Youth and Development

Youth & Development Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

Ministry Of Youth Affairs and Skills Development | Sri Lanka Youth-National Youth Services Council Institute of Policy Studies of Sri Lanka (IPS)

Youth & Development Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

2014

Ministry Of Youth Affairs and Skills Development Sri Lanka Youth National Youth Services Council Institute of Policy Studies of Sri Lanka (IPS)

Table of Content i. Abbreviations ii. Acknowledgements iii. Executive summary

1: Introduction

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

Introduction Youth in a Global Perspective Youth in Sri Lanka Youth in the Post 2015 Development Agenda Millennium Development Goals (MDG) and Youth 1.5.1 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in a Global Perspective 1.5.2 MDGs in Sri Lanka 1.5.3 Youth and MDG in a Global Perspective

1.6 Youth and MDG in Sri Lanka: Research Method 1.7 Guide to the Report

2: Productive Employment for Youth

2.1 Introduction 2.2 Youth Poverty and Employment Indicators 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.2.5 2.2.6 2.2.7

Youth below Poverty Line Youth Unemployment Rate Youth Labour Force Participation Rate Number of Youth at Wage Employment to Total Youth Employed Youth in Entrepreneurships Skilled and Unskilled Migration of Youth Youth Employability

2.3 Challenges, Conclusions and the Way Forward

3: Education for Youth

3.1 Introduction 3.2 Equitable Access to Education 3.3 Youth Human Capital 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4

Literacy Rate of 15-29 Year Olds Percentage of Youth Completing Formal Education Net Enrolment Ratio in University and Vocational Institutes Proportion of Youth Graduate in Science and Math

3.4 Challenges in Bridging Social Capability Gaps in Education 3.4.1 Limited Opportunities in Achieving the Ambitions 3.4.2 School to Work Transition 3.4.3 Skill Mismatch

3.5 Challenges, Conclusions and Way Forward

4: Healthy Youth for Development

4.1 Introduction 4.2 Nutrition and Physical Fitness of Youth 4.2.1 Nutrition of Young Women

4.3 Psychosocial and Mental Wellbeing of Youth 4.3.1 Smoking and Alcohol Use among Youth 4.3.2 Deaths due to Suicides

4.4 Health Issues among Young People 4.4.1 Teenage Pregnancy and Knowledge on Sexuality 4.4.2 Differently Abled Youth

4.5 Challenges, Conclusions and Way Forward

5: Gender Equality and Empower Young Women

5.1 Introduction 5.2 Gender Equality and Empowering Young Women 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 5.2.5 5.2.6

Equal Education Opportunities for Girls Young Femalesin the Labour Force Young Women in Wage Employment Young Women in Managerial Positions Entrepreneurial Activities by Young Women Political Participation by Young Women

5.3 Challenges, Conclusions and Way Forward

6: Youth and Environment

6.1 Introduction 6.2 Youth Environment Indicators 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.4 6.2.5

Youth in Secured Housing Youth in Secured Sanitation Youth Access to Safe Drinking Water Potential for Greener and Decent Jobs Environment Stewardship Programmes for Youth

6.3 Challenges, Conclusions and Way Forward

7: Infrastructure and ICT for Youth

7.1 Introduction 7.2 Youth Related Indicators 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.2.4 7.2.5 7.2.6 7.2.7

Electricity Provision for Youth Landline Telephone Provision for Youth Mobile Phone Possession by Youth ICT Literacy and Computer Provision for Youth Status of Bank Loans English Literacy among Youth Programmes for Youth in Developing Global Partnerships

7.3 Challenges, Conclusions and Way Forward

List of Figures Figure 2.1Percentage of Youth Living below the Official Poverty Line Figure 2.2 Youth Unemployment rate Figure 2.3 Youth Labour Force Participation by Sector Figure 2.4 Youth at Wage Employment to Total Youth Employed by Sector Figure 3.1 Senior Secondary and Collegiate Enrolment Rates Figure 3.2 Formal Education Completed Figure 3.3 Tertiary Enrolment 20-24 years old, 2009 Figure 3.4 Distribution of University Admission by Subject Figure 3.5 Proportion of Schools with A/L Science Streams by District Figure 4.1 Malnourished Female Youth, 2006 Figure 4.2 Use of Tobacco and Alcohol Figure 4.3 Deaths due to Suicide, 2011 Figure 4.4Teenage Pregnancy Percentages, 2006 Figure 5.1 Female Percent of Under Graduate Admission by Academic Stream Figure 5.2 Under Graduate Admission; GPI by Academic Streams Figure 5.3 Admissions to Vocational Training Institutes and GPI (2005-2012) Figure 5.4: Youth Labour Force Participation by Gender 2010 Figure 5.5 Share of Women in Wage Employment by Sector and Province 2006 and 2010 Figure 5.6 Women in Managerial Positions Figure 5.7 Proportions of Seats held by Women in Single or Lower Houses of

National Parliament 2000 and 2012

Figure 6.1 Youth Living under Secure Housing Figure 6.2 Youth in Secured Sanitation Figure 6.3 Youth Access to Safe Drinking Water Figure 7.1 Electricity Provision for Youth Figure 7.2 Landline Telephone Provisions for Youth Figure 7.3 Mobile Phone Possession by Youth Figure 7.4 Possession of Desktop Computers by Youth Figure 7.5 Youth with Bank Loans

List of Tables Table 1.1 Universal MDGs and Sri Lanka Specific Youth MDGs Table 3.1 National Examination Success Rates, 2003 and 2010 Table 5.1 Sri Lanka’s Progress on MDG 3: Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women Table 5.2: Ratio of Girls to Boys in Secondary Education 2006 and 2011 Table 5.3:Training Performance of TVEC Registered Private Sector Training Institutions in 2011 Table 5.4: Labour Force Participation by Sector and Province 2006 and 2010

List of Boxes Box 2.1 Youth Entrepreneurship Box 2.2 Vocational Education: New Initiatives Box 3.1 Technology Stream for GCE Advanced Level Box 4.1 Differently Abled Youth: Access to Services Box 5.1 Youth Parliament

Abbreviations DTET

Department of Technical Education and Training

A/L

Advanced Level

CACCI

Chambers of Commerce and Industry

CCC

Ceylon Chamber of Commerce

CEA

Central Environment Authority

CFC

Chlorofluorocarbon

CGTTI

Ceylon-German Technical Training Institute

CRPO

Child Rights Promotion Officer

CYP

Commonwealth Youth Programme

DHS

Demographic and Health Survey

DS

District Secretariat

ECCD

Early Childhood Development Officer

EFA

Education for All

EPZ

Export Processing Zones

FGD

Focus Group Discussion

GCE

General Certificates of Education

GLOBE

Global Learning and Business Enterprise

GOSL

Government of Sri Lanka

GPI

Gender Parity Index

HIES

Household Income and Expenditure Survey

ICT

Information and Communication Technology

ICTA

Information and Communication Technology Agency

ILO

International Labour Organization

KII

Key Informant Interview

LFS

Labour Force Survey

MDGs

Millennium Development Goals

MESE

Management and Economic Simulation Exercise

MOE

Ministry of Environment

MOH

Ministry of Health

MOLRFE

Ministry of Labour Relations and Foreign Employment

MOP

Ministry of Planning

MYASD

Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development

NAITA

National Apprentice and Industrial Training Authority

NCC

National Cadet Corps

Abbreviations...

NCD

Non Communicable Diseases

NCLD

National Center for Leadership Development

NCSD

National Council for Sustainable Development

NGO

Non-government organization

NHRDC

National Human Resource Development Council

NIBM

National Institute of Business Management

NIFNE

National Institute of Fisheries and Nautical Engineering

NPD

National Planning Department

NVQ

National Vocational Qualification

NYAA

National Youth Awards Authority

NYC

National Youth Corps

NYSC

National Youth Services Council

NYSC Ltd

Youth Service Limited Ltd. (NYSC Ltd)

NYSCO

National Youth Service Co-operative Societies Union Ltd

OLSP

One Laptop per Student Project

SDFL

Skill Development Fund Limited

SDP

Skills Development Project

SED

Small Enterprise Development

SLIP

Sri Lanka Institute of Printing

SME

Small and Medium scale Enterprises

STD

Sexually Transmitted Diseases

TTB

Travel and Tourism Business

TVEC

Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission

TVET

Technical Vocational Education and Training

UNEP

United Nations Environment Programme

UNIVOTEC

University of Vocational Technology

VTA

Vocational Training Authority

WDO

Women’s Development Officer

YBI

Youth Business International

YBSL

Youth Business Sri Lanka

YEN

Youth Employment Network

YESL

Young Entrepreneurs of Sri Lanka

Acknowledgements

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his report would not have been possible without the assistance, support and coordination from various individuals and organizations. We highly appreciate their valuable contribution and take this opportunity to thank them all.

We greatly appreciate all the support and assistance given to us, by Hon. Minister Dallas Alahapperuma, Minister of Youth Affairs and Skills Development, Mr. K.A. Thilakaratne, Secretary of the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development, Mrs. Nilanthi Sugathadasa, Additional Secretary (youth development), Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development and Mrs. Deepika Jayasekara, Director (Youth Development), Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development.

We also like to acknowledge the support extended by Mr. Lalith Piyum Perera, Chairman of the National Youth Services Council.

We also highly appreciate the immense support extended to us by Mr. Milinda Rajapaksha, Working Director of the National Youth Services Council.

A special thank should be extended to all those who participated in Focused Group Discussions and Key Informant Interviews, for dedicating their valuable time and sharing their experiences with us.

We would also like to thank Dr. Saman Kelegama, Executive Director, Institute of Policy Studies of Sri Lanka (IPS), for his valuable support extended for the success of this study. We also highly appreciate the guidance offered by Dr. Nisha Arunatilake, Research Fellow of IPS. Last but not the least, all the support staff members of the IPS, who helped us in various ways are also acknowledged with gratitude.

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IPS Team of Researches: Chatura Rodrigo, Team Leader and Research Economist Priyanka Jayawardane, Research Officer Sunimalee Madurawala, Research Officer Mufaris Mohamed, Database Administrator Pradeepa Dembatapitiya, Project Officer

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Executive summary

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hatever the political regime, youth and their development have always been a priority of the Government of Sri Lanka (GoSL). During the post-conflict development efforts, the GoSL has made provisions for special institutional setups to help develop youth, and allow them to actively participate in the policy development processes.

The mandate of the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development (MYASD) is rooted in the “Mahinda Chinthana: Vision for the Future”, which is the main policy framework of the GoSL.

youth in the urban, rural, and estate sectors. Today there are better opportunities for youth to start up their own businesses than before, especially since the end of the war. There is much assistance extended towards improving the Small and Medium Scale Enterprise (SME) opportunities for youth. The government has begun initiatives to start up new industrialized zones, such as the Achchuveli Industrial Zone to facilitate SMEs in the Northern Province, and these efforts will be expanded in to the Eastern Province also. There is an influx of educated youth starting own enterprises. Vocational training related to SMEs is mainly given through the Vocational Training Authority (VTA) through the National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) qualification, and youth can even earn a degree from University of Vocational Technology (UNIVOTEC). Youth play a significant role in the broad discussion of poverty in Sri Lanka. Approximately 14.6 % of Sri Lankan youth were below the poverty line during the period of 2006/07.

This figure reduced to 8.9% by 2009/10, reflecting the overall poverty reduction in the country between these two periods. Therefore, income poverty among youth has reduced overtime in all the sectors. These results are attributable to the government’s attempts to reduce poverty in the country as a whole, and it is satisfactory to see that the youth of the country also receiving the benefits of these efforts

Constant monitoring and evaluation are essential in order to make sure that youth are been given the necessary access to the infrastructure they need to contribute towards growth and development of the country. While there are many evaluation frameworks in place to look at these, the MDGs collectively stand as a popular and globally accepted measure. Youth are represented in many of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), however, the most important are the ones that cover unemployment, poverty, education, health, environment and development of global partnerships. While the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) releases a MDG report for each year, achievements of the indicators are not specifically targeted towards youth. Therefore, in order to fill this research gap, the Institute of Policy Studies of Sri Lanka (IPS) in collaboration with the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development (MYASD) analyzed some of the important youth related MDGs while taking in to consideration some important youth developments that are unique to youth of Sri Lanka.

Career guidance and counseling at school level is a necessity. Sri Lanka’s educational policies are quite comprehensive. The O-Level and A-Level examinations are very competitive and they are set to high standards. Each year, about 200,000 and 90,000 students leave the school system without succeeding at the O-Level and A-Level examinations, respectively. The O-Level and A-level dropout rates and the provision of vocational education to cater to this segment is a major challenge for Sri Lanka. The possible avenue for these fallouts is the Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TEVT) sector. However, the general acceptance of the country’s TEVT sector has been low due to poor recognition of the qualifications, low employability of graduates, and the ineffectiveness of the course in catering to the demands of the market. The government, especially the MYASD and the Ministry of Education (MOE), are doing quite a lot of work on promoting the vocational education, allowing students to acquire even bachelor’s degrees in technical and vocation-

Over the years, the unemployment rate, youth labour force participation rate and poverty among youth, reduced and number of youth in wage employment has barely changed. The youth unemployment rate was recorded at 17 % during the year 2006, and was reduced to 15 % by the year 2010. For the same periods, the youth unemployment rate was reduced in the estate sector, and in the rural sector. However, the youth unemployment rate rose in the urban sector. Regarding the youth labour force participation rate, it declined from 51 % in 2006, to 44 % in 2010. This trend extends across the sectors also. Youth at wage employment however has not changed significantly over time. A slight increase is evident in the rural sector. Small and medium scale enterprises are one of the main employment generators for

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al education and training. The MYASD and MOE recently introduced vocational education to A/L stream. Approximately 244 schools were selected for the initial programme and will be expanded to reach 1000 schools in the near future. Approximately 300 teachers for these programmes are being trained at the moment under the guidance of the UNIVOTEC. Female youth malnutrition, teenage pregnancies, awareness on HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases, suicides and smoking and use of alcohol and other drugs, are the major youth related health concerns for Sri Lanka. Further illustrations on these concerns are as follows: (1) According to the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) carried out in 2006/07, one in six women of reproductive age (15-49 years) was malnourished.

The highest proportion of malnourished women was observed in the youngest age group of 15-19

years (40 per cent), followed by the second lowest age group of 20-29 (22 per cent). Nearly one-third of female youth were anemic. Nutritional deficiency among young girls has an adverse effect on reproductive outcomes, as well as on the continuation of the life cycle of malnutrition in Sri Lanka, (2) According to the DHS 2006/07 survey, 6.4 % pregnancies in Sri Lanka were teenage pregnancies. Further, teenage pregnancies were highest in the estate sector (9.6 %) whereas child malnutrition and low weight births were also highest in this region when compared to urban and rural sectors. Poor knowledge on reproductive health among adolescents could be a major reason for these teenage pregnancies, (3) Knowledge on sexually transmitted disease and HIV/AIDS among adolescents was also found to be poor, (4) Smoking and alcohol use among youth is significant, and need careful attention. According to Alcohol and Drug Information Centre (ADIC) in 2012, among current smokers and alcohol users’ in the 15-24 year age group, the majority reported that the main reasons for use of substances are to be social with friends and to enjoy themselves, (5) Deaths due to suicides were highest among females in the 21-30 year age group. There were more than

500 deaths due to suicides, with nearly one-fourth of them being young males.

