Theory Valid?

New Directions in an Integrated Developmental Theory Overview of Integrated Theories

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The Social Development Model (SDM) Elliott’s Integrated Theory Integrated Structural Marxist Theory The Glueck Research Life Course Emerges An Evaluation of Social Process Theory Social Process Theory and Social Policy Summary

Special Features Profile of a Crime: Brock Turner Profile of a Crime: Fateful Turns in the Difficult Life Course of Tyrone Conn Key Court Case: John Martin Crawford Focus on Research: Women, Desistance, and Fearful Futures Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Systemic Racism and Changing Perceptions

Learning Objectives At the conclusion of this chapter, the student should be able to: 6. Explain social process theories.

7. Explain the difference between social process theories and structure theory.

8. Outline the elements of labelling theory.

9. Discuss some new developments in integrating developmental models.

10. Explain different policy strategies developing out of this approach.

What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these? 

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

Are the social process explanations of crime testable? o Discuss what it means to be ―testable‖ and why the social process explanations might not be. For instance, how some studies, which may use interview methodologies, are not generalizable from their results but are still important explorations of social behaviour.

If criminal behaviour is learned, can it be ―unlearned‖? o Discuss the models that we have that suggest our system believes this (i.e., skills training models—we send offenders to programs, such as ―anger management‖ and ―substance abuse management,‖ to learn new ways of dealing with issues.

What does this mean for the process of ―unlearning?‖ o Discuss cases where skills training does not work well—such as with psychopaths.

How can people ―drift‖ between illegitimate and conventional behaviours? o Discuss how techniques of neutralization relate to the rationalization of behaviours. Use an example such as jaywalking—technically an illegal act, but often overlooked because one might rationalize the dangers away by saying, ―I waited until no one was around.‖

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o

Have students look on social media for examples of people trying to rationalize their behaviours.

How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students?

1.

2.

3.

4.

What critical elements of socialization have been linked to criminality?

Which comes first: deviant friends or criminal behaviour?

How might institutions limit potential criminal behaviour?

Why do we create labels for others? Are they helpful or harmful? How might the label of ―criminal‖ keep a person from escaping a life of crime?

5. Can social control theory explain all modes of criminality, or is it restricted to particular groups or forms of criminality?

6. Discuss three of the main elements of differential association theory.

7. What are some examples of crimes that could be explained by differential association theory? What are crimes that would not be easily explained?

8. What does differential reinforcement theory do differently from differential association?

9. How can someone rationalize their choice to offend?

10. What kinds of policies have been developed that use process theory ideas?

Applying Criminology The Applying Criminology section of this chapter asks students to consider whether a “get tough” approach would work in Canada. After the scenario, students are asked: As a social process theorist, you believe that criminal attitudes and behaviours are learned.

Weak ties to parents and families, poor school performance, and so on, influence the actions of the individual. Considering these effects, do you believe a ―get tough‖ program could actually work, or does it miss the underlying causes of the behaviour? You have been asked to address a local community council about whether shaming could deter crime. What would you say?

Here are some discussion points to link this section back to the chapter topics: Your research, unfortunately, puts you at odds with popular sentiment. While most people might favour a get-tough approach, the research shows that this results in a ―labelling effect,‖ where an offender is stigmatized in the community. This stigma contributes to their sense of shame and, rather than being specific deterrence, it contributes to their inclination to reoffend.

If people feel that they are on the outside as deviants, they are more likely to associate with like-minded others in a subculture, which will reinforce their sense of victimization and ensure further deviance. In this way, differential association and techniques of neutralization will work against your best efforts. As Kaplan said, youths with a poor self-concept are more likely to engage in delinquency, and this actually raises their self-esteem. A better crime control strategy, which might seem counterintuitive, is to operate a restorative justice process, which will help heal breaks between the community and the offender, especially for those offenders who have been identified as low risk, and as good risk for intervention programs. This is a form of diversion, with a proven track record of success.

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How can I engage my students?

1. Split the class into three groups and have students debate which branch of social process theories offers the best explanation for criminal behaviour.

2. Look for media examples of how the children of powerful elites get away with criminal activities. Discuss how Sutherland’s differential association could be used to explain a generational pattern to crime.

3. Have students work in groups to create charts to summarize the various social process theories. You can then upload them for students to use as study material.

4. Have students discuss the pros and cons of labelling people in our society. Can labels ever be useful?

5. Have students look for media examples of people rationalizing their own offending behaviour or rationalizing someone else’s offending behaviour. Have the students identify the techniques of neutralization being used in those examples.

What can I do in the way of assignments and projects?

1. Are sports teams good or bad? Have a debate about how participating on a sports team might be considered a prosocial factor and how it might lead someone to engage in criminal activities.

2. Have students work in groups and research famous criminals, searching in particular for evidence to support or contradict the idea of a life course of criminal behaviour. Is early onset of criminal behaviour important in the development of career criminals? Have the groups present on their famous criminal.

3. Have students search social media for examples of people who use techniques of neutralization to justify their offending behaviours. Have them write a short paper describing which techniques are being used and possible subterranean values that may exist in that context.

4. Have students research what local community programs are available that try to help people avoid crime.

What can I do online?

1. Alice Goffman: How we’re priming some kids for college, and others for prison Alice Goffman details her experience living in Philadelphia and watching how poor individuals in marginalized and racialized communities learn from one another how to distrust a system that appears to be set up against them. https://www.ted.com/talks/alice_goffman_college_or_prison_two_destinie s_one_blatant_injustice 

How would social control theories fit with what Alice Goffman discusses?

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How does this story—which looks at incarceration rates of minorities in the United States—relate to Canada’s incarceration rates, particularly among Indigenous populations?

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What initiatives can you think of that might be useful for lowering incarceration rates among marginalized communities?

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2. John Shaw: Labels are for food, not people In this video, John Shaw discusses how labels can evoke strong emotional responses in people, as well as affect people in different ways. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WNwTzV3PksU 

How do labels impact our understanding of certain aspects of a person?

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During certain crimes, media may make use of labels that evoke strong responses.

What labels of criminal activity can you think of that evoke strong responses?

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How might we deal with labels and stigma?

3. Shannon Sliva: How restorative justice could end mass incarceration In this video, Shannon Sliva discusses how restorative justice might help heal both affected communities and offenders. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wPA-p6UUDl4 

Have students discuss why we do not have more restorative justice programs in place at this moment. Why is there a trend towards more retributive punishment?

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Have students look up whether their local communities have restorative justice programs in place. If they do not, have them discuss why their local communities may not prioritize such programs.

Enhanced Instructor Manual Siegel/McCormick, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 9: Social Conflict Theory

Table of Contents Summary .........................................................................................................................58 Chapter Overview .............................................................................................................59 Special Features................................................................................................................59 Learning Objectives ...........................................................................................................59 What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these?...............................................................................................................60 How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students? ..................................60 Applying Criminology .........................................................................................................61 How can I engage my students? ........................................................................................61 What can I do in the way of assignments and projects? .......................................................62 What can I do online? .......................................................................................................62

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Chapter 9: Social Conflict Theory Summary Social conflict theorists view crime as a function of the conflict that exists in society and suggest that crime in any society is caused by class conflict. Social conflict has its theoretical basis in the works of Karl Marx, as interpreted by Willem Bonger, Ralf Dahrendorf, and George Vold. Marx and Engels discussed how workers are caught up in a process of social demoralization that leads to crime and violence. Subsequent conflict-based theorists, such as Bonger, Dahrendorf, and Vold, argue that criminal law punishes only the acts that injure the interests of the ruling class. Those in power create laws to protect their rights and interests. All criminal acts have political undertones. The legal system discriminates against the poor by defending the actions of the wealthy because modern society is organized along lines of domination and subordination.

Criminal acts are a consequence of direct contact between forces struggling to control society.

Richard Quinney has called this concept the social reality of crime. One of conflict theory’s most important premises is that the justice system is biased and designed to protect the wealthy.

Research has not been unanimous in supporting this point.

Critical criminologists view crime as a function of the capitalist mode of production, which produces haves and have-nots, each engaging in a particular branch of criminality. Those with economic and political power control the definition of crime and how the criminal justice system enforces the law. Critical criminology has two components: instrumental theory and structural theory. In the instrumental view, criminal law and the justice system control the poor, and those who wield economic power define illegal or criminal behaviour. The structural view argues that criminal law does not always work for the rich and against the poor, as the law is not the exclusive domain of the rich, but it is used to maintain the long-term interests of the capitalist system.

Contemporary forms of critical theory include left realism, which rejects the utopian views that street criminals are working-class heroes. Their approach is that street criminals prey on the poor and disenfranchised, so the poor are doubly abused: first by the capitalist system and then by members of their own class. Critical feminist theory views the unequal power of men and women in a capitalist society. For example, the juvenile justice system has viewed most female delinquents as sexually precocious girls who have to be brought under control. Powercontrol theory looks at how parents’ class positions influence the criminality of children. In paternalistic families, mothers control the behaviour of their daughters and grant greater freedom to sons. In egalitarian families—ones in which husbands and wives share similar positions of power at home and at work—daughters gain freedom that reflects reduced parental control, so the law-violating behaviour of daughters rises. Queer criminology focuses on the treatment of the LGBTQ population by society and the justice system, including the damage done by stereotypes and representations of people as sexual deviants. For example, international studies have looked at the treatment of LGBTQ people around the world, including the denial of due process, physical violence, and disproportionate sentencing.