Ensuring gender equality matters in many ways to the development process of a country. Gender equality matters in its own right and has been recognized as ‘smart economics by the World Bank.

Experiences from various countries confirm that gender equality enhances economic efficiency, and improves other development outcomes. Gender parity in all education levels, female labour force participation and political participation by women have been considered as main indicators in this report to study the status of gender equality and empowerment of young women in Sri Lanka.

Though Sri Lanka has achieved gender parity in Junior and Upper sections in Secondary Education, gender parity in the Science and Commerce

streams in Advanced Level (A/L) section remain as an issue.Gender Parity Index (GPI) calculated for A/L, stream-wise, indicates that fewer girls are studying in the A/L Science and Commerce streams whereas more girls are studying A/L Arts subjects.

As in secondary education, gender bias could be observed towards certain academic streams at the university level too. Extreme situations could be observed for subjects like Law, Arts, Indigenous Medicine, and Paramedical Studies with very high GPI, whereas Engineering, Computer Science, and Science streams had lower GPI, indicating fewer females were studying those subjects.Though the same gender biasness could be observed in selecting vocational training courses, the number of female students enrolled for vocational training education, as well as the GPI for vocational training education has increased over the years.

Labour force participation by young females lags behind their male counterparts’ labour force participation numbers across all sectors and provinces.

Female entrepreneurship remains an ‘untapped source’ of economic growth and development.

In the last 60 years since independence, female participation and representation in politics and

political institutions has been low in Sri Lanka.

Surprisingly, this is despite Sri Lanka’s favourable performance on Human Development Indicators and the national level commitment for equal representation under various conventions and agendas. The proportion of seats held by women in the national Parliament in Sri Lanka is below the global average, as well as most of the other regional figures. In 2011, Sri Lanka launched its first ever “Youth Parliament” as part of the 25th celebration of the Year of Youth, with the objective of building a platform for Sri Lankan youth to discuss and reason out critical policy issues in Sri Lanka.

Environment is an integral part of youth’s lives.

Where they live, water they drink, and the access to safe sanitation are very important for their development. Furthermore, youth need to understand the value of the natural environment, and should be given opportunity to actively take part in environmental volunteerism activities. Enabling them to take part in green jobs will make sure that Sri Lanka is heading for a sustainable economic growth. Youth living in secured environments at the national level was recorded at 91 per cent in year 2006, and it improved to 92 per cent by 2010.

Urban sector also showed a 1 per cent improvement in secured housing among youth, from 2006 to 2010. The rural sector does not record any significant changes, while the estate sector recorded a significant improvement in the year 2010, where the percentage of youth in secured housing changed from 77 per cent in 2006, to 85 per cent in 2010. Youth in the rural and estate sector recorded a 1 per cent improvement in access to secure sanitation from year 2006 to 2010. In the urban sector, percentage of youth that have access to secure sanitation facilities have improved from 91 per cent in 2006, to 97 per cent in 2010. On a national level, youth access to safe drinking water has improved from 83 per cent in year 2006, to 94 per cent in 2010. Urban, rural and estate sectors also shows improvements in providing access to safe drinking water in the same time period. The urban and estate sectors show an improvement of 5 per cent each, while the rural sector shows an improvement of 11 per cent from 2006 and 2010.

The demand for green jobs will increase in the future as more emerging economies are working towards climate change mitigation and adaptation; sustainable energy production; pollution prevention and control; and conservation of eco-systems and biodiversity. In this context Sri Lanka is also presented with many opportunities. Sri Lankan youth is more actively taking part in environmental volunteerism programmes, and National Youth Services Council (NYSC) and the Ministry of

Environment and Renewable Energy (MERE) are initiating many programmes to strengthen these participations further.

With the development of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) facilities are the provision of infrastructures such as electricity and telecommunication services, youth are now more connected with each other and with the countries development efforts. Their engagement with these global development partnerships and their attainments of literacy in ICT and global languages, will determine their future and ultimately, that of Sri Lanka. Enabling youth to enjoy electricity, telecommunication facilities, and ICT, will open the door for them to link with the rest of the world, debate their ideas on development, and then make informed contributions to the policy dialogue of the country. On a national basis, 94 per cent of youth had access to electricity as of 2010, compared to 89 per cent in 2006.. At a national level, by the year 2010, 38 per cent of youth had landlines as opposed to 26 per cent in 2006. This trend extends to the urban, rural, and estate sectors also., in 2006, 27 per cent of youth had mobile phones, and this figure has risen to 61 per cent by 2010. Sector wise, also, the same trend continues. Many programmes are there in place, implemented by the government and other stakeholders to improve the English and ICT literacy of the Sri Lanka youth. There are many youth exchange programme in place through the Commonwealth Youth Programme (CYP), for Sri Lanka youth to share experiences with the global youth.

Sri Lanka is a working example of youth development in the region. Achievements are significant in reducing poverty and unemployment, providing equal opportunity for young women, enabling youth to engage in a sustainable environment and providing them with the access to infrastructure and ICT facilities that allows them to be more connected with global youth.

Introduction Author

Chatura Rodrigo

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

1: Introduction 1.1 Introduction United Nations defines ‘youth,’ as individuals between the ages of 15 and 24 years. However, different countries define ‘youth’ as individuals in various diverse age groups, depending on different conditions that reflect a broader range of changes and development needs, before the transition in to adulthood. In the Sri Lankan context, ‘youth’ are defined as those falling between the ages of 15 to 29 years. Nearly 1.2 billion (18 per cent) of the world population is comprised of youth between the ages 15-24. Approximately 87 per cent of youth live in developing countries, with 62 per cent living in Asia, and 17 per cent living in Africa.1 The United Nations stated that youth are vital components of society, and must have full access to education, adequate healthcare, employment, financial services, and participation in public life and activities. The identification of, and commitment to, these conditions are crucial if the potential of youth is to be fully realized, and would ensure their participation in the development process.Youth are valuable human capital and investments on them will yield long lasting returns on national and global development.2 Approximately 26 per cent of the Sri Lankan population is comprised of youth.3 These youth populations are the future contributors of economic development to the country, hence it is important to make sure that their needs are met and ensured by government development policies in all sectors. Furthermore, policy actions have to enable access for youth to take part in government development activities and decision making. Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) is one of the universally accepted evaluation framework developed by the United Nations to see whether countries have achieved their targets in development and it covers several important development aspects. When comparing national data from 2006 and 2010, it is very clear that Sri Lanka has, by and large, been able to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) successfully. Generally

MDGs are concentrated on the whole population of a country therefore indicators are not concentrated on youth. However, it is quite important to explore how these MDGs are realized by the youth of the country.

This is a very crucial time for Sri Lanka’s youth, especially for those who are part of the reconciliation process. Since Sri Lanka has already attained the current MDG targets, its potential to mainstream youth development in to the post 2015 MDG agenda is high. Sri Lanka has a strong network of youth societies with a large collection of active and enthusiastic youth. Therefore, under proper policy directives and guidance, these youth can be encouraged to actively take part in the development activities of the country.

1.2 Youth in a Global Perspective In many developing countries, especially in Africa and Asia, youth are deprived due to unemployment, lack of access to education facilities, and the lack of access to adequate health facilities.

One third of youth in both these regions survive on less than US$ 2 per day. Literacy rates of youth in sub-Saharan Africa, Southern, and Western Asia, are below 80 per cent. Enrolment in secondary education is very low, at about 16 per cent, in some Asian countries; and about 25 per cent in some pacific countries. The lowest rate of secondary education enrolment has been recorded in Africa.4 Programmes targeted at youth are country specific. Many programmes are designed to support young people’s access quality education, health and nutrition, employment, and their right to live free of violence and abuse. Countries that are coming out of major civil wars have come up with youth resilience programmes in poor and conflict affected areas to overcome poverty, insecurity, and violence. There are programmes targeted at increasing youth awareness on HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases. In Sri Lanka, most of the youth programmes are targeted at employ-

United Nations, 2011, “The United Nations Programme on Youth,” http://social.un.org, visited online 30th April 2013. By the year 2015, there will be 3 billion people who are below 25 years of age.

1

United Nations, 2011, “Youth Participation in Development: Summary Guideline for Development Partners,” http://social.un.org, visited online 30th April 2013.

3 Central Bank of Sri Lanka, 2012, “Economic and Social Statistic of Sri Lanka,” Statistics Department, Central Bank of Sri Lanka.

4 United Nations Agency for International Development, 2012,”Youth in Development: Realizing the Demographic Opportunity,” United States.

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Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

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ment, education, and health. However, Sri Lanka is increasingly focusing its attention towards reconciliation and building north-south relationships among youth.

The United Nations post 2015 development agenda has a clear focus on human development and also addresses emerging challenges such as fair environment, food and nutrition security, water and sanitation, energy, and access to quality health service. The agenda highlights the need of transformative change leading to a shared, secure, and sustainable future for all. It is guided by three fundamental principles of human rights, equity, and sustainability. The post-2015 MDG agenda identified youth as a vulnerable group, and therefore youth play an important role in the post 2015 development agenda, to achieve sustainable development across the world.

1.3 Youth in Sri Lanka Youth are an important asset to a country. Their ability to find suitable and quality jobs, to be educated to stay healthy and most importantly to overcome poverty is utmost important. Youth, as a vital component of society, must have full access to education, healthcare, employment, financial services and participation in the human and economic development efforts of the country. As for any other age category, youth also demands investments and commitments which could be financial, physical, social and political. These investments and commitments will only be realized if necessary infrastructure such as education systems, health systems, financial systems, other public infrastructure and importantly quality and suitable employments are created. Therefore as governments, identification and commitment to these are crucial in fully realizing the potential of youth and their participation in both human and economic development. Youth are the future leaders of our nation hence their development and their capacity to engage in the development activities of the country will ultimately determines whether Sri Lanka is achieving its development objectives or not. Putting Sri Lanka in to a smart growth path is a collective task and youth play a larger role in doing so.

Whatever the political regime, youth and their development have always been a priority of the Government of Sri Lanka (GOSL). All political regimes have dedicated maximum resources possible

to the development of youth, allowing them access to better education, health and employment opportunities. However, youth unrest in late 70s and early 80s and the armed conflict constrained the development activities that focused on youth.

The GOSL established several major government institutions over the last few decades. Sri Lanka’s Ministry of Youth was established in 1979. The National Youth Services Council (NYSC) has been in existence since 1969 and was strengthen through the National Youth Services Act 69 in 1979. The National Youth Corps (NYC) was established in 2003. Although Sri Lanka did not have a Youth Policy, several youth focused initiatives have been in existence for several years. One such initiative is the Youth Employment Network (YEN), initially placed under the National Planning Department (NPD) of the Ministry of Planning (MOP) within the government, and then, shifted to the Ministry of Labor Relations and Foreign Employment (MOLRFE). At the moment the YEN is under the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development (MYASD). The YEN of Sri Lanka serves as a coordination and information center for the network consisting of the government, employers’ and workers’ organizations, other nongovernmental organizations and youth organizations. The YEN focuses on four priorities – Employability, Equal opportunities, Entrepreneurship and Employment creation (known as the “four Es”). Initiatives such as YEN were to promote decent and productive work among youth in Sri Lanka with an objective of eradicating poverty5.

In its post-conflict development efforts, the government of Sri Lanka has made provisions for special institutional setups to help develop youth and allow them to actively participate in the policy development process6. Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development (MYASD) is the main government institution that is responsible for youth development in Sri Lanka. The Ministry conducts its mandated activities with a vision of formulating national youth policies that implement youth development initiatives, which will develop youth as future leaders. This is hoped to be achieved by providing access to vocational and technical training, improving the entrepreneurial and leadership skills of youth, and also enhancing the sociocultural activities of youth. The mandate of the ministry is rooted in the “Mahinda Chinthana vision for the future,” which is the main strategy outline of the government.7

YEN Secretariat Sri Lanka, 2006, ‘Strategic Assessment and Policy Recommendations for National Action Plan for Employment”, Sri Lanka.

5

Ministry of Defense, 2013, “Rising from the ashes: Post War Development of Sri Lanka,” Government of Sri Lanka, http://www.defence.lk, visited online 5th May 2013.

6

Department of National Planning, Sri Lanka, 2010, “Government of Sri Lanka, Mahinda Chinthana,” accessed on line 5th May 2013.

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Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

The ministry is empowered by several institutions which look at different aspects of youth development. These entities operate under the purview of the ministry. These are; 1. National Youth Services Council (NYSC) 2. Vocational Training Authority (VTA) 3. University of Vocational Technology (UNIVOTEC) 4. Department of Technical Education and Training (DTET) 5. Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission (TVEC), 6. National Apprentice and Industrial Training Au thority (NAITA), 7. National Institute of Business Management (NIBM), 8. Skill Development Fund Limited (SDFL), 9. Ceylon-German Technical Training Institute (CGTTI), 10. National Human Resource Development Council (NHRDC), 11. National Youth Service Co-operative Societies Union Ltd (NYSCO) 12. National Institute of Fisheries and Nautical En gineering (NIFNE) 13. National Youth Corps 14. Youth Service Limited Ltd. (NYSC Ltd)8 15. National Youth Awards Authority (NYAA) 16. Sri Lanka Institute of Printing (SLIP) 17. National Center for Leadership Development (NCLD) In addition to these organizations in 1982, the Small Enterprise Development (SED) unit was established under the MYASD with a special objective of implementing suitable programmes to assist generation of enterprises in the sectors with potential for economic development of the country and to assist development of already existing small enterprises originally. SED has its branches in all the districts except for the districts in North and Eastern provinces. They are hosted at District Secretariats of the respective districts. SED implements special programmes targeted at unemployed youth, giving them the necessary life skills, training and guidance to become successful entrepreneurs, however their efforts are not limited to youth. They have successfully covered large number of adults also through their programmes. SED does many activities and some of them are; identification of beneficiaries and aware them about the small enterprises. Identification and selection of potential entrepreneurs and conduct programs 8

to develop their attitudes, identification of training requirements of beneficiaries and design suitable training programs for them, organization, operation and conduct of training courses, continuous follow up work regard to entrepreneurs, entrepreneur counselling and co-ordination of assisting services, coordination to provide financial facilities to entrepreneurs and organize and conduct the programs relevant to develop productions and promote marketing and to expand the markets for entrepreneurs9.

In materializing its main objective the MYASD was successful in finalizing the draft youth policy for Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka National Youth Policy is drafted with the vision to develop the full potential of young people to enable their active participation in national development for a just and equitable society. The draft policy is equipped with seven policy objectives: (1) build the capacity of young people to meaningfully engage in the national development process (2) enhance participation of youth in economy (3) instilling a sense of social responsibility and social cohesion among young people while recognizing and respecting diversities of ethnicity, culture, religion, language and lifestyles in the country (4) developing the potential of youth to challenge all forms of discrimination and exploitation (5) develop supportive families and communities for the protection, growth and development of youth (6) promote health and wellbeing among young people and finally (7) facilitate a coordinated response to youth development and youth work among state, nonstate organizations as well as families and communities.

1.4 Youth in the Post 2015 Development Agenda The United Nations emphasized the need for youth engagement, mobilization, and empowerment, in relation to the post 2015 development process10. Sri Lanka, now, has a well-established institutional framework that can positively address the post 2015 development goals. The Youth Parliament has entered its second term and the membership numbers of the National Youth Council show an increasing trend. Youth Parliament is a very significant achievement in the government’s efforts to give youth an opportunity to take part in the policy formulation of the country.

The 30 years of conflict essentially hindered access to youth in the North and East to take part in youth federation activities, but this has changed significantly now. There are youth

Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development, 2013, http://www.youthskillsmin.gov.lk, visited online 5th May 2013.

Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development, Small Enterprise Development, http://www.youthentrepreneur.gov.lk, visited online 31st July 2013.

9

United Nations News Center, 2013, “Post-2015 development agenda must address youth issues – new UN envoy,” United Nations, http://www.un.org/apps/news, visited online 5th May 2013.

10

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

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federations being registered covering the North and East, and there are active youth leaders representing other ethnicities in the Youth Parliament also.11 The most significant issues that need to be solved in the post 2015 agenda, in relation to youth, are; governance, healthcare, education, environmental sustainability, equality and discrimination, food and nutrition, employment, poverty and social issues, and infrastructure.12 Furthermore, the United Nations identifies peace building and post-conflict recovery as additional significant development priorities of the post 2015 era.13 In this aspect, Sri Lanka stands higher on the ladder, since there are many reconciliation, infrastructure, social stabilization, and economic development projects that are taking place in the conflict affected areas. Sri Lanka is actively engaging with youth in these areas, allowing them to take part in a successful reconciliation process, as well as development efforts.14 The government of Sri Lanka has allocated much effort and resources from the 2013 budget to the development of youth in Sri Lanka. A three year strategy is in place to develop the skills of youth to match the labour market demands, thereby increasing the employability of Sri Lankan youth.

These budget allocations were done so that the youth of today will have more access to training and development of their skills, and ultimately would increase labour force participation in the development work of Sri Lanka. Many infrastructure and social development projects are on the ground and at the planning stage for most parts of Sri Lanka, with development activities in the Northern, Eastern, and Southern Provinces being quite significant. While the current level of available skilled workers could be low for these development activities, the investments on skills training and development of youth will ensure that these development efforts will never be short of labour in the future. The post 2015 development agenda for youth in Sri Lanka bears a positive outlook. However, these initiatives need the active participation of youth. They are required to come forward, make their voices heard, and rise to the occasion when the oppor-

tunity is given.

1.5 Millennium Development Goals and Youth 1.5.1 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in a Global Perspective Building on the outcomes of various global conferences during the 1990s, United Nations Millennium Declaration set series of specific goals for the global community to meet by 2015. It was signed by many world leaders in September 2000. These Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) offer guidelines for the planning and implementation of a broad range of development efforts towards developing countries. It set a global benchmark for the eradication of poverty. This declaration also set the standards for monitoring the progress towards achieving the various goals.

The MDGs include eight goals and those are: 1. Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger 2. Achieve Universal Primary Education 3. Promote Gender Equity and Empower Women 4. Reduce Child Mortality 5. Improve Maternal Health 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and Other Diseases 7. Ensure Environmental Sustainability 8. Develop a Global Partnership for Development These 8 goals include 21 targets, and the UN declaration mentioned a series of measurable indicators for each target. The first goal of the United Nations Millennium Declaration is targeted at reducing the proportion of the global community whose income is less than one dollar per day, and to drop the proportion of people who suffer from hunger. Poverty head count ratio, poverty gap ratio, prevalence of underweight children under five years of age, proportion of people who are below the level of minimum dietary energy consumption, were set as the indicators for it. Enrolment ratio in primary education, the primary completion rate, and the literacy rate are the indicators for the goal of achieving universal primary education. Elimination of gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, and at all levels of education by 2015, was the main target in the goal of promoting gender equity and the empowering women. The ratio of boys

The information is collected through an FGD done with youth form North and East. The FGD was conducted by the Institute of Policy Studies, under the supervision of the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development as a part of the project: Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

11

12

Youth Working Group, 2013, Youth Voices in Post 2015 World,” Youth in Action Program of the European Union.

United Nations, 2013, “Millennium Development Goals and post-2015 Development Agenda,” http://www.un.org, visited online 5th May 2013.

13

United States Institute of Peace, 2013, “Local Interreligious Peacemaking in Sri Lanka,” http://www.usip.org/programmes/projects, visited online 5th May 2013.

14

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Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

to girls in primary, secondary and tertiary education, the ratio of literate women to men, share of women in wage employment in non-agricultural sector, and proportion of seats in national parliament occupied by women, are the indicators for goal number 3.

The mortality rate of children under the age of five, the infant mortality rate, and the proportion of children (aged one year, or below) immunized against measles are considered the indicators for the goal of reducing child mortality.

Improve maternal health by reducing 3/4th of maternal mortality ratio between 1990 and 2015 is the 5th MDG. The expectation of the 6th MDG was to halt the spread of HIV/AIDS, incidences of malaria, and other major diseases. Prevalence and death rates associated with malaria and tuberculosis, the detection rate, and prevention measures are taken are the indicators for that. The MDG of ensuring environmental sustainability was aimed at integrating the principals of sustainability in to the development policies and programmes of a country, while reversing the loss of environmental resources. It also expects to achieve significant improvements in the lives of at least 100 million slums dwellers, by reducing the proportion of people without suitable access to safe drinking water and other basic facilities. The last goal of the United Nations Millennium Declaration is to develop global partnerships for development. It aims to deal comprehensively with the debt problems of developing countries through national and international measures, in order to make debt sustainable in the long term. In cooperation with developing countries, they plan to develop and implement strategies for decent and productive work for future generation. It further attempts to make available benefits of new technologies, especially related to information and communication, in cooperation with private public partnership.

Now within sight of 2015, significant global progress has been made in achieving the Millennium Development Goals, during past decade. The global target for reducing extreme poverty by 50 was met five years prior to the year 2015. The target of halving the proportion of people without suitable access to an improved drinking water source has already been met. The condition of more than 200 million people living in slums has been upgraded, and on average gender equity in terms of access to primary education has been achieved across the world. Further, significant strides have been made towards the achievement of other targets such as reducing child and maternal mortality, expanding HIV treatments, and

control measures for Malaria and other diseases.

However, despite the fact that the progress has been achieved in gender equity, women still lack access to productive employment in formal sector.

Hunger and under-nutrition still remain the most critical global challenge. At the same time, peace and conflict are becoming greater issues for the global community.

1.5.2 MDGs in Sri Lanka Sri Lanka, as a member country of United Nations, is committed to fulfilling its national and global responsibilities by achieving the Millennium Development Goals. It is being led and administrated by the Ministry of Finance and Planning, with the support of the UN country team and the assistance of United Nations Development Program.

By including the MDGs in “Mahinda Chinthana: 10 years development framework,� the government has given high priority to achieving these goals. With the peace and stability earned after the cessation of the civil conflict, Sri Lanka has had great opportunity to focus on the achievement of the MDGs, especially with regards to the regional imbalances. Reducing poverty and hunger has been a crucial target for Sri Lanka’s public policy, over several decades. The Government has made considerable progress over the long term with regards to income level, and living standards, by ensuring sustainability in economic development.

Improving the quality of education and educational outcomes in remote areas including in the Northern and Eastern Provinces is a key target in the development strategy of Sri Lanka. Although Sri Lanka has done well in providing universal access to basic education, the quality of the education will become a key challenge. The government has implemented a few programmes to improve language skills, IT skills, and the technological knowledge of students. Sri Lanka has almost reached gender equity in primary education with the ratio of girl to boys in primary education reaching 99 per cent during 2006/07.

Over the past few decades, Sri Lanka has been the most successful country, among developing countries in the world, in terms of the reduction of its infants and child mortality rate. Sri Lanka is also on track for achieving its MDG on maternal health, as well as having a low prevalence of HIV/ AIDS. It appears to be low even in the categories of sex workers, in spite of their high vulnerability and risk. The high literacy rate, relatively high status of women, and the better access to health care services, act against the spread of HIV infections in the country. Among the reported cases, 61 per cent were from the Western Province in

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

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2006. The ratio of protected area to surface area has increased from 15.5 per cent in 1990 to 17.2 per cent in 2005. Sri Lanka has introduced many rules and regulations to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases. The Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) consumption has gradually declined from 210 MT in 1990, to 62 MT in 2007. The target of achieving significant improvements in the lives of at least 200 million slum dwellers by 2020 has been supported by Sri Lanka, with the creation of secure living conditions for the nations. Overall Sri Lanka is on a satisfactory path to achieving the goal of ensuring environmental sustainability.

Over the years Sri Lanka, with the help of the developed world, has been able to transfer Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) to Sri Lankans as well as making steps to improve the computer and English literacy. The conventional MDGs are focused on all age groups; they look at the development and wellbeing of infants, children, youth and the aged. While all these age groups are very important, the youth category holds a special place, since they are more capable of directly participating in the development activities of the world now, and in the future as adults. Therefore, looking at how MDGs are being realized by youth is quite important. Governments’ needs to evaluate whether youth have being given equal opportunity to actively participate in development efforts. There should be corrective measures in place if youth are not given fair chance to represent their lot in development.

This is a priority in the post 2015 development agenda.

1.5.3 Youth and MDG in a Global Perspective Youth programmes were traditionally implemented within some specific sectors, including health, education, employment, and civil participation.

Many developing countries invest in better education, healthcare, and job training for its youth, to accelerate economic growth and reduce poverty in the country. More than 30 per cent of the world’s children, especially in lower and middle income countries, fail to reach their development potentials, and this limits their ability to contribute to the community and obtain rewarding employment. Therefore, many international organizations have come up with different programmes to help prevent hunger, improve child health, and invest in suitable access to water, sanitation, and hygiene. Investment in youth programmes and services can reduce the conditions of unemployment, school dropout rate, early pregnancy, HIV/ AIDS infections, and poor nutrition.

Achievement of MDGs for youth varies among developing countries. The programmes that are

24

in place for youth can change based on the countries’ priorities. However, majority of South Asian countries are more focused on poverty and employment, education, health, gender equality and women empowerment, environmental sustainability and development of global partnerships. Sri Lanka arguable stands above many of the South Asian countries in achieving MDGs for youth.

However, little research has been done to look at the achievements using recent data. Therefore, the objective of this research report is to look at the realization of the MDGs for Sri Lankan youth; using recent data, both qualitative and quantitative.

1.6 Youth and MDG in Sri Lanka: Research Method The achievement of MDGs with respect to the youth of Sri Lanka using recent data is yet to be studied. However in order do that, it is essential to firstly identify the MDGs that are applicable to youth, and make them relevant to the Sri Lankan context. Below are the MDGs that are relevant to the youth of Sri Lanka. There are six MDGs that relate to the youth age group.

•

Eradicate poverty and achieve employment growth

•

Promote educational opportunities

•

Promote Gender Equity and Empower Women

•

Promote access to health facilities

•

Ensure Environmental Sustainability

•

Develop a Global Partnership for Development

Under these six MDGs, there are many indicators.

These indicators have to be customized to represent the Sri Lanka youth. Also there are more indicators that are not necessary MGDs but would present a valuable insight on youth development of the country. Below Table 1.1 highlight the conventional MGD, the overall indicators that are describes under each conventional MGD, MGDs that are relevant to the youth of Sri Lanka, and then indicators that are specific to youth of Sri Lanka both MGD and non-MDG.

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

Table 1.1 Universal MDGs and Sri Lanka Specific Youth MDGs

MDG Goal

Overall indicators

MDG 1: Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger

1. Poverty head count ratio 2. Poverty Gap ratio Share of poorest quintile in national composition

Sri Lanka youth related MDG

Sri Lanka youth related indicators

Eradicate poverty and achieve employment growth

1. Youth below poverty line 2. Youth unemployment rate 3. Youth labour force participation rate

3. Prevalence of underweight children under 5 years of age (%)

4. Number of youth at wage employment to total youth employed

4. Proportion of population below minimum level of dietary energy consumption

5. Youth in entrepreneurships 6. Skilled and unskilled migration of youth 7. Youth employability

1. Net enrolment ratio in primary education 2. Proportion of pupils starting grade 1 who reach grade 5 (%) 3. A primary completion rate 4. Literacy rate of 15-29 years old

Education for Youth

1. Equitable access to education 2. Literacy rate of 1529 year olds 3. Per cent of youth completing formal education 4. Net enrolment ratio in university and vocational institutes 5. Proportion of youth graduate in science and math

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

25

Table 1.1 Universal MDGs and Sri Lanka Specific Youth MDGs

MDG 2: Reduce Child Mortality MDG 3: Improve Maternal Health MDG 4: Combat HIV/ AIDS, Malaria and other diseases

26

1. Under 5 mortality Healthy and skillful rate youth 2. Infant mortality rate 3. Proportion of 1 year old children immunized against measles 4. Maternal mortality ratio 5. Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel 6. Condom use rate of the contraceptive prevalence rate 7. Percentage of population aged 15-29 years with comprehensive correct knowledge of HIV/AIDS 8. Contraceptive prevalence rate 9. Prevalence and death rates associated with malaria 10. Proportion of population in malaria-risk areas using effective malaria prevention and treatment measures 11. Prevalence and death rates associated with tuberculosis 12. Proportion of tuberculosis cases detected and cured under DOTS

1. Nutrition of female youth 2. Teenage pregnancy 3. Knowledge on sexuality 4. Smoking and alcohol use among youth 5. Death due to suicides 6. Differently able youth

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

Promote gender equality and empower women

Ensure Environmental Sustainability

1. Ration of boys and girls in primary, secondary and tertiary education 2. Ratio of literate women to men 15-29 years 3. Share of women in wage employment in the nonagriculture sector 4. Proportion of women seats held by women in national parliament

Promote gender equality and empower women

1. Proportion of land Ensuring environmenarea covered by tal sustainability forests 2. Ratio of areas protected to maintain biological diversity to surface areas 3. Energy use 4. Carbon Dioxide emissions from per capita and consumption of Ozone depleting CFC’s

1. Ratios of girls to boys in secondary, tertiary and vocational education 2. Female labour force participation 3. Share of women in wage employment 4. Percentage of women in managerial positions 5. Entrepreneurial activities by women 6. Political participation by women 1. Youth in secured housing 2. Youth in secured sanitation 3. Youth access to safe drinking water 4. Potential for greener and decent jobs 5. Environment stewardship programmes for youth

5. Proportion of households with suitable access to an improved water source (Urban, Rural , Estate) 6. Proportion of households with access to improved sanitation (Urban, Rural, Estate) 7. Proportion of households with access to secure tenure Table 1.1 Universal MDGs and Sri Lanka Specific Youth MDGs

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

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Develop a Global Partnership for development

Developing global 1. Proportion of ODA provided to partnerships for develhelp build trade opment capacity 2. Debt service as a percentage of export goods and services 3. Unemployment rate of young people at 15-24 years 4. Number of telephone lines per 100 population 5. Cellular subscribers per 100 population 6. Personal computers in use and internet users per 100 population –percentage of households having desktop computers, laptop computers and household percentage with population (5-69) who could use internet

1. Electricity provision for youth 2. Landline telephone provision for youth 3. Mobile phone provision for youth 4. ICT literacy and computer provision for youth 5. Status of bank loans 6. English literacy among youth 7. Programmes for youth in developing global partnerships

Table 1.1 Universal MDGs and Sri Lanka Specific Youth MDGs

There are both qualitative and quantitative indicators. Quantitative indicators were compiled using existing secondary data sets, mainly the household income and expenditure surveys of 2006 and 2010, and the labour force participation surveys of 2006 and 2010. Qualitative indictors were looked at using the data collected through Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and Key Informant Interviews (KIIs). The FGDs covered the areas of estate sector youth, disable youth, youth in education (which covers O/L, A/L, university, and vocational education), youth in entrepreneurship, reconciliation youth, and finally youth representing the Youth Parliament. KIIs included informants representing government ministries (such as the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Labour, Ministry of Environment, and Ministry of Economic Development), private organizations, universities and NGO/INGOs. The information gathered was analyzed using both qualitative and quantitative data analysis techniques.