Peacemaking theory promotes mediation and conflict resolution, while reintegrative shaming theory argues that shame is a powerful tool of informal social control. Through disapproval, offenders begin to understand and recognize their wrongdoings and shame themselves. The concept of restorative justice is often hard to define because it encompasses a variety of programs and practices, such as victim–offender restoration programs and sentencing circles.

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The core value of restorative approaches can be put into one word: respect. Respect insists that we balance concern for all parties—victim, community, and offender. Most conflicts are better settled in the community than in a court.

Chapter Overview Marxist Thought Productive Forces and Productive Relations Marx on Crime Developing a Social Conflict Theory of Crime Willem Bonger Ralf Dahrendorf George Vold Modern Conflict Theory Conflict Criminology Research on Conflict Theory Analysis of Conflict Theory Marxist Criminology The Development of a Radical Criminology Fundamentals of Marxist Criminology Economic Structure and Surplus Value Instrumental Marxism Structural Marxism Research on Marxist Criminology Critique of Marxist Criminology Other Directions in Critical Criminology Left Realism Feminist Theory Deconstructionism Restorative Justice Peacemaking Criminology Summary

Special Features Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Capitalism Destroys the Planet Focus on Research: Wrongful Convictions Key Court Case: R. v. Gladue Profile of a Crime: The Case of Colten Boushie

Learning Objectives At the conclusion of this chapter, the student should be able to: 11. Explain the background of social conflict theory.

12. Discuss the different theorists who use the social conflict approach.

13. Describe the various types of Marxist criminology.

14. Discuss the difference between Marxist criminology and other approaches.

15. Explain new directions in critical criminology.

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What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these? 







Why does it seem that Marx ignored race, ethnic, and sex differences in crime? o Marx did not actually ignore those factors. Rather, according to his theory, capitalism is a system that is based on gross inequality, which requires the division of the majority through whatever means possible. Racism, ethnocentrism, and sexism all serve this purpose.

How does relative deprivation increase with social differentiation? o Have students look at various social problems (e.g., morbidity and mortality, obesity, teenage birth rates, mental illness, educational performance among schoolchildren, the proportion of the population imprisoned) for differing ethnic groups in society, and compare them to estimated income levels. Have students discuss the following: as the disparity in income increases between ethnic groups, do the other social problems display any particular pattern?

Why are women treated differently by the justice system? o Have students look up cases with female offenders and discuss with them the various ways gender intersects with race, class, and other factors to produce differential outcomes and representations. o Have a discussion centred around the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls and the ways in which Indigenous cases have historically been treated differently by the criminal justice system.

Why is looking for mitigating factors in an offender’s background important for restorative justice? o Have students discuss why looking for mitigating factors in an offender’s background might assist a victim in healing. o Have students think of a time when they were angry with someone. What happens when they try to look for reasons for the other person’s behaviour from that person’s point of view? Typically, anger decreases.

How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students?

1. Have students think of examples of Vold’s idea that laws are created by politically oriented groups. How do media cover such examples?

2. How did Marx and Engels influence social conflict theory with their view of crime? What has been used by other scholars since?

3. Explain the differences between instrumental and structural Marxism.

4. Explain the new approach of ―left realism‖ and how it differs in its premises.

5. Explain the differences between the various feminist approaches to criminology.

6. What is deconstructionism?

7. Discuss relevant media coverage of laws and the justice system in treating genders differently (e.g., sexual harassment stories where women are hesitant to come forward; how are they treated by police, employers, and media?).

8. How might you go about educating the public on restorative justice as an alternative to punishment?

9. Have students look at the Gladue ruling. Why is considering the factors related to being from a marginalized population important to reducing generational crime?

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10. Have students bring a news article about criminal activity in your local area and discuss whether the crime is related to social class, gender, or other potential conflict.

Applying Criminology The Applying Criminology section of this chapter asks students to consider whether having police officers and drug-sniffer dogs in a school that has no prior drug problems is fair or is violating civil liberties. After the scenario, students are asked: 1.

2.

3.

Are civil liberties being violated? If so, which ones? Provide some details.

If you were a lawyer, what type of legal or other action would you advise your clients to take? Estimate their chances of success.

Is the crime risk larger or smaller than the control risk?

Here are some discussion points to link this section back to the chapter topics: There is a lot of support for drug searches, out-of-sight searches of cars, searches conducted during roadside stops, and so on. The prevalent opinion is, ―If you have nothing to worry about,‖ such searches should not pose a problem. However, what many people seem not to realize is that such searches are unconstitutional because they violate the right to be innocent until proven guilty. In the United States, such searches have been challenged as unconstitutional even though police maintain their right to stop and search vehicles at random.

In Canada, stops and searches have to be random, as in a roadside sobriety check, or justified.

The ―stop and frisk‖ program in New York has been shown to work mostly against youths and people of colour. When it comes to youth, constitutional protections seem to fly out the window, given their high likelihood of being stopped. That aside, from self-report surveys, we know the extent of drug use and abuse among youths, so that is not a mystery. What remains is what is to be done about it. Some advocacy groups say to do nothing, while others say the authorities should be more involved in controlling abuses by police. What is apparent, however, is that this is a policing issue, not a deviancy issue. The decision to do drug searches in schools cannot be retroactively justified by what is found: it is a violation of individual rights, which must be carefully balanced against the need to protect society. And when it comes to drugs, it’s difficult to see the danger.

How can I engage my students?

1. Have students debate the relationship between capitalistic societies and crime: ―Be it resolved that, since crime is related to class structure and inequality, a socialist society is superior to a capitalist society when it comes to crime reduction.‖ 2. Regarding structural and instrumental Marxism, have students discuss whether the justice system is geared toward controlling criminals or sustaining the capitalist economic system.

3. Have students discuss the emergence of the different feminisms, including queer theory.

Have them focus on how gender intersects with crime and the criminal justice system.

4. Discuss relevant media coverage of laws and the justice system in treating genders differently. For example, regarding sexual harassment stories, why are women hesitant to come forward? How do police, employers, the media, and so on, treat women?

5. How can restorative justice be sold as an alternative sanction if the public supports more punitive sanctions?

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What can I do in the way of assignments and projects?

1. Divide the class into two groups. Have the different groups research cases that could be argued to relate to instrumental Marxist theory and structural Marxist theory.

2. Have students look at the Ontario Human Rights Commission report on racial profiling by police: http://www.ohrc.on.ca/en/public-interest-inquiry-racial-profiling-anddiscrimination-toronto-police-service/collective-impact-interim-reportinquiry-racial-profiling-and-racial-discrimination-black Have students use this as a basis for write a paper on how conflict theory might explain these findings.

3. Have students research restorative justice and have a debate on the merits of it as a system of remedying crime.

4. Analyze popular movies such as The Hunger Games, Star Wars, and Mean Girls in terms of how the ideas of conflict theory can be used to explain the dystopian setting and situations.

5. Have students examine the coverage of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls. How can the various feminisms help us understand how this story is framed?

What can I do online?

1. Maxwell Melvins: Using the story of my crime as a platform for restorative justice In this video, Maxwell Melvins discusses his experience both with incarceration and with the Lifer’s Group, as well as his advocacy to help youth. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_5uZ0QQhCJw 

What can we use from social conflict theory to understand Melvins’s experience with the criminal justice system?



How is his approach using rap guided by the three principles of restorative justice?

2. Laila Fakhoury: Restorative Justice In this video, Laila Fakhoury applies the concept of restorative justice to school contexts to minimize the school-to-prison pipeline. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MSy-qOiYjrA 

Think back to your pre-college/university schooling—how were conflicts managed by your school? Was something like restorative justice used? If not, would it benefit from that approach?



How might schools benefit from a change from zero-tolerance policies?

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3. Search for media stories that exemplify conflict: Journalists often frame issues in their stories as a conflict between two opposing views (such as giving a lot of attention to strong but extreme minority opinions rather than to the moderate majority, as well as focusing on violence—if it bleeds it leads). Often, this is done to appear fair and balanced. Have the students find their own examples of the media framing issues in terms of conflict, and discuss the following: 

How does the journalist (or media outlet) frame the issue? Does this contribute to the feeling that each side has an equal weight?



Does the journalist give both sides equal time in the discussion?



Are both sides equally credentialed? Do they have equal expertise?



Is it accurate to portray everything as equal? Does that mean the same as ―fair and balanced‖? What is the impact on the listener/viewer/reader of the story?

Enhanced Instructor Manual Siegel/McCormick, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 10: Violent Crime

Table of Contents Summary .........................................................................................................................64 Chapter Overview .............................................................................................................65 Special Features................................................................................................................65 Learning Objectives ...........................................................................................................65 What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these?...............................................................................................................66 How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students? ..................................66 Applying Criminology .........................................................................................................67 How can I engage my students? ........................................................................................67 What can I do in the way of assignments and projects? .......................................................67 What can I do online? .......................................................................................................68

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Chapter 10: Violent Crime Summary The causes of violence are many and varied. They include exposure to violence, personal traits, evolutionary factors and human instinct, substance abuse, socialization and upbringing, and cultural values and the subculture of violence. Several main forms of violent crime are examined here: sexual assault, murder, assault, and robbery.