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1.7 Guide to the Report The rest of the report is arranged to discuss each youth related MGD one by one. In each chapter, both qualitative as well as quantitative indicators are discussed. As mentioned before, indicators are both directly related to the universal MDG indicators as well as some are Sri Lanka specific. Therefore, the chapters headings does not carry the conventional MDG name, rather it is customized to Sri Lankan youth.

The first chapter on MGD goals is productive employment for youth. Under this chapter the discussed indicators are: (1) youth below poverty line (2) youth unemployment rate (3) youth labour force participation rate (4) number of youth at wage employment to total youth employed (5) youth in entrepreneurships (6) skilled and unskilled migration of youth and (7) youth employability. The second chapter on youth related MDGs is education for youth. Under this chapter the dis-

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

cussed indicators are (1)equitable access to education (2) literacy rate of 15-29 year olds (3) per cent of youth completing formal education (4) net enrolment ratio in university and vocational institutes and (5) proportion of youth graduate in science and math.Third youth MDG related chapter is healthy youth for development. This chapters talks on indicators such as (1) nutrition of female youth (2) teenage pregnancy (3) knowledge on sexuality (4) smoking and alcohol use among youth (5) death due to suicides and (6) differently able youth. Next chapter which talks on youth MGDs is the gender equality and empower young women.Below indicators are discussed under this chapter: (1) Ratios of girls to boys in secondary, tertiary and vocational education (2) female labour force participation (3) share of women in wage employment (4) percentage of women in managerial positions (5) entrepreneurial activities by women and (6) political participation by

women. This is followed by the youth MDG chapter youth and environment. Indicators discussed in this chapter are (1) youth in secured housing (2) youth in secured sanitation (3) youth access to safe drinking water (4) potential for greener and decent jobs (5) environment stewardship programmes for youth. The final chapter that investigates youth MGDs is the chapter on infrastructure and ICT for youth.This chapter looks at the following indicators: (1) electricity provision for youth (2) landline telephone provision for youth (3) mobile phone provision for youth (4) ICT literacy and computer provision for youth (5) status of bank loans and (6) English literacy among youth.

End of the each chapter identifies challenged and way forward, highlighting the policy recommendations for further development of youth of Sri Lanka. Altogether there are 7 chapters.

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Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

Productive Employment for Youth Author

Chatura Rodrigo

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Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

2: Productive Employment for Youth 2.1 Introduction Sri Lanka has achieved the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) of halving the incidence of Income Poverty (IP) before the target year of 2015.15 At the moment, this is not observable in the estate sector, but current development efforts will guarantee that the estate sector will also achieve the MDG targets by 2015. Although the poverty eradication targets have been successfully met for all the districts in Sri Lanka, regional disparities are significantly evident.16 The two provinces that are lagging behind are the North and East.

However, the government and policy makers are optimistic that the current development efforts in these regions will positively contribute to their development.17 Poverty and unemployment are interrelated.18 Employment creation has been a priority for the government when addressing youth unemployment. In Sri Lanka employability is not only about earning a living, but is intrinsically linked to the aspirations of young people, which is in turn linked to social status and social mobility. In creating a globally competitive workforce with knowledge and skills, the government has a key role to play in expanding the opportunities and ensuring competitiveness through policy formulation and regulatory reform.19 While deregulation and liberalization could provide an opportunity for greater participation by the private sector in the areas of higher education and vocational training, the public sector institutes could improve their global competitiveness through greater administrative and financial autonomy.20 The provision of vocational training is important particularly because it is one of the most significant pathways to the economic empowerment for youth, and other participants, who have not had the opportunity

to enter higher education or have other viable forms of economic survival. The largest national contingent of training providers under the line ministry responsible for TVET includes, the DTET, VTA, NAITA, and UNIVOTEC21. Most mainstream programmes are generally youth and vocational training oriented, while “disadvantaged youth focused” programmes are mainly provided by NGOs, religious organizations, and the Department of Social Services.

2.2 Youth Poverty and Employment Indicators Youth indicators in this section are organized in to two categories; youth poverty indicators and youth employment indicators. All the indicators that are quantitative were computed using data from two data sets: Household Income and Expenditure Survey (HIES), and Labour Force Survey (LFS). Indicators are computed using data from 2006/07 and 2009/10 for comparison purposes.

There are qualitative indicators as well, and those are youth in the SME sector, skilled and unskilled migration of youth, and the employability of youth.

2.2.1 Youth below the Poverty Line Youth play a significant role in the broad discussion of poverty in Sri Lanka. At the moment, poverty among youth is understood by most studies in terms of income poverty calculated using HIES data. However, it should be noted that poverty is multidimensional. Looking at poverty ideally should be based on income as well as non-income terms. Therefore, poverty is not solely a function of income rather it is a function on income, health, education gender and many other factors22. However, complexities in analyzing multidimensional

World Bank, 2013, http://www.worldbank.org, “Sri Lanka Poverty Assessment”, visited online 19th April 2013.

15

Nanayakkara Wimal, 2011, “Talking Economics, Eradicating Poverty in Sri Lanka: Strong Progress but much remains to be done”, Institute of Policy Studies of Sri Lanka, visited online 19th April 2013.

16

Among several poverty alleviation efforts, Samurdhi and Gemidiriya stand as the most significant during the past few decades. There programmes have benefited achieving MDG targets in poverty alleviation through many community level engagements and youth has been a significant proportion of recipients of the benefits. “Samurdhi” is the National Programme introduced by the Government in 1994 to alleviate poverty.

17

Samaraweera C.G, 2010, “Economic and Social Assessment of Poverty Alleviation Programmes in Sri Lanka, Special Reference to the Gemidiriya Community Development and Livelihood Improvement Project”, Journal of Emerging Trends in Economics and Management Science, 1 (1), pp. 60-65

18

International Labour Organization, 2006, “Strategic Assessment and Policy Recommendation for a National Action Plan for Youth Employment, Sri Lanka”, Global Youth Employment Network (YEN) Secretariat of Sri Lanka

19

Institute of Policy Studies (IPS), 2013, “Sri Lanka’s State of the Economy: The Trnasitition to a Middle Incom Economy”.

Department of National Strategies and Action Plans and International Labour Organization, 2010, “National Strategy on TVET Provision for Vulnerable People in Sri Lanka”. Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission, Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development.

22 Institute of Policy Studies (IPS), 2013 20 21

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poverty in quantitative terms have constrained studies to only relay on income poverty based on HIES data and it is common to this analysis also.

Yet, qualitative information discussed here allows drawing a border picture incorporating other dimensions of poverty to a certain extent.

Studies show that only a small portion of unemployed youth comes from most disadvantaged household. Therefore poor youth are less likely to be unemployed. However, poor youth ended up attracting low quality jobs with less pay pushing them to the vicious cycle of poverty. Waiting for secure job, mostly in the government sector put greater burden on the poor families therefore they tend to attract what whatever the employment opportunity they get without much chance of bargaining for a higher pay. Inability to spend on education, at least to acquire the vocational education constrained poor youth from attracting secure and well-paid jobs. Poor households are characterized with low level of heath and sanitation. Malnutrition and exposure to other communicable diseases always constraint poor youth from acquiring a proper education while making their physical strength questionable. Furthermore, living in unsecure environments especially in war affected areas have pushed poor youth to be less workforce ready and increasing the levels of poverty among them.23 Therefore youth become poor not only because they are not capable of obtaining employment but because their educational, health and situational conditions might prevent them from acquiring the comparative advantage to attract quality jobs.

Based on the HIES data, approximately 14.6 per cent of Sri Lankan youth were below the poverty line during the period of 2006/07. This figure has reduced up to 8.9 per cent by 2009/10 period, reflecting the overall poverty reduction in the country during these two periods. National poverty also reduced form 15.2 per cent in 2006/07 to 8.2 per cent in 2009/1024. Again, reflecting national

trends, youth poverty remains high in the estate sector, while urban poverty is the lowest. During 2006/07, the percentage of youth below the official poverty line in the estate sector stood at 29.4 per cent, 15.1 per cent in the rural sector, and 6.7 per cent in the urban sector. All these showed significant improvements by 2009/10. The percentage of youth below the official poverty line in the estate sector was reduced to 10.7 per cent, 9.5 per cent in the rural sector, and 5.1 per cent in the urban sector (Figure 2.1). Therefore, income poverty among youth has reduced overtime in all the sectors. These results are attributable to the government’s attempts to reduce poverty in the country as a whole, and it is satisfactory to see that the youth of the country also receiving the benefits of these efforts.25 However, especially in the estate sector, poor youth face far more challenges compared to youth in the urban and rural sector. Involvement of politically influences characters such as “thalevars” in the lives of estate sector youth constrain them from receiving poverty related assistance and even engaging in entrepreneurial activities.

“We appreciate the development that happened throughout the past decade to eradicate poverty in our areas. However, poverty in these areas is still high. More needs to be done. We have conveyed our situation to all the politicians personally and through ‘thalevars.’ However there are questions about the transparencies especially when thalevars’ are involved in taking our message to the political leaders. We would appreciate to receive any assistance related to poverty through government officials”- An estate sector youth representing Nuwara Eliya District

Samaraweera, C.G., (2010), “Economic and Social Assessment of Poverty Alleviation Programmes in Sri Lanka, Special Reference to the Gemidiriya Community Development and Livelihood Improvement Project”, Journal of Emerging Trends in Economics and Management Science, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 60-65.

23

Department of Census and Statistics, 2011, “Poverty Indicators: Household Income and Expenditure Survey 2009/10”, Ministry of Finance and Planning.

25 Ministry of Economic Development, 2013, http://www.med.gov.lk, “The Main Poverty Alleviation Programme in Sri Lanka”, visited online 19th April 2013 24

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Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

Figure 2.1: Percentage of Youth Living below the Official Poverty Line

14.63%

National

8.92% 19.41%

Estate

10.74% 15.09%

Rural

9.49% 6.73% 5.13%

Urban 0

5.00%

10.00%

2006

15.00%

20.00%

25.00%

30.00%

2010

Source: Authors calculation based on HIES data 2006 and 2010

One important dimension of poverty is its regional disparity. Poverty across different areas vary based on many factors such as access to employment, access to health and education, infrastructure facilities, family size, etc. Like in any other country, poverty among youth in Sri Lanka varies based on the province. Comparing the two time periods, poverty in all the provinces except the Eastern Province reduced. Among the provinces, the percentage of youth under the official poverty line is high in Uva, Sabaragamuwa and Central Provinces. The percentages are lowest for the Western Province. During 2006/07, only Uva, Sabaragamuwa, North Central and Central Provinces recorded poverty levels higher than the national level for that time period. However, in 2009/10, except for the Western Province, poverty levels of all the other provinces were higher than the national level. Samurdhi and Gemidiriya were the main interventions by the government to reduce poverty in Sri Lanka. However Eastern and Northern provinces are two exceptions of these programmes where they have been facing a 30 years of conflict. Assistance to alleviate poverty was directed to these two areas at minimum level.

Therefore poverty among youth in the North and East is mostly due to situational conditions.

As explained earlier, most poor and vulnerable youth are eager to find employment rather that employing money and time on acquiring education, mainly because their parents are not in a position to support their education. This has pushed them to take on low quality jobs with less pay that would not allow them to save money at all.

Leaving education early and entering in to the

workforce is much common in the estate sector compared to other sectors.

“I wanted to do A/L or a vocational education but my parents could not support my education.

Therefore after O/L I went to Kandy with my cousin to work in a construction site with the help of my cousin. I do not earn enough money to send home or save, but can manage myself. I need to find a job soon which I can earn more money, otherwise I will not be able to have a family’- An estate sector youth representing Kandy District Rural sector and estate sector poor households are frequently faced with malnutrition and other communicable disease threats. Therefore while the income poverty might have reduced in these sectors, non-income poverty, especially related to heath is high in the estate and the rural sector.

“Malnutrition is high among poor households in the estate sector and the rural sector. Youth in these poor households have gone through many episodes of these heath issues and they are physically affected. Therefore, sometimes they are not capable of holding on to jobs. They mostly get blue collar jobs that require them to work hard, but health issue time to time have caused them to fail at their employments. They might have a job, but the quality of the job that they are at is determined by health conditions they occupy”A member of the Youth Parliament representing Monaragala district Therefore, efforts of the GOSL over the past several years have helped to reduce the income

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

33

poverty among the youth of Sri Lanka across the sectors of urban rural and estate. However, these poverty figures needs to be further reduced.

Even though the income poverty has reduced, poverty caused by educational constraints, health conditional as situational conditions such as exposure to war and exploitation by politically influenced figures such as thalevars especially in the estate sector are clearly visible. Therefore youth of Sri Lanka are by and large victims of multidimensional poverty in addition to the income poverty.