Interpersonal violent crime can take many forms. Sexual assault has been known throughout history, and at one time it was believed that a woman was as guilty as her attacker was for her rape. Even today, less than 10 percent of all sexual assaults are reported to police each year. Sexual assault has a relatively low clearance rate for violent crime, and it is a difficult charge to prove because it is essential to prove a lack of consent. The causes of sexual assault include evolutionary or biological aspects of the male sex drive, male socialization, psychological abnormality, social learning, and sexual motivation.

Murder is the unlawful killing of a human being. Murders are classified into different degrees and their punishments vary accordingly. Murder/homicide rates are very low in Canada.

Murder victims and offenders tend to be males and under the age of 25. Indigenous Canadians are disproportionately represented as both homicide victims and offenders. Most murders occur between people who are acquainted. School shootings are often in the media but are relatively rare. Serial killers operate over a long period of time, while mass murderers kill many victims in a single, violent outburst. Most experts view serial killers as sociopaths who, from early childhood, demonstrate bizarre behaviour.

Assault is a common violent crime. Offenders are typically young, male, and white. Assault rates are highest in urban areas, during the summer, and in northern and western regions.

Serious assaults that are reported to police often involve acquaintances. Hate crimes are acts directed toward a particular person or members of a group merely because the targets share a discernible racial, ethnic, religious, gender, or sexual orientation characteristic. Intrafamily violence is an enduring social problem and includes women killed by their current or former husbands or boyfriends and children who have been abused. Victims experience fear, posttraumatic stress disorder, behaviour problems, socialization problems, sexualized behaviour, and poor self-esteem. A trend is also developing toward violence between dating couples on university and college campuses.

Robbery involves theft by force, usually in a public place. Types of offenders include professional, opportunist, addict, and alcoholic robbers.

Several recently recognized forms of violent crime are also discussed, such as workplace violence. Controlling it involves mediating disputes, job retraining and continued medical coverage after layoffs, fair hearings for terminations, rigorous screening to identify violenceprone employees, and restricting weapons in the workplace. Another recently recognized form of interpersonal violence is school violence, although fortunately, Canada has not seen the rapid increase in school violence that has been observed in the United States since 2000.

Crimes of violence comprise only about a quarter of all crime in Canada, but they create persistent harm among their victims and for that reason deserve attention. Our knowledge in this area is constantly evolving.

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Chapter Overview The Roots of Violence Personal Traits Ineffective Families Evolutionary Factors/Human Instinct Cultural Values Regional Values Substance Abuse Firearm Availability Sexual Assault History of Rape Sexual Assault and the Military Incidence of Sexual Assault Types of Rapists Types of Rape The Cause of Sexual Assault Sexual Assault and the Law Homicide Degrees of Homicide The Nature and Extent of Homicide Murderous Relations Homicide Networks Types of Murderers Serial Homicide Assault Assault in the Home Causes of Child Abuse Spouse Abuse Robbery The Ecology of Robbery Robber Typologies Evolving Forms of Violence Workplace Violence School Violence Summary

Special Features Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: London, Ontario, Van Attack Profile of a Crime: Two Killers Focus on Research: Masculinity and Sexual Violence among the Urban Poor Key Court Case: Arthur Lucas and Ronald Turpin

Learning Objectives At the conclusion of this chapter, the student should be able to: © 2024 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

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1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Describe the various factors involved in violent crime.

Describe the different major violent crimes.

Identify the elements of sexual assault, murder, and robbery.

Discuss the different patterns of violent crimes.

Explain some preventive approaches to violent crime.

What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these? 







What services are available to assist victims of violence? How are they accessed and how successful are they at assisting victims? o Various organizations, such as sexual assault crisis centres and transition houses, deal with victims of violence. These organizations could present in class, creating opportunity for discussion.

What are common myths about rape, and how do they keep getting perpetuated? o Have a police officer specializing in sexual violence or someone from a shelter or other community organization come speak about sexual violence, the myths, and what can be done to reduce rape culture.

Much violence, such as gendered assault, is promoted by our culture, an idea often difficult to understand, but which can be demonstrated through advertising. o Have students analyze advertising and music videos for how the content perpetuates myths about relationships that could lead to gender violence. o Have students recall ideas brought up regarding feminist criminology from Chapter 9 to interpret how violence is gendered.

How do crime rates increase from east to west in Canada? o Have students discuss regional values. Explain how different provinces may have somewhat different social structures and social conflicts. o Use Statistics Canada data to show differences between provinces.

How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students?

1. How can cultural values help explain violent behaviour?

2. How does firearm availability contribute to potential crime?

3. In most crimes (e.g., robbery), the victim does not have to prove that they did not entice the perpetrator (e.g., flaunting expensive jewellery), so why does the victim of sexual assault have to prove that they didn’t encourage the perpetrator? Is this gender biased? How might this affect a victim’s willingness to report?

4. Much of the public still believes that strangers perpetrate most sexual assaults. What do you think perpetuates this myth?

5. If violent crimes often have a high clearance rate and most are committed by acquaintances, why are sexual assault crimes an exception?

6. Of the types of murders outlined, what kinds do you feel get discussed the most in the news? Are there types of murders that are not discussed?

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7. Discuss the generational cycle of relationship violence. What can be done to reduce this cycle if a child witnesses violence in the home?

8. How does society react to a serial killer being a woman?

9. Despite child abuse being more commonly a product of family violence, media tend to focus on the dangers children face from strangers. Why do you think that is?

10. What might be some reasons for the difference between the school shootings in Canada versus the United States? Given the three frequent reasons provided after shootings— mental health issues, media and video game violence, and access to guns—how do Canada and the United States compare on these reasons?

Applying Criminology The Applying Criminology section of this chapter asks students to consider if stricter enforcement of a law against adult men who have sex with underage youth would be appropriate to reduce teen pregnancies. After the scenario, students are asked: As a criminologist with expertise on sexual assault and its effects, what would you recommend regarding implementation of the law?

Here are some discussion points to link this section back to the chapter topics: It is difficult to legislate moral behaviour, and none is more difficult than sexual behaviour.

Statutory rape is a difficult type of case, because it does not involve violence and it only technically does not involve consent. It is, automatically, criminal because consent cannot be given below a certain age. The age of consent varies historically and across culture. It is mala prohibita. Surveys that have been done show a high amount of under-age sexual behaviour and the difficulty of prohibiting such behaviour. One strategy is to circumvent criminalization and opt instead for education, where emphasis is put instead on sex education, disease prevention, and healthy relationships. If local educational and health authorities approve this model, it can easily be tested with a cohort model study.

How can I engage my students?

1. Show students ―rape crisis‖ or ―sexual violence‖ websites for their city or province so they can see what kinds of information is available. Discuss with them information that they may have already known or things that surprise them.

2. Have students look up stories of gang violence. Ask them to consider concepts from Chapter 7’s discussion on the formation of gangs and how those ideas might help explain gang violence.

3. Have students distinguish between the different types of sexual assault. It has been suggested that there are different causes of sexual assault. Discuss those causes.

4. Discuss the different types of serial killers and have students look up examples for each.

5. Have students search through newspaper articles for examples of robber typologies.

What can I do in the way of assignments and projects?

6. Have students locate stories of violent crime from different provinces. Have them write a short discussion paper on whether they see differences in the types of violence discussed from east to west in Canada.

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7. Have students put together a list of resources and organizations in their local community that assist families, women, and/or children who are experiencing family violence.

8. Create a Public Service Announcement video on sexual assault with the goal of removing myths and destigmatizing victims.

9. Have students debate whether spanking is abuse: ―Be it resolved that as spanking is a parent physically hitting a child without their permission, it is therefore assault, and therefore child abuse.‖ 10. Divide the class into groups and have them focus on either serial killers or mass murderers. Have them look up stories related to either and discuss as a group how the media discusses the type of murderer they are focused on. As a class, have them report their findings and see what is similar and what is different about both kinds of reporting.

What can I do online?

1. Contextualizing Crime Data. Have students examine crime data from Statistics Canada, such as provided below, paying particular attention to rates of violent crime, child abuse, and other relevant categories. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2022001/article/00013eng.htm  

Have students review concepts from Chapter 3. Are there any that can help us understand the discussion of violent crime in this chapter?

What can we use from this chapter to explain some of the findings in this particular report?

2. Jackson Katz: Violence against Women—It’s a Men’s Issue Jackson Katz discusses why we label domestic violence and sexual abuse as ―women’s issues.‖ He points out how power and privilege have allowed men to avoid taking responsibility for many of the issues that contribute to the continuation of cycles of violence. www.ted.com/talks/jackson_katz_violence_against_women_it_s_a_men_s_ issue 

Find media articles that discuss domestic or relationship violence. Is the sentence structure consistent with Jackson Katz’s argument about how language contributes to labelling victims?



Is changing the status quo important? What is needed to change the status quo?



What is the bystander approach? Is this something you think you can do? Do you have any examples of having been able to do this?

3. Sue Klebold: My son was a Columbine school shooter. This is my story.

Sue Klebold, the mother of Dylan Klebold, spent years grappling with the event’s aftermath and searching for what could have been done to prevent her son’s violence, often blaming herself. In this TED talk, she discusses the relationship between mental

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health and violence and pushes us to further examine the link between suicidal and homicidal thinking. https://www.ted.com/talks/sue_klebold_my_son_was_a_columbine_shoote r_this_is_my_story?language=en#t-7429 

What is the link described between those with mental health concerns and suicide, and how does this relate to violence?