2.2.2 Youth Unemployment Rate The percentage of the total youth labour force that is economically inactive but actively seeking employment, and is willing to work is referred to as the youth unemployment rate. Youth unemployment rate was recorded at 17 per cent during the year 2006 and was reduced to 15 per cent by the year 2010. For the same periods, the youth unemployment rate reduced from 13 per cent to 11 per cent in the estate sector, (Figure 2.2) and from 18 per cent to 15 per cent in the rural sector. However, the youth unemployment rate rose from 12 per cent to 14 per cent in the urban sector. Youth unemployment rates have decreased from 2006 to 2010 for the Western, Southern, North Western, North Central, Uva, and Sabaragamuwa Provinces. However, the rates have increased over time for the Central Province. Sri Lanka records an urbanization rate of 23-43 per cent,26 and over the years many youth from the estates and rural sectors migrated to urban areas in search of work. However, it is not that easy to find employment and specifically, permanent employment. Therefore at any given time there is a high number of unemployed youth in the urban sector.

At the same time, youth that migrate to urban areas for education purposes is also high. With the university education both state and private and with the opportunities for vocational education, there is a higher proportion of youth in the urban areas compared to other areas who are not employed, instead engaged in studies. For example, VTA has many vocational training and education centers all around the country. However, demanding programmes such as food process technology, quantity survey, video production technology and mechatronics is only available in the VTA centers in Colombo, Gampaha and Kandy. On the other hand the UNIVOTEC is located in Colombo and 26

students must come there for the National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) levels 6 and above which is the pathway to the bachelor’s degree in technology27.

However, on a positive note the government is at the moment in process of establishing 25 university colleges under the UNIVOTEC where students will have access to all demanded programmes mentioned earlier. UNIVOTEC currently offers both fulltime and part time programmes. Fulltime students are not allowed to be employed until they finish the 3 year programme. Majority of the students at the UNIVOTEC are fulltime resident students and they are engaged in fulltime studies at the moment28. At the same time initiatives are in place to establish fully functioning vocational education centers in North and East with the view enabling reconciliation youth to pursue vocational education and training. Even though these initiatives reduce the number of youth being employed at a given time, it is a good thing that youth invest time and money in education since building the knowledge and skill stock is important to the sustainability of the workforce as well as the growth of the economy in the long run.

“I came to UNIVOTEC from Badulla, lot of my friends are from the Central province. We are here for three years, and during that time we work only for 6 months, which is during our industrial training. We all are full time students and we are not allowed to be employed. If you want to be employed and works then you have to follow the weekend classes and that programme is long and costly”- A Student from UNIVOTEC. Comparatively, youth unemployment was high in the estate sector during both 2006 and 2010. Since the Central Province accounts for the majority of the estate sector, this would explain the youth unemployment rates in the Central Province.

“Most of youth in the estate sector migrate to urban areas to look for jobs. They mainly go to work at textile factories, hotels, and as labour in households. There are some who migrate to the Middle East for jobs. The remaining youth, especially the females, are forced to go and work in the tea estates. Some youth have started their own business, such as cultivating vegetables, driving three wheelers, and operating boutiques. But still there are a lot who still do not have jobs” – An estate

Department of Census and Statistics, 2012.“Census of Population and Housing 2011 – Preliminary Report.” Colombo

Vocational Authority of Sri Lanka, http://www.vta.lk, and University of Vocational Technology Sri Lanka, http://www.univotec. ac.lk, visited on line 20th June 2013.

27

28

34

University of Vocational Technology, Sri Lanka, http://www.univotec.ac.lk, visited on line 20th June 2013.

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

sector youth representing Badulla district FGDs among youth suggest that there is an issue of skill mismatch. The skills that youth acquire are not in line with the job availability. For example, students who enter in to the Arts stream at the universities have a hard time in obtaining jobs since their curriculums are not up-to-date and does not address what the job market requires.

This is more dominant in the private sector compared to public sector. Public sector seems to provide opportunities regardless of the educational stream that youth has followed but being profit oriented, private sector is much more cautious on the skills that youth have. FGDs further suggest that university students are more concerns about the government sector jobs simply because they are more stable, they offer better opportunities for training and development and interestingly less stress. They were willing to hold on employment opportunities in the private sector for a future employment in the public sector since it gives less workload and prestige even though the pay is less. Most youth see private sector employment as competitive, hardworking and not secure since most private organizations operate on contract basis. However FGDs also suggested that public sector opportunities have their own weaknesses such as low pay and mismatch between the educational qualifications and job responsibilities.

“I think youth like public sector jobs since they are less stress and they give you enough time and flexibility to do other things. There are many holidays and you have a fixed 8 hours to work.

There is always the opportunity to deal with other family matters such as taking your children from schools. I have seen graduates in government institutes who are doing jobs that do not cover by their respective bachelor education. There are graduates who have left good private sector jobs since they are so demanding�-A member of Youth Parliament representing Kaluthara district FGDs among youth from North and East suggested that youth have issues in finding employments in their localities. Majority of youth are reluctant to go back to agriculture or fisheries since it generates less economic rent. Majority of youth comes to urban area and only find them unemployed or with less quality jobs. Most youth stressed that point that they want to earn money as soon as possible and establish a family. They have missed a lot of time of their childhood and youth lives and are not encouraged to go back to education.

Therefore youth who migrate out of North and East and who stay are both in dilemma of securing quality employment.

Figure 2.2: Youth Unemployment Rate

17%

National

15% 13%

Estate

11% 18%

Rural

15% 12%

Urban

14% 0

2.0%

4.0%

6.0%

8.0%

2006

10.0%

12.0%

14.0%

16.0%

18.0%

20.0%

2010

Source: Authors calculation based on HIES data 2006 and 2010

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

35

2.2.3 Youth Labour Force Participation Rate Labour force participation rates among youth have declined from 51 per cent in 2006 to 44 per cent in 2010. This trend extends across the sectors also. Youth labour force participation rates in the urban sector declined from 47 per cent to 41 per cent from 2006 to 2010, and the rate declined in the rural sector from 51 per cent to 44 per cent.

The decline of the youth labour force participation rate is higher in the estate sector where it dropped from 64 per cent to 53 per cent. Excluding the Northern Province, the lowest labour force participation (approximately 38 per cent) rate was recorded in the Eastern Province for the year 2010. The youth labour force participation showed a decreasing trend for all the other provinces during the 2006 to 2010 period. This is shown in figure 2.3.

At the national level, the decrease in the labour force participation rate could be due to the low level of employments by youth as they spend more years in education instead of joining the work force. While this is decreasing the current level of labor force participation rate, investing in education as mentioned earlier is a positive thing which could pay off in the long run. However, other issues discussed earlier such as silks mismatch, forgoing private sector jobs in favor of future public sector jobs could also explain the reduced youth labor force participation.

“There is a growing interest among youth pursuing further study. Even though they can’t pass O/L they still go for education through vocation train-

ing centres. Almost everyone who has done A/L and can’t go to the university is again engaged in vocational education and other types professional training courses. Even the students who were selected for the universities are doing more courses until the university starts. Therefore more youth are at study rather than working” –An undergraduate student representing University of Colombo Estate sector youth, as suggested by the FGDs seems to enter in to the labour force at a very early stage of their youth. This could be due to the income constrains that these families have.

Estate sector youth are confronted with limited earning avenues that have limited earning capacities, and with large family sizes, they tend to push young children to work at early stages.

“Estate sector youth are doing jobs in many areas. They are not necessary working in the estate.

Some cultivate vegetables and some migrate to urban areas for jobs. Youth drop out of school at very early stages to find employment so that they can support their families. Most of the time the elder child will drop out from school and go to work if the family has more than three children. Therefore, it is common to see most of the youth are trying to earn some money. The sustainability of these jobs and the earning capacity is in question, but anything is better than nothing. Therefore they start working at very early stages of their young lives”-An estate sector youth representing Gampola district.

Figure 2.3 Youth Labour Force Participation by Sector 51%

National

44% 64%

Estate

53% 51%

Rural

44% 47%

Urban

41% 0.0%

10.0%

20.0%

30.0%

2006

40.0%

50.0%

60.0%

2010

Source: Authors calculation based on HIES data 2006 and 2010

36

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

70.0%

2.2.4 Number of Youth at Wage Employment to Total Employed Youth Youth at wage employment defines the proportion of youth who are working for a salary. Wage employment is important since it demonstrates the job security. Wage employment guarantees a certain pay for a given time period. This time period varies based on private and public sector where public sector wage employment is more permanent. Youth in wage employment has not changed significantly over time. A slight increase is evident in the rural sector (Figure 2.4).

Figure 2.4 Youth at Wage Employment to Total Youth Employed by Sector 0.7 0.7

National

0.9 0.9

Estate 0.6

Rural

0.7 0.8 0.8

Urban

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4 2006

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

2010

Source: Authors calculation based on HIES data 2006 and 2010

Youth who are at wage employment, especially those who are at government, private and NonGovernmental Organization sector increased after the Tsunami and the post war period. Many job opportunities were created by NGO/INGOs after the Tsunami29 however they only lasted several years as NGO/INGOs phased out their operations in Sri Lanka. Some of the organizations that started in Sri Lanka after the Tsunami continued their work with the post war development opportunities. Significant numbers of employment opportunities were also created through the government, especially by recruiting graduate to government institutions.30 Wage employment also includes casual work. The availability of casual work for youth has also increased overtime with the infrastructure development going on in the country. However, the overall changes in the youth at wage employment are not significant.

“Government gave lot of job opportunities to graduates. Many of them were recruited for regional government institutions. However there are mismatches in some of those jobs. Some graduates were not given appointment in areas where they have been trained through the university systems. Yet, it is important that they were given the chance to participate in development agenda of the country in one way or the other, rather than wasting their valuable education” – A member of the youth parliament representing Gampaha district

Rodrigo Chatura, 2010, “Employee Motivation: What Factors Motivate Employees to Work in Nongovernmental Organizations (NGO) in Sri Lanka: A Study According to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Model”, International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, (5):4 pp.197-212

29

Ceylon Lanka, 2013, “Latest Government Jobs information and vacancies”, http://www.ceylonlanka.info, visited online may 25th 2010.

30

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

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Estate sector youth also are keener on wage employment as opposed to entrepreneurships. This could be due to the financial and skills constraints that they have. With limited capital and collateral, estate sector youth are moving more towards finding wage employment. However, majority of these wage employments are not permanent and represent casual labor employments.

“In the estate sector youth have only few options.

Either you work in the estate, do vegetable cultivation and farming or else migrate to urban areas looking for jobs. Youth mainly migrate to work in hotels, houses as housemaids and to work in textile factories. There is a proportion that migrates to Middle East also. Therefore, youth who start up their own enterprises are very few and majority are dependent on wage employments”-An estate sector youth representing Kandy district 2.2.5 Youth in Entrepreneurships Small and Medium Scale Enterprises(SMEs) are one of the main employment generators for youth at the urban, rural, and estate sector. Today there are better opportunities for youth to start up their own businesses than before, especially since the end of the war. There is much assistance extended towards improving the SME opportunities for youth, however there are some bottle-necks as well. Nevertheless, this has resulted in an increasing trend in youth starting up own enterprises.

FGDs suggested that youth in the North and East were optimistic on starting entrepreneurships just after the war hoping that the government expenditure on road development and outreach by the banking sector would help them. However, many youth believe this is not the case. Bank systems are still heavily concentrated on collaterals therefore even the roads are developed to bring in what North and East produce to Colombo, SMEs are constrained with low availability of finances.

At the same time the government has begun initiatives to start up new industrialized zones such as the Achchuveli Industrial Zone, to facilitate SMEs in the Northern Province, and these efforts will be expanded in to the Eastern Province also. The objective of these interventions was to provide SMEs a chance to start up business with the fully support of the government with the operational as well as financial assistance. Also government hopes to help these SMEs with the establishment of marketing channels so that their produces could also be exported in the long run.

“Youth in the North are quite excited about the initiatives such as Achchuveli Industrial Zone. It will facilitate more than 50 SMEs in the area and

38

will be a good opportunity for youth entrepreneurs to develop. These initiatives will develop the rest of the area also with the provision of water, electricity, and infrastructure. Youth SMEs outside the zone also can develop new business ventures to supply materials and provide transportation.

For example, there are SMEs in the zone that produce fruit drinks and pulps. This can be an opportunity for other youth to establish links to supply the required fruits” – A youth representing Jaffna district There is an influx of educated youth starting own enterprises. A majority of them have realized the importance of staring up their own ventures which gives them financial independence, as well as flexibility. Wage employment at the private sector are seen as less flexible, demanding and competitive, and government sector pays less however, SMEs provide youth with the opportunity to master what they like, and earn money in the process.

“There are many university students who have started SMEs in all parts of the country. They have got together and started their business while they were in the university, so by the time they graduate, their business is stable and they have paved their own path to earn money. This is now being introduced to schools also where students at O/L and A/L are encouraged to start up innovative enterprises. Examples are manufacturing CFL bulbs, website designing, and doing research. There are youth led enterprises which does data collection and analysis for major research companies in Sri Lanka” – An entrepreneur still studying at the University of Moratuwa Vocational training is one of the key elements in the development of SMEs. This training helps youth to develop their skills which later they can apply to earn money in the form of an enterprise.

This training is mainly given through the Vocational Training Authority (VTA) through the NVQ qualification, and youth can even earn a degree from UNIVOTEC. However, it should be noted that the vocational training and education only covers a part of the SMEs. “Most students come to VTA to get the skills they want to start their own business. For example, once a youth gets NVQ qualification in motor mechanics, there is very little chance that he would go and work for a motor repair shop in Sri Lanka.

Most of the time he would start his own enterprise, or else there is a pretty good chance that they migrate, since NVQ certification are valid in foreign countries” – A student representing the UNIVOTEC While there are positive aspects re-

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

garding the SME sector of youth, there are following constrains for the development identified by the FGDs. First is the ability of youth in obtaining financial assistance. Earlier it was mentioned that financing is an issue for North and East but this is common to the whole country. Banks require collateral in order give financial assistance but most youth entrepreneurs are not blessed with that.

Therefore it has been a constant challenge for youth to secure finances form banks which pushes them towards informal sector finances with higher interest rates. FGDs suggest that most youth are keen to start business but are unable due to this fact. These constraints might force youth to go for informal finances with higher interest rates making the sustainability of the enterprise question-

able. Additionally, youth entrepreneurs are lack of financial management capabilities. Most youth starts business but are unable to make them sustainable since they don’t have knowledge on financial management of business. Furthermore, youth tend to follow trends in starting up new business without doing proper feasibilities. Youth entrepreneurs in this aspect fail to understand the viability of the enterprises and potential competition it might have.

Two of the significant initiatives towards helping young entrepreneurs in Sri Lanka are explained in the Box 2.1. and Box 2.2 highlight an important development in the vocational education sector that guarantees youth employability.

Box 2.1: Youth Entrepreneurships Youth Business Sri Lanka (YBSL) is an initiative built upon the principles of Youth Business International of United Kingdom (YBI) and coves 32 countries, including Sri Lanka. The objective of this programme is to support youth in respective countries to start and manage successful entrepreneurial ventures. This initiative provides financial support to disadvantaged youth, who are victims of socio-economic exclusion. The YBSL is a collection of many partners and an example of public-private partnerships. The partner organizations are the Ceylon Chamber of Commerce (CCC), International Labour Organization of Sri Lanka, and Business for Peace and Alliance, International Alert, Confederation of Asia pacific Chambers of Commerce and Industry (CACCI) Foundation, and Microsoft Sri Lanka.

YBSL has 700 registered beneficiaries of which, 300 are female. There are 26 physically disabled beneficiaries covered under the programme.

The YBSL programme has covered the districts of Colombo, Hambantota, Rathnapura, Badulla, Kegalle, Kandy, Trincomalee, and Jaffna.

Lanka (YESL) is a non-profit organization that educates and inspires young children to value enterprise, understand business and economics, be self-dependent, and be workforce ready. This initiative follows the guidelines of the Global Junior Achievement programmes. The YESL programme covers students aged 13-18 years in schools and has several components such as the Global Learning and Business Enterprise (GLOBE), Travel and Tourism Business (TTBiz) and Management and Economic Simulation Exercise (MESE). The GLOBE pairs high school students from two different nations to form joint venture import/ export companies. TTBiz is a web based programme consisting of classroom and field activities, which teach students how to start an actual tourism-related small business.

MESE provides students with the challenge of operating their own companies in a competitive environment that simulates the real business world. YESL had partnered with HSBC Sri Lanka to develop the entrepreneurship for 1,000 underprivileged students in 12 schools and centres in Colombo and its suburbs.

On the other hand Young Entrepreneurs of Sri

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

39

Box 2.2 Vocational Education: New Initiatives The budget speech of 2012 by his Excellency the President was a blessing to the Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) sector of Sri Lanka, with the announcement of the establishment of 25 University Colleges affiliated to the University of Vocational Technology. The objective of this initiative is to expand the technical and vocational education of Sri Lanka through middle technical and degree level programmes in areas where the labour market demand is high. The University Colleges will establish National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) level 5 and 6 diploma courses in the initial stage. These institutes will also attract a proportion of GCE Advanced level students through special bridging programmes, in addition to the students upgrading through NVQ levels 4 and 4.

University colleges are under the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development while having a higher degree of autonomy. These institutions will have the authority to administer its functions, manage enrolments of students, conduct courses, and implement examinations, and other required functions under the quality assurance guidance provided by the University of Vocational Technology. Furthermore, the University Colleges will also be responsible for the awarding of certificates, diplomas, and degrees to the students completing the relevant courses.

2.2.6 Skilled and Unskilled Migration of Youth Both skilled and unskilled migration is high in Sri Lanka, where it has shown an increasing trend over the past few years. The youth comprise a significant component of those who migrate under both these categories. Youth who migrate under the unskilled category made up the majority during last few years however, the skilled migration proportion is catching up. With trainings and certifications given by the institutes attached to Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development, youth are finding more opportunities to work abroad under the skilled migration category.

“There is respect attached to the certification issued by the institutes of the ministry. For example, there is still a high demand for the certification given by the CGTTI. There are private institutions also that give certifications. However, diploma’s and degrees offered by the VTA and UNIVOTEC has a higher demand, when it comes to skill mi-

40

As the first step of materializing this initiative, the government of Sri Lanka is planning to establish a “University College of Health Studies,” with the aim of providing vocational education and training in the field of Health. A Memorandum of Understanding between the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development and the Sri Jayewardenepura Base Hospital has been initiated, and the University College will be named “University College of Health Studies of Sri Jayewardenepura General Hospital.” Students who finish the diploma course at this university college will have the opportunity to enter in to the University of Vocational Technology and obtain the NVQ level 7 qualifications, or the degree.

As a starting step, the university college will offer the Bio Medical Equipment Technology diploma, and will run for 3 years. The programme is operated under concessionary rates and students have the ability to pay in installments.

The first batch will have 50 students who are between 18-25 years, and have passed three subjects in the science stream of the Advanced Level examination. This diploma will have several components; a three month base course, two one-year technical training programmes, three months of subject specific courses, and finally six months of field training at the Sri Jayewardenepura Base Hospital.

gration. There are many opportunities for skilled migration today, every week there are job opportunities advertised for youth” – a member of the Education Youth FGD The skilled migration proportion is not limited to youth with vocational education. There is a proportion that migrates after completing the university education, and sometimes after postgraduate education. There is an increasing trend in the universities where most students who perform well, go abroad either for their masters and for PhD. Most of the time, they find employments in countries where they studied and rarely come back. This has caused Sri Lanka to lose its knowledge stock, and this “brain drain” is a serious matter.

“Generally students with second class uppers and above apply for scholarship in masters and PhDs. Sri Lanka’s bachelor degree has a good reputation all around the world. Therefore most students

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

take this advantage and migrate. Even when they go as students, they work for the professors as a component of their scholarships, and they apply for permanent jobs once they complete their programmes. Unless you are migrating under the government scholarships, which requires students to sign bond, students who go on free scholarships most of the time do not come back, reducing our valuable knowledge stock” – a member of the Educational Youth FGD 2.2.7 Youth Employability The employability of youth is a heavily discussed topic among youth. As explained earlier, there is a positive tendency among youth to opt for educational achievements, which is always a positive aspect. However what is being learned through that education and whether it is relevant to the industry is also a needs that ought to be carefully looked at.

“It is no doubt that most of the youth in Sri Lanka are well educated. However, sometimes they are not quite sure of what they should study and what the industry looks for. Therefore you can find students who have many qualifications but in many areas and are not exactly focused. Therefore to an employer, it is hard to figure out where to fit the employee in his organizational structure. The process of learning requires good guidance. Students must be guided from O/L and both teachers and parents have a bigger role here” – a member of the Youth Parliament FGD Some youth believe that the skill mismatch could be due to the curriculums that are being taught at schools, universities, and other educational institutions. Sri Lanka is a developing country; therefore, it is not possible to expect the standards of developed country. However, as mentioned before Sri Lanka’s bachelor degree has a high level of acceptance all around the world. As suggested by the university entrance handbook published by the Ministry of Higher Education, the degree programmes offered by the universities has improved significantly over time. There are many options that students can select based upon on their interest.

“One major drawback for youth in education today, is that they try to look for the easy way out in education. Students are tempted to select what the majority selects, or what their parents and friends suggest, and not actually evaluating what he/she is capable of doing. This leads to students who fail at A/L, as well as exams at universities.

Parents and teachers must help, but youth should be able to figure out what they are capable of do-

ing and then excel at that, rather than following the popular and easy path” – a member of the Educational Youth FGD “Selecting the field that you are good at and matching it to the industry needs is very important for youth. Several years back, youth who did well in sports gave up their sport ventures once they got admission to universities. But there are new programmes introduced, such as “Sports Management” which specializes in sports events, infrastructure, and managing sportsmen/women.

Students who study these degrees have a very well-targeted employment market since the sports industry is expanding in the world and Sri Lanka” – a member of the Educational Youth FGD 2.3 Challenges, Conclusions and the Way Forward One of the main challenges in managing youth employment and poverty is to direct youth in to the right path when selecting their educational stream and employment. Most youth are not guided well and they ended up either acquiring qualifications that are not required by the job market, or not acquiring knowledge at all. Therefore youth must be equipped to identify what they are good at, and then focus on excelling at that.

“Sri Lanka has an exam oriented education system. Most youth think about what to do only after they have failed the exams. This is too late.

Youth have to be focused. In order to be focused they needed to be guided. Some parents are not encouraging students to take part in art subjects or sports. But there are lots of opportunities. We are qualified in dancing and attached to the National Youth Council, but we do independent events. There is a great potential for us to earn money by what we are doing. This is all because we identified what we are good at, and we got the right guidance from our parents and teachers and we started leaning from very early age” – a member of the Educational Youth FGD Creating or increasing awareness on opportunities of education and employment is also important. At the moment awareness on the vocational technology opportunities among youth is very low. The awareness is most of the time limited to urban areas. Since the awareness on government institutions is low, there are always private venture that sometimes attracts these students and provides qualifications that are not recognized.

“Coming to UNIVOTEC was one of the best decisions I made. I got to know about this opportunity through a friend, because there was no aware-

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

41

ness in our villages. Schools also did not know about these opportunities when we left after O/ Ls. Therefore the capacities of these institutions need to be increased so that more students can come and the awareness should be given to the whole country. I am sure there will be youth even from North and East who would like to come to Colombo and study at UNIVOTEC” – a member of Educational Youth FGD representing Urbanization is an inevitable phenomenon.

Therefore there will be more and more youth from rural and estate sectors coming to urban areas looking for jobs. Majority of these youth will be working at temporary jobs, and they will be unemployed at several points a year. One of the reasons that they migrate is because of the lack of confidence they have in their localities on permanent employment opportunities. Therefore it is quite essential that the youth labour force is retained at the rural and estate sector levels, while giving them necessary access to suitable employment.

“We have seen that youth today are more into new technologies and innovations. Rural youth are no longer willing to practice conventional farming methods and fishing techniques and even other employments such as carpentry, motor mechanics, and ICT. One of the ways that rural and estate sector youth could be enticed to remain in their localities is by providing them training on what they are good at, and help them to start up SMEs. This way they will remain without migrating while developing the SME sector in the country” – a member of the Youth Parliament FGD Formal sector jobs needs to be attractive especially for those who are doing higher studies with the aim of returning to the labour force soon. As mentioned before, some of the jobs that the state sector has offered does not exactly match their fields of expertise, hence youth might not stay at that job. Furthermore, state sector salaries are lower, compared to the private sector and nongovernment sector, hence the attraction of youth to the state sector is an issue.

“Majority of youth who go for government employments are looking for job security. But they make a tradeoff between salaries and job security and stability. However, youth need money. They need to start families so they would prefer private sector jobs or non-governmental jobs since they can earn money in these sectors. Therefore state jobs needs to be attractive in terms of job responsibilities and salaries” – a member of the Educational Youth FGD

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Both rural and estate sector youth particularly females, receive employment opportunities form urban areas to work in textile factories. Apart from textile factories, hotels, and other manufacturing ventures also seek youth from the rural and urban sector. Rather than putting employment advertisements, these enterprises go directly to the village or estate sector and hire employees. The potential availability of employees is sometimes gained through the intelligence of existing workers form the same area. Most of these recruitment activities are done without the engagement of local government officials. While these are potential wage employments, the security of the employees, especially the women is not guaranteed. With lack of awareness and knowledge both estate and rural sector youth are in danger of becoming victims of fraud business ventures and sometime illegal ventures, linked to drugs and prostitution.

There are many barriers to entrepreneurs. Obtaining financial assistance for youth entrepreneurs who are starting up businesses is a great obstacle.

Many youth are not capable of getting together the seed money for the enterprise, hence most business ideas do not materialized. At the same time, most youth enterprises are not able to expand, due to limited credit facilities. Furthermore, knowledge on management and the ability to successfully manage an enterprise is low among the youth. Therefore, there are many youth SMEs that are not sustainable in the long run.

“Most youth entrepreneurs do not have a clear idea on what to start as an entrepreneurship. They tend to go with the flow and it is not sustainable.

Financial management is very crucial in an enterprise. However, most youth entrepreneurs are not capable of financial management and hence they have to close operations. In addition to financial management, they need guidance on marketing, risk management, and diversification. Youth entrepreneurs must start a business on what they like and what they are capable of doing. In that way you can always depend on yourself when needed” – a member of the Youth Entrepreneurship FGD “Generally banks look at our business proposal before issuing any loans. However, we have observed that the collateral is often more important for them than the business proposal. Some banks will give youth loans regardless of the viability of the business, as long as you have collateral. But this is the problem. Most youth have very good business proposals but do not have collateral, so their business ideas will not materialize. There-

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

fore banks must give youth some opportunity.

There should be credit programmes targeting youth entrepreneurs” – a member of the Youth Parliament FGD The registrations process of SMEs suggested by youth is time and money consuming. Hence, there is a tendency among youth SMEs not to register.

Furthermore, youth are trying to evade taxing and licensing procedures, which cause them money. These payments are hard to make with the lower level of profits that most of them make.

Therefore a relaxation in taxes taxation of the SMEs and the efficient governance of the licensing and registration procedures are needed.

“You can find plenty of SMEs that are not registered. They don’t want to allocate money and time for the registration process. We need to have a simplified registration process and at the same time, it is better if they can be given tax reductions. This way, more youth SMEs can be included in the registration process” – a member of the Youth Entrepreneurship FGD

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

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Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

Education for Youth Author

Priyanka Jayawardana

44

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

3: Education for Youth 3.1 Introduction Sri Lanka has been committed to providing unfettered access to education since 1945.The education ordinances of 1939 and free education introduced in 1945 were among the earliest policies aiming to achieve universal and equal access to education at all levels.31 Sri Lanka is committed to supporting “Education for All (EFA),” adhering to ethics and standards as proclaimed by provisions in international conventions. 32 In this context, Sri Lanka, has almost achieved the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) relating to education universal primary education (Goal 2).

In 2010, its primary net enrolment rate is 94 per cent; survival to grade 5 is 97.3 per cent; and had a high literacy level of 98 per cent among 15-24 year olds.33 Although, it is clear that great progress has been made since the EFA goals and MDGs were established, the task is not yet complete. While Sri Lanka has long been recognized for its achievements in access to education, it faces new challenges in providing quality education services that are relevant to the changing demands of a rapidly growing economy and lifestyles of the younger generation.

Adolescence is the period between childhood and adulthood. This period of life is considered to be one of the most dynamic stages of life, one in which the path to their futures are laid. This chapter will present how equitable quality education is essential if young people are to acquire the self-awareness, critical thinking abilities, and decision making skills, that are needed to achieve success in the future. The youth related educational indicators discussed in this section are both qualitative as well as quantitative. They capture the educational aspects of youth, mainly the equitable access to education, youth human capital, and existing challenges in bridging social capability gaps in education.

3.2 Equitable Access to Education Over the years several measures have enabled the country’s general education system to improve on the equity in the provision of education for 31

all persons, irrespective of their socio, economic, and regional disparities. To improve access to general education, successive governments adopted a variety of demand and supply-side policies, including a country-wide network of government funded schools, free textbooks, scholarships for disadvantaged students, free uniforms, and subsidized transport facilities.34 This section discusses the performance of the Sri Lankan general education system, in terms of the equity of access to education.

Sri Lanka’s basic education is almost universalized, but education participation levels fall at higher levels of education. According to the Sri Lanka Human Development Report 2012, the net enrolment35 rates at the primary (grade 1-5) and junior secondary levels (grade 6-9) were 95 per cent and 93 per cent respectively.36 However, the net enrolment rates present a rosier picture. For example, only 82 per cent of the students in the appropriate ages were enrolled at the upper secondary level (grade 10-11), and the net enrolment rates were only 39 per cent at the collegiate level (grade 12-13) for the country (Figure 3.1). Net enrolment rates for upper secondary and collegiate levels have increased marginally, by around 5-6 percentage points, during the 2006 to 2009 period. Girls had a slightly higher enrolment rate than boys: for upper secondary level, 84 per cent compared to 80 per cent; while at collegiate level this gap widened, resulting in a disparity of 46 per cent to 33 per cent in enrolment rates respectively.