Find media articles about offenders who have been found not criminally responsible due to mental deficiency (e.g., Vince Li, Richard Kachkar, etc.), and discuss how mental illness played a role in their crime. What needs to be done to reduce the likelihood of future tragedies?



Given what Sue Klebold talks about with regard to those thinking about suicide, what might this mean for those who want to die by ―suicide by cop?‖ What might police need to know when approaching such situations to bring about more positive outcomes (e.g., Sammy Yatim, Alek Minassian, etc.)?

4. Aaron Stark: I was almost a school shooter In this video, Aaron Stark discusses his childhood and how he overcame abuse and bullying through an act of kindness. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=azRl1dI-Cts 

What criminological theories covered to this point can be used to explain why Stark did not go through with committing to his plan?



What lessons can we take from his talk to try and address future potential shootings?

Enhanced Instructor Manual Siegel/McCormick, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 11: Property Crimes

Table of Contents Summary .........................................................................................................................71 Chapter Overview .............................................................................................................71 Special Features................................................................................................................72 Learning Objectives ...........................................................................................................72 What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these?...............................................................................................................72 How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students? ..................................73 Applying Criminology .........................................................................................................73 How can I engage my students? ........................................................................................74 What can I do in the way of assignments and projects? .......................................................74 What can I do online? .......................................................................................................75 © 2024 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

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Chapter 11: Property Crimes Summary Self-report studies show that property crime among the young in every social class is widespread. Occasional criminals commit most thefts, but other theft offenders are, in fact, skilled professional criminals. The great majority of economic crimes are the work of amateur criminals whose decision to steal is spontaneous. Their acts are unskilled, impulsive, and haphazard. Professional criminals make a significant portion of their income from crime.

One form of property theft is shoplifting. Only about 10 percent of all shoplifters are professionals who derive the majority of their income from shoplifting. Most shoplifters are amateurs. Criminologists view shoplifters as people who are likely to reform if apprehended.

Fraud is a different form of theft and occurs when people conspire to cheat a third party or institution. Many embezzlement-style crimes occur within institutions and organizations and go unnoticed as a result.

Motor vehicle theft is another common property crime and includes joyriding, short-term transportation, long-term transportation, profit, or commission of another crime. Car thieves show signs of rational choice in their target selections; they typically choose vehicles that have high profit potential after stripping the component parts, which are then sold on the black market. Different regions in Canada have different rates of recovery of stolen vehicles, depending on whether they are stolen for resale or chopped for parts.

Break and enter is done in order to commit burglary. Some residential burglars are crude thieves, while others are professional thieves who carefully learn their craft. Some burglars prefer to victimize commercial properties such as retail stores. The characteristics of the good burglar are technical competence, maintenance of personal integrity, specialization in burglary, financial success, and the ability to avoid prison sentences. Burglars progress through a ―career ladder.‖ They begin as young novices, go through the journeyman stage, and finally become professional burglars.

Arsonists have several motives. Adult arsonists may be motivated by severe emotional turmoil, and some psychologists view starting fires as a function of a disturbed personality.

Some arsonists experience sexual pleasure from starting fires, while others are angry people looking for revenge against property owners. Some fires are started by teenagers out to vandalize property; juvenile fire setting has long been associated with other conduct problems, such as being delinquent or being severely disturbed. Some professional arsonists commit arson for profit or for fraud.

Property crime is by far the most prevalent form of crime in Canadian society.

Chapter Overview Some Basic Patterns A Brief History of Theft Modern Thieves Occasional Criminals Professional Criminals The Non-Professional Fence Theft

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Theft Today Shoplifting Auto Theft False Pretences or Fraud Identity Theft Bad Cheques Computer Fraud Credit Card Fraud Embezzlement Break and Enter The Extent of Break and Enter Careers in Burglary Burglars on the Job The Female Burglar Arson and Vandalism Cybervandalism: Crime with Malicious Intent Summary

Special Features

Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Fairy Creek and Competing Definitions of Commodity Focus on Research: On the Run Key Court Case: Arson and a Wrongful Conviction Profile of a Crime: Protesting for the Environment: Arson, Vandalism, and the Case of Wiebo Ludwig

Learning Objectives At the conclusion of this chapter, the student should be able to: 1. Describe the scope of property crime.

2. Identify different types of property crime.

3. Identify the types of property crime that are evolving.

4. Discuss the implications of certain crimes on the victim.

5. Explain different strategies for combatting property crime.

What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these? 



Why economic crimes may seem less harmful than other types of crime. o Have students recall the concept of neutralization theory from Chapter 8. Using examples throughout the chapter of various crimes, frame how neutralization theory might help explain possible reasons for engaging in them (e.g., fraud, confidence games, etc.)

Differences between occasional and professional criminals. o Have students recall concepts from Chapter 5 on choice theory and Chapter 7 on social structure theory. Have them discuss what concepts can be used to explain the similarities and differences between occasional and professional criminals.

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



How patterns of property crime can be understood using historical, rational, and psychological theories. o Have students work in groups, with each group looking at the patterns of property crimes from one of the following theories: historical, rational, and psychological. As a class, discuss which ones are more appropriate, and highlight instances when theories may not work to understand some situations.

How connections between the historical progression of crime relate to law enforcement changes and population changes. o Have students discuss how changes in crime and in law enforcement can be cyclical. Have them highlight relevant factors, such as economic changes, population and community shifts, government policy changes, etc. o Have students reflect on interactionist perspectives and how crime can change over time.

How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students?

1. Discuss the situation of Fairy Creek and why the state appears to protect corporate interests and protesters try to protect the environment. Have students discuss the different Marxisms (instrumental and structural) from Chapter 9 as a way to frame the discussion.

2. What theories can be used to explain shoplifting?

3. What might be some differences that can help distinguish between car theft by professionals and car theft committed for joyriding?

4. Why might some victims of a break and enter not report the crime? How can this affect our collection of information for the Uniform Crime Report (Chapter 3)?

5. Discuss the difference between private justice and public policing. Is more private justice/private policing the solution to property crime?

6. Do home alarm systems that have visible signs protect the home or advertise to potential burglars that there is something of value to steal? What concepts of deterrence do these methods remind you of (Chapter 5)?

7. Do gender differences in burglary reflect gender differences found in other segments of society? How so?

8. What are the four categories of motives for arson? How do you differentiate between them? What might be other signs that are relevant?

9. Under what circumstances could a person commit arson for profit? How might you expect these crimes to vary depending on the economy?

10. With the increased awareness of the problem of climate change, someone like Wiebo Ludwig, who was labelled an eco-terrorist, might now be viewed differently. How has the government changed in its response to environmental protests?

Applying Criminology The Applying Criminology section in this chapter asks students to think about ways people could safeguard their homes from burglary during holiday seasons.

Here are some discussion points to link this section back to the chapter topics:

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Property crime is more extensive than violent crime and is also harder to solve. Break and enters rank among the most common forms of property crime, especially in urban areas. Taking theft-preventive measures to reduce victimization is time well spent, for example, removing valuables from backyards and keeping your car locked in the driveway. A problem for many homeowners is that some suggested precautions may seem exaggerated. Putting a mannequin in a chair by the window seems too much like security theatre, and buying a weighted safe deposit box may feel like too much effort. They seem excessive when most property crime is motivated by opportunity and target availability. However, installing deadbolts, security lights, and electronic surveillance do seem like good ideas, and they are not very expensive. But are they cost-effective or merely fear-preventive? Research does show that situational crime prevention measures work in deterring the routine activity of crime, they are not very expensive, and they usually pay off in the long run. At the very least, they create more peace of mind.

How can I engage my students?

1. Work in small groups to create a prevention plan for a store to implement to reduce shoplifting. Present them to the larger class.

2. Have students discuss in small groups how the argument that crime is a rational choice is supported by looking at the crime of arson. Have groups summarize their discussions for the larger class.

3. Have students look at media examples of Ponzi schemes. How are these similar to other types of confidence games? How are they different?

4. Discuss the concept of cybervandalism. How is cybervandalism as problematic as reallife vandalism? Are there ways in which cybervandalism might be more or less problematic? Revisit this question after discussing Chapter 14.

5. Frequently, we obtain increased security at the cost of privacy (e.g., addition of cameras and surveillance). Have a debate in class between the ideas of security and privacy.

What can I do in the way of assignments and projects?

1. Have students work in groups to create a Public Service Announcement aimed at educating the public about the following topics: a. Auto theft and how to reduce the chances of being victimized b. Phishing scams among older adults, and what can be done to increase resiliency c. Target hardening our homes during the holiday season 2. Have students go out and photograph examples of graffiti around their town. Have them write a short paper on vandalism and whether all the graffiti they observed would count as vandalism.

3. Work in groups to write a script for your own telemarketing or email scam. Think about the following: a. Who is the target mark? b. What things make this more likely to be successful?

Present them to the class for discussion about how you reduce the likelihood of such a scheme working. The following website can be of use: www.fbi.gov/scamssafety/fraud/seniors/seniors#atf. © 2024 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

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4. Look for media stories about Ponzi schemes, such as Madoff’s. Have students write a brief summary on the techniques used to defraud victims.

5. Have students research more about the ongoing desire to combat auto theft. Have them find news stories about new techniques and tools criminals may use to access more technologically sophisticated vehicles, and discuss the ongoing race to be one step ahead of methods to break security. Have them relate this discussion to the section on media practices from Chapter 3 regarding the selective reporting of crimes.

What can I do online?

1. Apollo Robbins: The art of misdirection In this video, Apollo Robbins discusses his work as a pickpocket, a sleight-of-hand artist, and a security consultant to show how pickpockets can succeed in their work. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GZGY0wPAnus 

How is pickpocketing a skill that must be learned?



How is pickpocketing a rational choice?



What other theories explain the process of pickpocketing?

2. Brian Garcia: Graffiti culture—criminal activity or artistic expression?

In this video, Brian Garcia discusses the culture of graffiti, his experiences with graffiti, and legalization of graffiti walls on his inner-city borough. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EWi1SSkC3IQ 

Not all graffiti will be intended to be beneficial to a community, but do you think graffiti is universally bad?



What theories can be used to explain graffiti around your local community?



What programs could be developed to allow street art or graffiti to be integrated into a city’s identity?

3. Caleb Barlow: Where is cybercrime really coming from?

Caleb Barlow discusses how cybercrime has become a worldwide issue costing billions of dollars per year, with our current strategies to protect our data being insufficient. https://www.ted.com/talks/caleb_barlow_where_is_cybercrime_really_com ing_from?language=en 

Why is it often frequently months before companies report that they have had a data breach?



On the news, we hear that nation-states are responsible for cybercrime. Is this true?

Why is this the narrative?



What is the Dark Web? How do criminals use it?

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

Why does Caleb Barlow appear to have little confidence in traditional methods of enforcement for these types of criminals, and what is his suggestion. What do you think?

Enhanced Instructor Manual Siegel/McCormick, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 12: Crimes of Power: White-Collar, Corporate, Green, and Organized Crime

Table of Contents Summary .........................................................................................................................77 Chapter Overview .............................................................................................................78 Summary ................................................................................................................................................ 78 Special Features................................................................................................................79 Learning Objectives ...........................................................................................................79 What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these?...............................................................................................................79 How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students? ..................................80 Applying Criminology .........................................................................................................80 How can I engage my students? ........................................................................................81 What can I do in the way of assignments and projects? .......................................................81 What can I do online? .......................................................................................................82

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Chapter 12: Crimes of Power: White-Collar, Corporate, Green, and Organized Crime Summary Crimes of power refer to white-collar crime and organized crime. Edwin Sutherland first used the phrase ―white-collar crime‖ to describe the criminal activities of the rich and powerful.

Sutherland argued that white-collar crime involved conspiracies by members of the wealthy classes to use their positions in commerce and industry for personal gain without regard to the law.

Contemporary definitions of white-collar crime are typically much broader. There are several types of white-collar crime. Stings and swindles involve the use of deception to bilk people out of their money. Chiselling customers, businesses, or the government on a regular basis is a second common type of white-collar crime. Surprisingly, many professionals engage in chiselling offences. Other white-collar criminals use their positions in business and the marketplace to commit economic crimes, involving illegal payments, embezzlement, employee pilferage, fraud, client fraud, influence peddling, and bribery. Furthermore, corporate officers sometimes violate the law to improve the position and profitability of their businesses, which may include price-fixing, false advertising, and environmental offences. More recently, computers have been used to commit high-tech crimes, such as counterfeiting, or variations on old crimes, such as libel.

Law enforcement efforts aimed at white-collar crime have generally been more reactive rather than proactive. Most offenders do not view themselves as criminals and therefore do not seem to be deterred by criminal statutes, and white-collar criminals were often considered nondangerous offenders. Although thousands of white-collar criminals are prosecuted each year, their numbers are insignificant compared with the magnitude of the problem. Law enforcement strategies to combat white-collar crime involve deterrence, which uses punishment to frighten potential abusers, and compliance, which creates economic incentives to obey the law.

Green criminology is a relatively new category and includes offences such as crimes against the environment. For example, the asbestos industry was inundated with lawsuits after scientists established the connection between asbestos and lung cancer. Many other examples have come to public attention in recent years, from the grounding of the Exxon Valdez to the explosion on the Deepwater Horizon oil rig. Green crime is defined from various perspectives: the legalist, that of environmental justice, and the biocentric. Topics discussed in this section include illegal logging, environmental pollution, and the illegal exportation of wildlife.

There are seven major characteristics of organized crime: organized crime is a conspiratorial activity, organized crime has economic gain as its primary goal, organized crime activities often work through legitimate activities, organized crime employs predatory tactics, organized crime disciplines its members, organized crime is not synonymous with the stereotypical Mafia, and organized crime does not include terrorists.

Contemporary organized crime groups are a loose confederation of ethnic and regional crime groups, bound together by common economic and political objectives. One important contemporary change in organized crime is the interweaving of ethnic groups. Organized crime

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employs ruthless monopolistic tactics to maximize profits, is secretive, is protective of its operations, and is defensive against any outside intrusion. Much debate surrounds the control of organized crime. Efforts to control organized crime have been stepped up; for example, various federal laws were passed in the 1990s to supplement existing Criminal Code provisions to prohibit acts intended to derive income from criminal gangs or even being a member of a criminal organization. However, as long as vast profits can be made, illegal enterprises will continue to flourish. In that regard, they function in ways similar to those of corporate crime.

Chapter Overview White-Collar Crime Redefining White-Collar Crime The White-Collar Crime Problem International White-Collar Crime Components of White-Collar Crime Types of White-Collar Crime Stings and Swindles Chiselling Individual Exploitation of Institutional Position Influence Peddling and Bribery Embezzlement and Employee Fraud Client Frauds Corporate Crime Green Criminology Defining Green Crime Forms of Green Crime The Causes of White-Collar Crime Greedy or Needy?

Corporate Culture Theory The Self-Control View Controlling White-Collar Crime White-Collar Law Enforcement Systems Corporate Policing White-Collar Control Strategies: Compliance White-Collar Control Strategies: Deterrence Organized Crime Characteristics of Organized Crime Activities of Organized Crime Organized Crime and Legitimate Enterprise The Concept of Organized Crime The Development of a Syndicate Organized Crime Groups Transnational Organized Crime Controlling Organized Crime The Future of Organized Crime Summary

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Special Features Focus on Research: Is Chicken Farming Foul?

Key Court Case: Deepwater Horizon Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Wet’suwet’en Protest against Pipeline Profile of a Crime: Human Trafficking

Learning Objectives At the conclusion of this chapter, the student should be able to: 16. Identify the factors that make crimes of power possible.

17. Describe the different types of corporate crime.

18. Describe the elements of trying to control crimes of power.

19. Discuss different types of organized crime and attempts to control.

20. Explain how green criminology is an attempt to address environmental harm.

What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these? 





Why does white-collar crime tend to be punished less frequently or harshly than bluecollar crime? o Focus on the costs of white-collar crime compared to blue-collar crime, and discuss. Have students relate back to theories of why we have criminal laws. o Have students spend some time looking for news articles about crime, sorting them into white-collar and blue-collar. Discuss how white-collar crime, despite often being far more costly and damaging, is also in the news far less often, and how this may translate into how the public perceives white-collar crime as having a lower impact on society as a whole.

Resource development in poor economies often relies on funding from the government and can result in environmental pollution. How does that relate to the concepts of whitecollar and green-collar crimes? Are corporations held accountable? o Have students research Bre-X. How did that company take advantage of working in poorer nations? How was it held accountable? o What power does the public have to hold companies accountable? Can you think of any examples of this happening?

Explain the differences between compliance and deterrence strategies for preventing white-collar and green-collar crime. Which strategy tends to be more effective, and why? o Have students create charts of visuals for each strategy, listing the abilities to prevent white-collar and green-collar crime. Discuss how these strategies resemble or differ. o Have them look at media articles for evidence of such strategies being developed or used. o Have students re-examine social conflict theories from Chapter 9. How might the policing of white-collar crime be explained using instrumental or structural Marxism?

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How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students?

1. Is white-collar crime rare, or is it unlikely to be reported or detected?

2. Distinguish between white-collar crime and corporate crime. Discuss what the two terms have in common and how they differ.

3. According to Edelhertz, what are the four major components of white-collar crime?

Discuss examples of each.

4. Which definition of green-collar crime do you tend to agree with? Why? What are the benefits/costs to your definition?

5. How do government ideologies tend to shift which crimes are focused on? How might this apply to the emergence of green crimes?

6. Could disasters such as the Lac-Mégantic train crash have been prevented by more effective regulations? Is it important to demand that corporations be held responsible? If so, how?

7. Is enforcing legislation to deter green-collar crimes important? Why, or why not? Have you noticed different willingness on the parts of government to enforce environmental laws?

8. President Barack Obama denied a permit to finish a pipeline that would run under the Missouri river; President Donald Trump reversed that decision and allowed it. What does this say about governments’ ability to mitigate potential environmental disasters?

9. Discuss the concept of white-collar crime as ―victimless.‖ How does financial or insurance crime impact everyday citizens? Why are people less concerned about these types of crime?

10. How is organized crime organized?

Applying Criminology The Applying Criminology section of this chapter asks students which theories of criminal behaviour best explain the actions of computer criminals.

Here are some discussion points to link this section back to the chapter topics: In an individualistic society like the West’s, we think of computer crime as based on individual, rational choice. This said, there is also room to consider the role of culture, particularly how the subcultures of those who use computers heavily may conflict with the role demands of conventional society. Furthermore, computer crime is not something anyone is able to do without practice and training, which means that learning theory must also be considered. All of these interpretations lend themselves to the understanding that computer crime is a learned behaviour by people who are involved in a subculture. Because joining that subculture requires agency, it is conceivable that it is the choice of the individual to get involved in it. Thus, much like how occupational crime can occur as a white-collar worker learns the expected cultural behaviours of their workplace, someone involved in computer crime may learn accepted behaviours due to subcultural expectations. As organized crime adopts more technologies into its tactics, those within this subculture may find themselves called upon to assist organized crime networks.