The disparity in access to upper secondary and collegiate education was greatest in the estates.

Opportunities to participate in education at higher education cycles, vary across population groups. While the enrolment rate for upper secondary education ranged from 83 to 87 per cent across the urban and rural sectors of the country, it was only 54 per cent for the estate sector in 2009 (see Figure 3.1). Further, only 13 per cent of estate sector children were enrolled at a collegiate level, compared to 46 and 40 per cent in urban and rural areas

Ministry of Education, 2004, The Development of Education

Regulations for compulsory education for 5-14 age group was implemented by Parliament in 1997 and came into force in January 1998.

32

33

UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS), data centre

34

Ministry of Education, 2004, The Development of Education

Net enrolment rates measure enrolment of the official age group for a given level of education expressed as a percentage of the corresponding population

35

36

UNDP, 2012, Sri Lanka Human Development Report 2012, United Nations Development Programme Sri Lanka.

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

45

respectively. People in the estate sector have been living in isolation from the rest of the Sri Lankan society as they were confined to the estates, where basic needs (housing, education, health) were not in a satisfactory level.37 Estate sector students get primary education in the estate schools where a majoring of schools are primary schools.38 After primary education these students stop schooling due to poor access to secondary schools including poor roads, lack of transport facilities and poverty etc.

“We have to walk around 7 kilometres to get a bus.”, estate sector youth These students enter into the labour force straight after completing primary education, as there are employment opportunities for the lesser educated youth in the plantation sector. This vicious cycle keeps this community within the estates, without any upward social mobility.

As shown in Figure 3.1, across the provinces, enrolment at these cycles was lowest in the Northern Province, where the three decade long conflict disrupted access to education in many ways.

“Today’s youth were children during the war.

Their education was heavily affected by the war.”

– youth, from Kilinochchi district As reported by Northern and Eastern province youth, there were many school dropouts, a many students stayed at displaced campsand teachers also abandoned the schools during war times.

Special education programmes were conducted at these camps, but students were not in a mentality to learn.39 However, despite these difficulties, the Northern Province was able to secure 72 per cent and 32 per cent upper secondary and collegiate education net enrolment, when compared to the country average for these levels, 82 per cent and 39 per cent respectively (Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1 : Senior Secondary and Collegiate Enrolment Rates 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 Grade(10-11)2006 Grade(10-11)2009 Grade(12-13)2006 Grade(12-13)2009

30 20 10

Gender

Sector

Sri Lanka

Sabaragamuwa

Uva

North-Central

North-Western

Eastern

Northern

Southern

Central

Western

Estate

Rural

Urban

Female

Male

0

Province

Source: Constructed using Household Income and Expenditure Survey (HIES) 2006-2007 and 2009-2010 data.

The information is collected through an FGD done with youth form estate sector. The FGD was conducted by the Institute of Policy Studies, under the supervision of the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development as a part of the project: Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth.

38 According to Ministry of Education statistics, as of 2011, 52% of estate sector schools are primary schools 37

The information is collected through an FGD done with youth form North and East, and Estate Sector youth. The FGD was conducted by the Institute of Policy Studies, under the supervision of the Ministry of Youth Affairs andSkills Development as a part of the project: Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth.

39

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Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

3.3 Youth Human Capital Access to education captures only one aspect of educational outcomes. A country’s ability to cater to the increasing demand for skilled labour will depend on the availability of a country’s human capital to cater to these demands in adequate numbers and quality. Good-quality formal education, complemented by relevant skills development opportunities, prepares future generations for the skills needs, smooth transition from education to world of work, enables adjustments to changes in technology, and also fuels lifelong learning. In this section youth human capital was measured using four indicators – literacy rate of youth, per cent of youth completing formal education, tertiary enrolment rate, and proportion of youth graduates in Science and Maths.

3.3.1 Literacy Rate of 15-29 Year Olds Literacy rate is a basic indicator which signals whether or not a society is prepared for further learning and productive work. The overall literacy rate of 15-29 year oldswere 97.8 per cent in Sri Lanka, while the literacy rate for males and females were 97.3 and 98.2 per cent respectively.40 This shows that Sri Lanka has full capacity for the development of people’s potential, by laying down the foundation for skills development.

3.3.2 Percentage of Youth Completing Formal Education Good quality formal education is a foundation for further skills development in productive employ-

ment. There are two national level examinations providing General Certificates of Education (GCE) at the Ordinary Level (O/L) and the Advanced Level (A/L), at the end of the senior secondary and the collegiate education cycles, respectively. These examinations are important as they determine access to higher levels of education, and are pre requisites for most public sector jobs at the clerical level and above.41 In this study, the proportion of youth aged 20-29 who have successfully completed the national examinations were considered as the measure of the educational outcome of formal education.

Only half of the youth population completed formal education. According to the Sri Lanka human development report 2012, Sri Lankans have become more educated over the years. Further, it shows that the highest level of formal education completed has considerably improved in the younger age cohorts, when compared to older age groups. However, as shown in figure 3.2, even among youth aged 20-29 years,42 only 25 per cent have succeeded the highest level of formal education (i.e. A/Ls), while 21 per cent of the same age group have succeeded the prior stage to A/ Ls (i.e. O/Ls). There was no considerable improvement seen in the numbers completing secondary level education during the 2006 to 2009 period.

Further, there is a slight gender disparity in the stock of education at the national level, in favour of females. Similar to access to education, the percentage of youth completing formal education varies across population groups.

Estimated using LFS, 2010 micro data

40

Aptitude based on performance at O/L is considered for entrance to the collegiate level. Students obtaining passes in 6 subjects including language and mathematics, and having at least three credit passes qualify to follow A-levels.

41

UNDP, 2012, Sri Lanka Human Development Report 2012, United Nations Development Programme Sri Lanka.

42

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

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Figure 3.2 : Formal Education Completed

2006

2009

GCE(O/L) GCE(A/L)

GCE(O/L) GCE(A/L) Sri Lanka Sabaragamuwa Uva North-Central

Province

Province

North-Western Eastern Northern Southern Central

Estate Rural

Gender

Urban

Gender

60

Sector

Sector

Western

Female Male 50

40

30

20

10

0

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Source: Author’s calculations using Household Income and Expenditure Survey (HIES) 2006-2007 and 2009-2010 data

In the estates, performance at both examinations was dismal. As the highest level of formal education completed, a mere 7 and 9 per cent of estate sector youth were able to succeed A/L and O/L exams respectively (Figure 3.2). As reported by estate sector youth the reasons for poor performances are often poor access to secondary education and poor quality of education. Also availability of low-skills work opportunities in the estate sector, which therefore does not provide incentive to achieve higher levels of education.43 Across provinces, the Western Province was at the top of the educational ladder in 2009, with 30 per cent and 26 per cent of its population have succeeded the A/L and O/L exams respectively, as the highest level of formal education completed. The North-Central and Northern Provinces were the worst performers, with about 15-18 per cent have succeeded A/Ls while another 17-19 per cent of students have succeeded O/Ls, as the highest level

of formal education.

3.3.3 Net Enrolment Ratio in University and Vocational Institutes Globalization accelerates the pace of innovation and technology. In this fast changing economic landscape, new occupations are emerging, while the required skills and competencies are constantly evolving. Higher education and technical training enables the country to cater for the skill needs of the labour markets, adjust to changes in technology, fuel innovation, and thus create more productive jobs. A major challenge countries face today is to enhance the responsiveness of education and training systems to cater to these emerging skill requirements. In this section, youth preparedness for required skills needs were evaluated using the tertiary enrolment rates of the youth aged 20-24.

The information is collected through an FGD done with youth form estate sector. The FGD was conducted by the Institute of Policy Studies, under the supervision of the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development as a part of the project: Commitment of Sri Lanka in Effective and Meaningful Participation of Youth in Realizing the MDGs.

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Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

The Country’s tertiary enrolment rate is low. As of 2009, only 4 per cent of 20-24 year olds were enrolled at a university, while only a 3 per cent of the same age group was enrolled in TEVT courses and further 7 per cent were enrolled in other educational institutions (Figure 3.3). These tertiary

enrolment rates are low, compared to tertiary enrolment rates of comparable countries in the region. For instance, Sri Lanka’s gross tertiary enrolment rate44 (14 per cent)is below the averages for lower middle income countries (19 per cent) and upper middle income countries (36 per cent).45

Figure 3.3: Tertiary Enrolment 20-24 Year Olds, 2009 Sri Lanka Sabaragamuwa Uva Province

North-Central North-Western Eastern Northern Southern Central Western

Sector

Estate Rural

Gender

Urban

Female Male

Source: Author’s calculations using Household Income and Expenditure Survey (HIES) 2009-2010 data.

Does Not Attend

University

Educationnal Institution

Vocational/Tecnical

Total enrollment in tertiary education (ISCED 5 and 6), regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the total population of the five-year age group following on from secondary school leaving.

44

45

World Bank, World Development Indicators 2013, http://wdi.worldbank.org/table/2.11#

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

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Lower tertiary enrolment is mainly due to the limited capacity of the state university system.

Due to the limited number of placements in the state funded universities, only 17 per cent of those who qualify for university education gain admission to state universities. Each year, more than 100,000 qualified students are forced to abandon their ambitions of entering university. Youth who cannot enter public universities, have few options for pursuing higher education. Hence, Sri Lanka is leaving out hundreds of thousands of young people from getting a post-school education and training. On the other hand, required skill levels and competencies are rising with the changing demands of the globalized market. Therefore, expanding and improving the tertiary education

sector alone is not sufficient. To sustain productivity enhancements and to remain competitive in the global market, Sri Lanka will need to expand its workforce in the fields of science and technology.

3.3.4 Proportion of Youth Graduate in Science and Math Even those who do attend university are mostly studying in the arts stream. A large proportion of Sri Lankan undergraduates are studying in the Arts stream (see Figure 3.4). This is mainly due to the fact that only a small proportion of students pursue A/L in science and mathematics subjects at the school level.46

Figure 3.4: Distribution of University Admissions by Subject, 2010/2011

Art Science Management & Commerce Engineering Computer Science/ IT Medicine Agriculture Para-medical studes Indesenious medicine Law Architecture & Quantity Surveying Venterinary Medicine Fasion design/ Transport & logistic Management Dental Science 0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Source :http://www.ugc.ac.lk/downloads/statistics/stat_2011/chapter%202.pdf

Only 22 per cent of A/L students are studying in the science stream, while 52 per cent are studying in the arts stream, and 25 per cent are studying in the commerce stream; calculated using data from Ministry of Education, Sri Lanka Education Information 2010.

46

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Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

There are limited opportunities, to study A/L in the science stream at the school level. For instance, only 10 per cent of secondary schools have facilities to teach A/L science stream.47 Further, schools offering science subjects at A/L are not ra-

tionally located, and a majority of these are to be found in urban areas with almost one fourth of these schools being located in the Western province (Figure 3.5). This has reduced the geographical access to science education at A/L.

Figure 3.5: Proportion of Schools with A/L Science Streams by District, 2010 Jaffna 5.1-7.3 7.3-9.6 Killnochchi

9.6-11.8

Mullaitivu

11.8-14 14-16.3

Vavuniya

16.3-18.5

Mannar

18.5-20.7 Trincomalee Anuradhapura Polonnaruwa

Puttalam

Batticaloa

Kurunegala

Matale Badulla Kandy

Ampara

Kegalle

Gampaha

Nuwara Eliya Colombo

Moneragala

Kalutara

Galle

Ratnapura

Hambantota

Matara Source: Author’s calculations using Ministry of Education school census, 2010 data.

as of 2010, 7212 schools are secondary schools (having classes from year1-9, 1-11, 1-13 & 7-13); Economic and Social Statistics 2011,Central Bank of Sri Lanka

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3.4 Challenges in Bridging Social Capability Gaps in Education 3.4.1 Limited Opportunities in Achieving Ambition Setting goals is essential if an individual is to work towards achieving his or her objectives. According to an adolescent survey in Sri Lanka, 72 per cent of adolescents (aged 14-19 years) had goals for the future.48 More than half of those surveyed wanted to enter in to traditionally popular professions, such as teachers, doctors, engineers, and accountants.

However, many students discontinue school edu-

cation or do not qualify for university education due to poor performance at the national level examinations. Although more than 50 per cent of the adolescents aspired to become teachers, doctors, and engineers, etc., many students discontinue school education due to poor performance at the national level examinations. Each year, about 400,000 students sit for O/L but only 50 to 60 per cent qualify for A/L (Table 3.1). Further, each year about 200,000 students sit for A/L but only 40 to 60 per cent of them qualify to enter public universities. Thus, each year about 200,000 and 90,000 students leave the school system without succeeding at the O/L and A/L examinations, respectively.

This is further highlighted in table 3.1 below.

Table 3.1 : National Examination Success Rates, 2003 and 2010

2003 Number sitting for O/L Percentage qualifying for A/L (% of O/L candidates) Number sitting for A/L Number qualifying to enter university Percentage qualifying to enter university (% of A/L candidates) Number admitted to university Percentage admitted to university (% of A/L qualified)

2010

434,131

433,673

43

58

213,201

233,354

93,292

142,415

44

61

12,736

21,547

14

17

Source:Department of Census and Statistics of Sri Lanka Statistical Pocket Book 2011, http://www.statistics.gov.lk/Pocket%20Book/chap13.pdf, [accessed, 29th April, 2013]

On the other hand, a lack of avenues for higher education hampers the future goals of youth. Although there is no explicit legal barrier, the political economy of the country makes it impossible to invest in private universities.49 Only those from highly affluent families are able to obtain university educations overseas. This is not equitable, it results in significant foreign exchange outflows, and indirectly, promotes brain drain. Others are able to obtain external degrees from degree awarding institutions in Sri Lanka that are affili-

ated with private universities outside the country.

However, recently these institutions have gained the attention of policy makers for at least two reasons: a) the high cost of these degree programmes; and, b) the quality of education offered by these institutions. Thus, the lack of available opportunities for these school leavers is a major issue that needs to be tackled.

UNICEF, 2004, National Survey on Emerging Issues among Adolescent in Sri Lanka, UNICEF Sri Lanka ADB. 2005. Technical Assistance to the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka: Preparing the Education Sector Development Program. Manila.

48 49

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Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

3.4.2 School to Work Transition There is a wide gap between school and the world of work.The quality of the general education system, mainly provided by the public sector, does not transmit much productive skills to pupils.

As stated in National Education Commission (NEC) sector review, the country’s education system has failed to adequately promote quality and relevant education, as well as individual orientation to the world of work.50 This has resulted in mismatches between the demands of the market, and the skills of school graduates.