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How can I engage my students?

1. Have students debate whether corporations should be encouraged or regulated when engaging in resource extraction in developing nations. What are the pros and cons for each side?

2. Discuss the reaction to the Westray explosion or the Lac-Mégantic train crash. Have governments done enough to ensure situations like this will not happen again? Why, or why not?

3. Discuss whether Canada is doing enough to deal with green crime. Have students consider local situations and whether those have been dealt with appropriately. If they feel that not enough is being done, what do they think should be done?

4. How is white-collar crime portrayed in mainstream media? What impact might this have on the public’s view of these crimes?

5. Discuss whether there are any times a corporation might have potentially harmful practices that are ―for the greater good‖? For example, ―Focus on Research: Is Chicken Farming Foul?‖ discusses the poultry industry. Is this ―too harmful,‖ or do the ends (feeding millions of people) justify the means?

What can I do in the way of assignments and projects?

1. Have students work in groups and assign each group one of Moore’s typologies of white-collar crime. Have each group present on their typology, and include media examples.

2. Have students present on a movie or a TV show that has some element of white-collar crime in it. Discuss how it is viewed and how this can influence public perception.

3. Have students research and write a brief summary of a company not already covered in the chapter that has been accused of corporate crime. Include the following: a. What was the crime? b. Who was affected? c. What was the impact? d. Was the company held accountable? If so, how? e. What might be done to prevent future occurrences?

4. Have students work in groups and assign each group a different definition of greencollar crime. Have them find examples of their assigned definition of green crime and what the history and consequences of the crime were.

5. Have students work in groups and assign them a group engaged in organized crime (Asian, Indigenous, traditional, etc.). Have them present on their organized crime group.

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What can I do online?

1. Heather Brooke: My Battle to Expose Government Corruption Heather Brooke discusses how our leaders need to be held accountable and reasons why the public tends to have difficulty doing this. Brooke recounts her discovery of corruption in the British Parliament, which led to a major political scandal in 2009 and the resignation or prosecution of many government officials. She emphasizes the necessity of having freedom of information. www.ted.com/talks/heather_brooke_my_battle_to_expose_government_corru ption   

Discuss why freedom of information is necessary in a democracy.

Discuss how the Canadian government is making access to information more challenging.

Is this important to Canadians? Why, or why not?

www.cbc.ca/news/politics/suzanne-legault-warns-mps-against-raising-accessto-information-user-fees-1.2862491 2. POPPY Interactive: POPPY Interactive allows students to see how drug money destabilizes entire countries, fuels global conflicts, and allows a worldwide illegal economy to grow. https://poppy.submarinechannel.com/PoppyPresskit.pdf https://poppy.submarinechannel.com/   

Have students explore the site and discuss how the drug trade is linked to organized crime, terrorism, sex trafficking, and money laundering.

What are the differences between the Northern, Balkan, and Southern routes?

Why do countries not simply export legal products? Compare the pricing and profit margins between coffee, cocaine, and heroin.

3. Eduardo Salcedo-Albarán: Untangling transnational criminal networks In this video, Eduardo Salcedo-Albarán demonstrates how networks of criminal organizations can prevent easy action from being taken against identified leaders in order to destabilize or neutralize transnational organized criminal networks. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vfoCZ6OO-hM  

What theories best explain transnational organized crime networks?

Is organized crime glamorized by media portrayals? Do they give inaccurate portrayals of organized crime?

4. Jojo Mehta: Ecocide law: protecting the future of life on Earth

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In this video, Jojo Mehta discusses how there is a need to define laws to protect the Earth, such as defining ecocide, the destruction of ecosystems, as a crime. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BftYb3G52og  

What definitions of green crime would Mehta’s definition of ecocide fit under?

Why is ecocide not already a crime? What do you think it will take to get it passed as a crime?

Enhanced Instructor Manual Siegel/McCormick, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 13: Public Order Crimes: Legislating Morality

Table of Contents Summary .........................................................................................................................84 Chapter Overview .............................................................................................................85 Special Features................................................................................................................86 Learning Objectives ...........................................................................................................86 What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these?...............................................................................................................86 How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students? ..................................86 Applying Criminology .........................................................................................................87 How can I engage my students? ........................................................................................88 What can I do in the way of assignments and projects? .......................................................88 What can I do online? .......................................................................................................89

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Chapter 13: Public Order Crimes: Legislating Morality Summary Public order crimes are acts considered illegal because they conflict with social policy, accepted moral rules, and public opinion. When discussing the issue of law and morality, some scholars argue that acts like pornography, prostitution, and drug use erode the moral fabric of society and should therefore be prohibited and punished. According to this view, so-called victimless crimes are prohibited because one of the functions of criminal law is to express a shared sense of public morality.

Prostitution is a sex-related public order crime that has been practised for thousands of years. In Canada, the selling of sex and the purchase of sexual services are not illegal.

However, the law prohibits communication for the purpose in public and operating a brothel or living on the proceeds of prostitution, which makes it virtually impossible to be conducted legitimately. There are several kinds of prostitutes, including streetwalkers, B-girls, and call girls. Both male and female street-level sex workers often come from troubled homes marked by extreme conflict and hostility, and from poor urban areas or rural communities. In contemporary society, child prostitution has been linked to sexual trauma experienced at an early age. However, little evidence suggests that all prostitutes are emotionally disturbed, addicted to drugs, or sexually abnormal. Additionally, in the international sex trade, sex tourism is a booming business, despite it being illegal for Canadian citizens.

There has also been a soaring demand for pornography, strip clubs, lap dancing, escorts, and telephone sex in developing countries. In recent years, Canada has seen high-profile cases such as R. v. Bedford (2013), which has reaffirmed that laws against prostitution are too broad and disproportionate, showing that changes may be on the horizon.

Pornography involves the sale of sexually explicit material intended to sexually excite paying customers. The Internet contains an abundance of websites offering pornographic material. The depiction of sex and nudity is not illegal, but it does violate the law when it is judged to be obscene. Obscenity is a legal term defined as material offensive to community standards. Thus, the decision of what pornographic material is obscene is somewhat open to debate. A growing problem is the exploitation of children in obscene materials; child pornography has become widespread on the Internet. Most studies indicate that viewing sexually explicit material has little effect on sexual violence. However, men exposed to violent pornography are more likely to act aggressively and hold aggressive attitudes toward women.

Substance abuse is another type of public order crime, though it is often viewed as a global problem, and the drug–crime link is a strong one. Debate continues over the legalization of drugs, usually centring on non-addicting drugs such as marijuana. The federal government outlaws a wide variety of drugs, including narcotics, amphetamines, barbiturates, cocaine, and hallucinogens. Numerous studies have found that drug addicts commit enormous amounts of property crime. Additionally, intravenous (IV) drug use is closely tied to the threat of AIDS and other communicable diseases. One reason for the disease–drug use relationship is the widespread habit of needle sharing among IV users, which indicates the need for drug use to be considered a health problem and to have programs such as safe needle exchanges.

Many strategies are used to control substance abuse, ranging from source control to treatment. So far, no single method seems effective. Although legalization is frequently debated, the fact that so many people already take drugs and that drug abuse is associated with crime makes legalization unlikely in the near future. © 2024 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

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Euthanasia is a more controversial topic, as attempts by individuals to control the time of their own death seem more problematic to claimsmakers than letting the elderly and sick weaken and die in nursing homes and hospitals. Recently, legislation that permits people to choose the option to receive medial assistance in dying shows how the discussion of this topic has changed.

Gambling is one of the more interesting ―victimless crimes‖ discussed in this chapter because it illustrates the process of decriminalization. As governments increasingly come to depend on income from gaming revenues, gambling will become an expanding province- or territory-run business. Cannabis has recently become legalized for sale in Canada; however, this can also be viewed as recriminalization because of the rules and restrictions related to possession, personal use, and so on. Suffice to say, moral offences are subject to much change depending on social values of the day.

Chapter Overview Law and Morality Debating Morality Criminal or Immoral?

Moral Crusades Illegal Sexuality Paraphilia Sex Work Pornography Distributing Illegal Sexual Material Controlling Sex for Profit Substance Abuse When Did Drug Use Begin?

Alcohol and Its Prohibition Commonly Used and Abused Drugs The Extent of Substance Abuse AIDS and Drug Use The Cause of Substance Abuse Drugs and Crime Research Methods The Cycle of Addiction Drugs and the Law Alcohol Abuse Drug Control Strategies Source Control Law Enforcement Strategies Community Strategies Drug Testing Programs Legalization Other Issues Euthanasia Gambling Prostitution Cannabis (Marijuana)

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Summary

Special Features Profile of a Crime: The Case of Everett Klippert Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: The Opioid Epidemic Focus on Research: Drug Courts Key Court Case: Sue Rodriguez

Learning Objectives At the conclusion of this chapter, the student should be able to: 21. Describe the history of public order offences.

22. Explain the scope of illegal sexuality.

23. Describe the extent of drug use and abuse.

24. Discuss the different strategies for the control of drugs.

25. Explain new areas of public order offences and their control.

What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these? 

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

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Victimless crimes involve moral issues and reveal changing social standards. o Have students look into how much more mainstream gambling, particularly sports gambling, has become both in Canada and the United States. What things had to happen for those shifts to take place?

Debates over pornography can be linked to cultural portrayals of sexuality. o Look at the history of those who settled the United States (Puritans) and how their values are still expressed. Contrast this with other cultures’ (such as French or Italian) approaches to sexuality and pornography.

Debates over substance abuse relate to how drugs are socially defined and whom they impact. o Have students recall the symbolic interactionist perspective of crime to understand how opinions on drugs and their harms change over time.

Moral offences pitch individual rights against social values. How responsive is law to the changes in society’s moral standards? o Review the history of gambling in Canada. How do the changes in laws around gambling mirror some of the other debates over other moral issues, such as drug use (changes to marijuana laws), death and dying (medical assistance in dying, life-support court cases, etc.), and sex work?

How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students?

1. How does culture affect the idea of moral crimes? Give examples of culture influencing perceptions of moral offences or vigilantism. What are the implications for our laws?

2. What are victimless crimes? Are these crimes really victimless? Why, or why not?

3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of decriminalizing prostitution?

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4. Which times were better for women: ancient times, when prostitution was viewed as a form of revenue, or the Reformation, during which prostitutes (and often women in general) were condemned as amoral seductresses? How do we look at these issues today?

5. In your own words, define pornography. Should it be regulated? Why, or why not?

6. How has pornography evolved over time? What social harms have been linked to it?

7. Are drug courts inherently coercive? Should drug users be forced to go into treatment?

Or are drug treatment programs doomed to failure because so many drug abusers have entirely different motivations?

8. Is drug legalization about helping destigmatize people, or helping governments gain access to new potential revenue streams?

9. How has the debate over euthanasia changed over time?

10. What moral issues do you see as having the potential to be criminalized? What moral issue do you think will be decriminalized within your lifetime?

11. Thinking back to the previous chapter, should environmental crimes be seen as a legal issue or a moral one?

Applying Criminology The Applying Criminology section in this chapter discusses the findings by a national survey that serious mental illnesses (SMIs) such as anxiety disorders are strongly correlated with illicit drug use. After the scenario, students are asked: As a criminologist, what is the relationship between mental illness, substance abuse, and crime?

How would you describe the true association, and time order, of these behaviours? And how would you describe how mental illness, substance abuse, and crime interact?

Here are some discussion points to link this section back to the chapter topics: The first thing a social scientist wants to do is verify the data. One way to do this—as was discussed in Chapter 3 on the nature and extent of crime—is to verify results with a randomized longitudinal cohort study and see if this is an outlier study or part of an actual trend. In relation to the present study, however, correlation is not necessarily causation. It is not that ―drugs always cause mental illness‖ or that ―people with mental illness always turn to drugs.‖ However, there do happen to be interactions, supported by this study, between some people who use drugs, some who have a mental illness, and some who commit crime. We know from the chapter that some people will turn to drugs to cope with mental health problems or feelings of insecurity, and this may be based on: environmental factors, where their drug use is tied to feelings of devaluation and low self-esteem due to low socio-economic status; psychodynamic factors, where anyone of any social class might turn to drugs due to unconscious needs and impulses; genetic factors, where some people born of alcoholics end up having alcohol problems later in life; learning factors, where someone will learn use habits from a parent; rational choice factors, because they enjoy the effects drugs give them; and the claims made by others about how damaging the drug use is to the individual. The idea that they are criminals, as well, is logical only due to the illicitness of the substances they use, meaning they would be labelled criminal after being found to be using them. Because the data from the study also suggest that these users suffer from anxiety disorders, it may well be that drugs are something they turn to in order to deal with the stresses of their lives. Many observed mental disorders may to be due to social stressors and environment interacting with a lack of means to address them—drug use is likely less the cause of these issues and more the response to them.

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How can I engage my students?

1. Have students read news articles regarding the recent challenges and changes to Canadian prostitution laws. Have students research and debate whether the changes make prostitutes safer as stated by the federal government.

2. Have a debate about the morality of pornography. Is it art or obscenity?

3. After lecturing on prostitution, have a debate on the pros and cons of legalizing prostitution.

4. Marijuana has recently been just legalized. Have students work in small groups to discuss the merits or consequences of legalizing, or decriminalizing, other drugs. Take up the discussions as a larger class.

5. Have students work in groups to discuss the differences and similarities between prohibition and today’s “War on Drugs.” Has this been an effective strategy? What alternatives do politicians and enforcement agencies have? Take up students’ discussions as a larger class.

What can I do in the way of assignments and projects?

1. Place students in small groups and have them think up examples of the following: A.

immoral behaviour that could be beneficial

B.

legal actions that are considered immoral

C.

criminal behaviour that could be considered moral

Have students share their list with the entire class and discuss why they felt their behaviours fell into that category.

2. Have students research prostitution in countries like the Netherlands and Germany.

Have them compare and contrast Canada’s approach to prostitution and debate whether there is merit in mimicking what other countries have done to legalize some forms of prostitution.

3. Split the class into groups of 5 or 6 and have them research and debate the following: ―Be it resolved that there are more societal safety benefits if Canada were to legalize and regulate prostitution.‖ When the groups are not engaged in the debate, have them act as judges for the debating teams to determine the winner.

4. Create a brief Public Service Announcement about the harms of alcohol or tobacco.

5. Have students search for commercials on alcohol, tobacco, and cannabis. Have them compare how each substance is presented in the commercials as fun or enjoyable. Are there differences in how cannabis is presented, even while legalized? How might this play a role in shaping attitudes toward certain drugs? If alcohol and tobacco commercials were presented the same way, would it impact perceptions of those substances?

6. Have students research the social costs of gambling and the revenue generated from gambling sources, and write a brief essay to answer the following questions: A. What are the costs and benefits?

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B. Is there a case to be made to make gambling more accessible or more restricted?

C. How might society do either of these responsibly?

What can I do online?

1. Ethan Nadelmann: Why We Need to End the War on Drugs Ethan Nadelmann makes the argument that the War on Drugs does more harm than good.

He discusses the reasons why the policy came to be and gives two reasons to shift the focus toward the creation of intelligent regulatory policies instead. www.ted.com/talks/ethan_nadelmann_why_we_need_to_end_the_war_on_dr ugs   

Based on Nadelmann’s analysis, what are the reasons that some drugs are legal and some are not? How does this fit with criminological theories?

What do you think would be the benefits of treating drug use as a health issue as opposed to a crime? Would there be any costs?

What are your beliefs about decriminalization/legalization of drugs? Are there any drugs that you would say should stay criminal? Why?

2. Juno Mac: The laws that sex workers really want Juno Mac discusses four legal models that are being used around the world and why legal models can actually increase harm and vulnerability. She describes a model that she believes will work best to keep sex workers safe and offer greater self-determination. https://www.ted.com/talks/juno_mac_the_laws_that_sex_workers_really_wan t?language=en#t-105130       

What are the four legal models?

Why is ―criminalization a trap‖?

What is a common consequence of policies of partial criminalization? What impact might that have on sex workers?

Why doesn’t the Swedish/Nordic model work?

What are some of the concerns with the legalization model?

Why do some people support prohibition?

Why is decriminalization a different model? Why does this make sex work safer?

3. Johann Hari: Everything you think you know about addiction is wrong In this video, Johann Hari discusses how many misconceptions about drug addiction lead in part to problematic drug policies ill-suited to dealing with the complexities of addiction.

Stigmatization often leads to more problems than solutions in allowing drug addicts to reintegrate into society. 

What concepts or ideas from criminology help us understand how drug addiction is related to the ―cages‖ people find themselves in?

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 

How does the stigma of ―former drug addict‖ change how someone is able to deal with trying to reintegrate into society?

Can you see the approach taken by Portugal working in Canada?

4. Canadian Alliance for Sex Work Law Reform This website is an information resource centralizing the advocacy and recommendations made by people working to change laws regarding sex work in Canada. https://sexworklawreform.com/  

Have students read through recent news and take note of what issues are being worked on still. Can they say that progress is being made?

Discuss some of the law reform recommendations, particularly the more recent ones. Do any of the recommendations surprise students? Are there any recommendations they would make?

Enhanced Instructor Manual Siegel/McCormick, 2024, 9781774747827; Chapter 14: Crimes in the 21st Century

Table of Contents Summary .........................................................................................................................91 Chapter Overview .............................................................................................................91 Special Features................................................................................................................92 Learning Objectives ...........................................................................................................92 What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these?...............................................................................................................92 How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students? ..................................93 Applying Criminology .........................................................................................................93 How can I engage my students? ........................................................................................94 What can I do in the way of assignments and projects? .......................................................94 What can I do online? .......................................................................................................95

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Chapter 14: Crimes in the 21st Century Summary As we move further into the 21st century, crime has become geographically dispersed. Crimes such as cybercrime, terrorism, and political crime, all cross borders and challenge conventional understandings of crime.

Political crimes are illegal acts that are designed to undermine an existing government and threaten its survival. Depending on the country, a number of different activities could be considered political crimes. And depending upon the circumstances, there are multiple different paths to how one can become a political criminal.

Cybercrime is the name given to high-tech offences that may involve the theft and/or destruction of information. Cybercrime presents a challenge for the justice system because it is rapidly evolving, it is difficult to detect through traditional law enforcement channels, and its control demands that agents of the justice system develop technical skills that match those of the perpetrators. Cybercrime has grown because information technology (IT) has become part of daily life in most industrialized societies.

The growth of cybercrime and its cost to the economy have created the need for new laws and enforcement processes specifically aimed at controlling its new and emerging forms.

Specialized enforcement agencies have been created to crack down on cybercriminals, especially as they are related to terrorist organizations.

Terrorism continues to evolve to bring about political change through promoting instability and violence. Whereas some political criminals sell secrets, spy on the enemy, and the like, terrorists systematically murder and destroy or threaten violence to terrorize individuals, groups, communities, or governments into conceding to the terrorists’ political demands.

The problem of organized crime has evolved today to become transnational. With the aid of the Internet and instant communications, groups are operating on a global scale to traffic drugs and people, to launder money, and to sell arms.

The problem is no longer simply the one of organized gangs. Transnational criminal organizations now embrace political and sometimes terroristic ideologies. These developments will be a challenge for criminology to understand and for criminal justice to control.

Chapter Overview The Nature of Political Crimes Becoming a Political Criminal Types of Political Crimes Development of High-Tech Crime Cybercrime: An Overview Cybercrime Cybertheft: Cybercrimes for Profit Cybervandalism: Cybercrime with Malicious Intent Cyberstalking Cyberbullying Cyberspying

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Cyberwarfare: Cybercrime with Political Motives The Extent and Costs of Cybercrime International Treaties Cybercrime Enforcement Terrorism A Historical Perspective on Terrorism Forms of Terrorism How Are Terrorist Groups Organized?

Funding Terrorist Activities What Motivates Terrorists?

Cyberterrorism: Using Cyberspace to Inflict Terror The Extent of Terrorism Responses to Terrorism since 9/11 Summary

Special Features Profile of a Crime: Edward Snowden Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Dark Commerce: Globalization and Crime Key Court Case: The Lost Boy Case Focus on Research: Transnational Terrorism

Learning Objectives At the conclusion of this chapter, the student should be able to: 26. Describe new crimes currently developing.

27. Identify the types of cybercrime.

28. Identify the elements of political crime and terrorism.

29. Discuss the responses to terrorism and political crime.

30. Explain some challenges to confronting cybercrime.

What are common student misconceptions and stumbling blocks and how can I help students to overcome these? 



Seeing the extent of cybercrime and how difficult it is to control o Have students discuss what measures the average person can take to protect themselves from cybercriminals. How effective are these measures? What about for larger institutions and government? o Highlight how cybercrime crosses borders, making it difficult to traditional jurisdictional policing to act on reports swiftly. Use the example of swatting as one such example where the victim can be in a completely different province or state than the perpetrator.

How costly cybercrime can be o Discuss activities such as online piracy and the ongoing discussion about copyright and how information is treated online. o Have students research types of fraud that emerged during the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as what populations of people that were victims of such fraud.

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Highlight how cyberterrorism can target infrastructure, leading to needed updates and repairs.

Terrorism is not something that only happens in other countries o Have students apply some of their knowledge from the chapter and research the concept of domestic terrorism. Discuss how domestic terrorism is a form of crime that has begun to receive more serious attention in recent years.

A political crime is something that happens only in other countries that don’t allow freedom of expression o Have students work to find examples of Canadian political crime, such as Michael Sona and Jeffrey Paul Delisle https://www.ctvnews.ca/business/spyingon-canada-commercial-espionage-and-the-threat-to-canadianbusiness-1.4220947 o

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How can I generate discussion in my course and assess my students?

1. Phishing scams have been around since the 16th century in various forms. Why does this continue to work?

2. Do we need stronger measures in place to deal with political crimes? Why, or why not?

3. Should teachers be allowed to search students’ cellphones, lockers, etc., to prevent cyberbullying? Why, or why not?

4. Have students discuss what they might do to slow or end the international sex trade.

What things might make ending the trade extremely difficult, and what factors might have to be considered?

5. Which criminological theories seem to best explain the actions of terrorists?

6. In the era of cyberstalking, online harassment, and cyberterrorism, do you think it is acceptable to be able to take away liberties based merely on suspicion? Is there a line?

What safeguards should be in place to prevent abuses by authorities?

7. When you think of the word ―cybercriminal,‖ what or who comes to mind? Why do you think that is, and what is the impact of stereotyping?

8. Given the use of the Internet by political groups to recruit members and spread propaganda, should there be greater government control over Internet content, granting agencies a free hand to shut down websites? What problems might develop from such a policy?

Applying Criminology The Applying Criminology section in this chapter asks students to discuss the use of a subdermal tracking device that can monitor people continuously. After the scenario, students are asked: Students are then asked whether we should sacrifice freedom for control. How would such an extensive surveillance network be justified in a democratic society? And how has surveillance changed the face of traditional crime?

Here are some discussion points to link this section back to the chapter topics:

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This may cause some students to immediately suggest ―sure, track them,‖ thinking that it’s okay for criminals to be tracked. But something to highlight is how quickly the definition of ―who is criminal‖ is subject to change. Who is a political criminal today may change due to who is in charge and who they deem to be politically problematic. Governments have long sought methods to police risky populations, and a surveillance network of this magnitude would result in considerable shifts in how groups are monitored and policed. Societies like Canada are built on a sacrifice of some freedoms to ensure social cohesion and control, but the Charter of Rights and Freedoms does still protect our ability to express ourselves within certain limitations.

Surveillance of this extent would likely violate a number of those Charter rights. While it might be easier to justify such an extensive surveillance network in a dictatorial society, a democratic society will find it hard to accept such an extensive surveillance network. This said, the Patriot Act in the United States is a historical example of a democratic state that has used the fear of terrorism to justify increased invasion into the privacy of many citizens.

How can I engage my students?

1. Divide students into smaller groups and assign them a side of the debate: ―Be it resolved that whereas we live in an increasingly dangerous world, governments have a need for surveillance and security that supersedes privacy and liberty.‖ Following the debates, discuss the major points raised as a class.

2. After lecturing on cybercrime, have students research hacking as a technique or skill, particularly ―white-hat hackers.‖ Discuss with them how a diverse approach to technology has become synonymous with crime and criminality.

3. Look at media examples related to cybercrime or high-tech crime and their links to transnational crime (e.g., Russian organized crime and cloning credit cards).

4. Can you think of ways ou could make things cyber-secure? Think about how this applies to your computer and phone. What about when it applies to the ―Internet of Things?‖ 5. Have students research the phenomenon of cyberwar. Discuss with them how wars may become increasingly fought without any physical interactions between anyone.

What can I do in the way of assignments and projects?

1. Have students work in groups, and have them create a public service announcement about how the public can protect themselves against one of the following: a. Identity theft b. Computer viruses c. Internet scams 2. Have students research how online communication and anonymity can influence communication. Discuss how this can lead to hate groups publishing their ideas online.

Have students debate protecting free speech and the importance of protecting people from hate speech.

3. Create a PowerPoint presentation to show the class the similarities and differences between cyberstalking and regular stalking, or between cyberbullying and regular bullying.

4. Divide the students into groups and have them look into different types of cybertheft.

Have them find media stories and examples for their assigned type of cybertheft.

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5. Have students present on the different types of terrorism, with an emphasis on the root causes of each type.

What can I do online?

1. Guy-Philippe Goldstein: How Cyberattacks Threaten Real-World Peace This TED talk addresses the increasing reliance of nations on cyberweapons and cyberattacks. He discusses the ease at which cyberattacks can make the jump from the digital world to the physical one and how this can contribute to additional political action and armed conflict. This talk also discusses why defensive cyberweapons are difficult to distinguish from offensive ones and why this can affect global stability. www.ted.com/talks/guy_philippe_goldstein_how_cyberattacks_threaten_real_ world_peace    

What is it about cyberattacks that make them ―doubly dangerous‖ to global stability?

Why does the rise of cyberweapons lead to the mentality of ―attack first‖ as a strategy?

Since nations are not the only ones with this technology, how could smaller groups use these cyberattacks to destabilize a nation? Are there any examples in the media that give examples of this?

In 2014, Sony Pictures Entertainment was hacked by ―Guardians of Peace,‖ reportedly in response to the movie The Interview. How does this story relate to what GuyPhilippe Goldstein talks about?

2. Fred Kaplan: Dark Territory: The Secret History of Cyber War In this video, Fred Kaplan discusses his research into the history of cybersecurity in relation to the development of what would later become the Internet. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PvvPmM3cHZ4   

Before watching this video, consider how secure the Internet is.

After watching this video, how do you feel about how secure the Internet is?

Have students research more into cyberwar and explore the different ways countries are engaging in it, including both propaganda and radicalization of populations.

3. James Densley: Violence in the Age of Social Media In this video, James Densley discusses how digital technologies have created new spaces in which violent content can be performed and consumed, changing our relationship to violence. He also suggests ways to minimize one’s exposure to such content.   

Have you ever seen violent content that has been posted online? Do you feel it is increasingly difficult to avoid violent content online?

Can we limit the amount of violent media posted to social media? Are we able to control such content without impacting freedoms?

Have students research more into algorithms and how people can be suggested more violent content based on content they may have previously watched. Have them

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consider whether the media platforms that facilitate these practices have an obligation to limit the possibility of drawing attention to such content. If media platforms have an incentive to spread it, why might that be?

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