Also, there is an inadequate flow of information between youth and the labour market. Inadequate information flows between the youth and the labour market, such as of the types of job opportunities in the labour market, limit the aspirations, and life goals of youth. As reported by youth, they are not aware of skill needs when selecting a subject stream at the A/L. “When we were schooling, most of the time we selected the A/L subjects our friends chose. We were not aware of skills needs. Sometimes what we chose was not matched to our talents.” – a student following Mechanical Engineering degree programme at UNIVOTECH The issue was further explained by another youth who is following the ICT program at UNIVOTECH. “I followed commerce subjects for A/L even though I had adequate grades to follow mathematics or biology subjects. Mathematics knowledge is very useful for ICT programme. If I knew about this sort of vocational education earlier, I might have chosen maths subjects for my A/L.” – a student from Kandy, studying at UNIVOTECH Due to the existing information gap in the system, some students spend two years unnecessarily following A/L instead of entering vocational training, after completing their O/L. “If we were linked with vocational training programmes after O/Ls we could have gotten our technical degree at a younger age and we would have more time to build up our career path. So proper career guidance programme is essential after the O/L.” – a student following Mechanical Engineering degree program at UNIVOTECH

Further, transition from school to vocational training is not smooth.Majority of the school leavers leave the education system after their O/L and A/L. These youth are the prime target for specific training and skills development programmes aimed at meeting the skills demands of the country. However, there is no proper career guidance system to advise these school leavers. Therefore, most of these school leavers usually find unskilled or casual jobs. This is partly due to the lack of a systematic link between TEVT and secondary education, leaving a majority of school leavers with no access to skills development programmes.51 “If students can get information on vocational opportunities through schools it will be helpful for them to build their career path. Then students will be made aware of the requirements for a particular employment opportunity, and how they can get those required skills. This is very important for school dropouts, to decide on their career plan.” – a student from Kandy, studying at UNIVOTECH The general acceptance of the country’s TEVT sector is low, due to the low recognition of the qualifications due to varied standards, low employability of graduates, and the poor effectiveness of the course in catering to the demands of the market.

“Society undermines vocational education. They believed that the students, who are not good in education, enter technical colleges. These attitudes should be changed.” a member of the Education Youth FGD In the recent past government initiated major reforms to restructure the TEVT system. These include, improving the quality and relevance of programmes by introducing national skill standards, and registration and accreditation of courses of all vocational institutions. The Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission, in association with the Skills Development Project (SDP) funded by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) in 2005, introduced the national certification system for the TVET sector of Sri Lanka, which is called the National Vocational Qualifications (NVQ) framework. In the year 2007, the Technical Education Development Project (TEDP), the successor to the SDP, mainly concentrated on NVQ diploma level courses and the setting up of the University of Vocational Technology (UNIVOTEC) to award NVQ degree equivalent qualifications.

National Education Commission, 2003, Proposal for a National Policy Framework on General Education in Sri Lanka, National Education Commission, Sri Lanka

50

ADB. 2005, Technical Assistance to the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka: Preparing the Education Sector Development Program, Manila.

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UNIVOTEC was established in 2008. Along with that, nine Technical Colleges in nine provinces have been upgraded to Colleges of Technology to offer national diplomas starting from 2010.52 The TVEC is responsible for monitoring the consistency and quality of training delivery, its validity, and reliability. Further, Government has taken measures to set up university colleges as a solution to redress the balance between the demand in the in the job market and the education system. Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development plans to set up university colleges, affiliated to the University of Vocational Technology (UNIVOTEC) covering all districts. This creates alternate learning pathways up to the degree level for students who are leaving formal education.

3.4.3 Skill Mismatch A large proportion of youth who secure educational certificates remain unemployed.High unemployment rate among graduates has been a recurring issue for successive governments. There is a mismatch between the courses offered by higher education institutes, and the competencies needed by the private sector.

“Our university curriculum does not included the practical aspects of the relevant subjects. It provides all theory based knowledge, but very few practical training opportunities. So we don’t have

52

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any experience of what we were taught at the university.” undergraduate student at Sabaragamuwa University Main reasons for this mismatch are that university programmes have not been updated for a long period of time, and the lack of interaction with the industrial sector when designing courses. Inadequate linkages between the higher education system and the requirements of the industrial sector, are some reasons for the high unemployment amongst graduates. Addressing the mismatch between the skills acquired through the education system and the requirements of the labour market has been a key concern of the current education system. As an emerging knowledge economy, Sri Lanka faces the herculean task of enhancing the responsiveness of the country’s education and training systems to reflect the changes occurring in the market.

Introducing a new Technology stream for the A/L is a recent development in the field of general education in Sri Lanka. A new stream named “Technology” is introduced for the GCE Advanced Level examination from this year with the aim of providing a job oriented practical knowledge and training for students, assuring them employment after school (Box 3.1).or GCE Advanced Level

Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission (TVEC), 2010, Corporate plan 2011-2015, TVEC, Sri Lanka

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

Box 3.1 : Technology Stream for GCE Advanced Level A new technology subject stream for A/L examination is introduced in year 2013 and the first batch of students who follow this new stream will face the A/L’s in 2015. This new technology subject stream is launched by Ministry of Education in collaboration with the Youth Affairs and Skills Development Ministry, which is aimed at providing a job oriented practical knowledge and training to cater to the job market.

The stream will be initially introduced to 200 schools, and later expanded to 1,000 other schools by 2016. Under the new stream, students will have to select three subjects -- Engineering Technology or Bio Technology; Science for Technology and one subject to select from Commerce and Arts subjects.

For the students who follow this new subject stream and qualify for the university entrance,

3.5 Challenges, Conclusions and Way Forward While Sri Lanka has a well-established education and examination system, many students discontinue school education or do not qualify for university education due to poor performance at the national level examinations. Transition from school to the world of work is not smooth. Improper training is hampering the effective labour market participation of youth. Therefore, it is critically important to train the human capital to meet the demands of the labour market in a modern and pragmatic way. Sri Lanka needs to improve the quality and relevance of school curricula.

Technical education should be incorporated into school curricula to develop students with the right combination of attitude and vocational aptitude.

Also, it is important to identify innovative, rapid, effective, and feasible strategies to reach school leavers. Particular attention should be given to school leavers who do not succeed at their O/L. The government of Sri Lanka with the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development tries to absorb most of the O/L dropouts through vocational education and training programmes. However, most students do not have adequate awareness of these opportunities presented by the institutes of vocational education and training. Therefore, raising awareness is essential and at the same time, the capacities of these institutions needed to be upgraded so they can accommodate higher numbers. Further, vocational education systems

a Science and Technology faculty will be created in the universities by 2016 and a new degree will be awarded as “Bachelor of Technology”.

Sources: Ministry of Education, Advanced level new technology subject stream is introduced to the nation http://www.moe.gov.lk/web/index.php?option=com_ content&view=article&id=665%3A2013-06-24-06-3626&catid=1%3Alatest&Itemid=258&lang=en

The Sunday Times, June 16, 2013, Bachelor of Technology in local Universities from 2016, http://www.sundaytimes.lk/130616/education/ bachelor-of-technology-in-local-universitiesfrom-2016-48502.html

should be linked with industries that can absorb these students. Therefore, public private partnerships, and schemes of recruitment through vocational education and training institutes directly to the industry, are essential. Some of these steps have already been taken. However, awareness and the absorptive capacities of industries, as well as education and training institutes, needs to be developed.

The tertiary education system caters to only a very small proportion of the population. Therefore, the scope of university education in the country is very limited. Most of the students who could not go to state universities, either would do a private certificate, diploma, or degree. Lack of resources has limited the expansion of the tertiary and vocational education sector and constrained improvements to its relevance and quality. Thus, it is important to explore ways of funding higher education that is of a greater quality. The options for improving resources in the higher education sector include either increasing public investments in the sector, or encouraging private participation in the sector. Private investment in university education – operated under the state regulations and standards – could improve the quality of education through competition, enhanced access to university education and resource mobilization, etc. Further, state universities should change to become dynamic centers of teaching and learning that will react to changes in the market in a timely manner.

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Healthy Youth for Development Author

Priyanka Jayawardana

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Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

4: Healthy Youth for Development 4.1 Introduction Health is an input and foundation for human development, as well as the economic development of a country. Healthy children learn better; healthy people are stronger, are more productive, and are able to create opportunities to gradually break the cycles of both poverty, and hunger, in a sustainable way. Improving health contributes to productivity, by improving physical work capacity, cognitive development, school performance, and by reducing the health care cost of ill health.

Sri Lanka has been committed to providing better health care services for decades. There are several national programmes and policies such as the ten year health master plan (2007-2016), the national policy on maternal and child health, the national nutrition policy, the population and reproductive health policy, etc. to address the key health issues.

In this context, the country’s overall health indicators are on track to achieve the 2015 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Compared to other developing countries, infant and maternal mortality rates are markedly low in Sri Lanka.53 Almost all children are vaccinated at the right time, and the life expectancy54 of its population is considerably higher than that of populations in other developing countries.

However, with changing life styles of people, there are emerging issues related to the health and the mental wellbeing of people, which needs special attention. When addressing these issues, special focus should be given to youth. Young age could be seen as the transition from childhood to adulthood. During this period, youth are vulnerable to many risks as they experience many novel things, such as facing competitive exams, leaving school, starting a career, falling in love, smoking their first cigarette, experiencing the first taste of alcohol, and engaging in sexual intercourse. How successfully youth face this transition in a healthy manner depends on many things, such as the presence of life skills, appropriate knowledge, eating habits, living environment, and parental relationships, etc. This chapter will explore matters and issues related to health, safety, and the well-being of young people.The youth related health indicators for Sri Lanka, discussed in the following sec-

tion are both qualitative, as well as quantitative.

They capture the physical and mental wellbeing of youth, and also the health issues among youth.

4.2 Nutrition and Physical Fitness of Youth Nutrition and physical activity are the key components of healthy and productive lives. Better nutrition means stronger immune systems, fewer illnesses, and better health. One of the main consequences of malnourished adults is reduced work capacity, and absenteeism owing to illness or exhaustion, which in turn has an impact on economic productivity. Further, in the long run, it increases the risk of acquiring Non Communicable Diseases (NCDs) such as high blood pressure, diabetes, coronary heart disease, and cancer, in adult life. The epidemic of NCDs in adulthood reduces productivity and increases the cost of health care.

4.2.1 Nutrition of Young Women Women’s health is central not only due to their productivity in employment, but also more importantly, due to specific reproductive outcomes and the performance of their many household tasks.

To a large extent, the wellbeing of children depends on the health of their mothers. According to research findings on the determinants of child malnutrition in Sri Lanka, children of malnourished mothers are more likely to have a low birth weight, and also suffer from childhood malnutrition.55 Further, when mothers are malnourished and sickly, their children face a higher risk of succumbing to diseases. Repeated infectious diseases of family members will, in turn, increase the health care cost and impact on household economy, as family budgets will need to be diverted to health care.

In adolescence, a young woman’s nutritional needs increase because of the rapid physical growth she will experience during the transition from childhood to adulthood. Inadequate diet, illness, and heavy physical demands during this period can jeopardize the health and physical development of young women, resulting in delayed growth and anaemia. 56Adolescent nutritional deficiency is one out of the

IMR in 2011, 11 per 1000 live births; MMR in 2010, 35 per 100,000 live births; World Development Indicators (WDI), http://data. worldbank.org/indicator

53

As of 2011, life expectancy is 74.9; World Development Indicators (WDI), http://data.worldbank.org/indicator

54

Jayawardena, Priyanka. 2012, “Socio-Economic Determinants and Inequalities in Childhood Malnutrition in Sri Lanka”, WellBeing and Social Policy Journal, Vol. 8 Number 1, pp. 1-22.

55

World Bank, 1994, A new agenda for women’s health and nutrition development in practice, Washington DC: The World Bank.

56

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

57

four key stages of the life cycle of malnutrition.57 Thus, nutritional deficiency among young girls has an adverse effect on reproductive outcomes, as well as the continuation of the life cycle of malnutrition.

This study used two indicators of the nutritional status of women: Body Mass Index (BMI) and the haemoglobin (hb) concentration in the blood.

Indicator BMI< 18.5 was used to assess chronic energy deficiency malnutrition of women. This indicator is the most frequently used standardized indicator of thinness (wasting), to assess the progressive loss of body energy. As a second indicator, according to the classification developed by WHO, anaemia was classified as mild, moderate, or severe, based on the haemoglobin concentration in the blood.58

Prevalence of malnutrition is highest among adolescents and youths. According to the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) carried out in 2006-2007, one in six women of reproductive age (15-49 years) was malnourished in Sri Lanka.59 Further, the prevalence of malnourished women increases in the youth categories. For instance, the highest proportion of malnourished women were observed in the youngest age group of 1519 years, followed by the second youngest age group of 20-29 (see Figure 4.1). Also, there are regional differences in womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s nutritional status, with alarming malnutrition prevalent in the estate sector. Female youth in the estate sector were twice as likely as urban female youth to be malnourished. Across provinces, a higher percentage of female youth were malnourished in the Uva Province, which is one of the most deprived provinces in Sri Lanka.60

Age Group

Figure 4.1 : Malnourished Female Youth, 2006

15-19

41 22

20-29

Sector

Urban

16 24

Rural

33

Estate Western

19

Province

Central

23

Southern

27

Eastern

20

North-Western

26 21

North-Central Uva

30 25

Sabaragamuwa Sri Lanka

23 0

10

20

30

40

50

Source: authors calculations using DHS 2006/07 data

As described in ACC/SCN, 1992; malnutrition spans the life cycle as well as having intergenerational effects. Maternal malnutrition leads to low birth weight and its consequences of childhood growth retardation leading back to small adults.

57

World Health Organization , 1968, Nutritional anaemias. Report of a WHO scientific group.Geneva, (WHO Technical Report Series, No. 405). available at http://whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/WHO_TRS_405.pdf

58

DCS 2009, Demographic and Health Survey 2006/2007, Department of Census and Statistics, Colombo, Sri Lanka

59

According to 2009/2010 poverty rates, 13.7% of Uva Province people were poor whereas country average was 8.9%.

60

58

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

Nearly one third of the female youth were anaemic. On average, 39 per cent of reproductive aged women (15-49) were identified as being anaemic (hb< 11.0 g/dl). However, the prevalence of severe or moderate anaemia among reproductive aged

women was rare (Table 4.1). Women living in the estate sector reported the highest percentages of moderate and severe anaemia, 10.4 and 2.3 per cent respectively. Further, women were more likely to be anaemic when they get older.

Table 4.1: Women’s Nutritional Status

Mild anaemia (hb, 10.0‐10.9 g/dl)

Moderate anaeSevere anaemia mia (hb< 7.0 g/dl) (hb, 7.0‐9.9 g/dl)

Any anaemia (hb< 11.0 g/dl)

Age Group 15‐19

28.9

2.5

0

31.4

20‐29

29

2.9

0.1

32

30‐39

32.6

4

0.2

36.8

40‐49

38.7

6.6

0.7

46

Urban

37.1

6.5

0.3

43.9

Rural

34.1

4.1

0.2

38.4

Estate

28.9

10.4

2.3

41.6

Total

34.1

4.7

0.3

39.1

Sector

Source: DCS, 2009. Prevalence of Anaemia among Children and Women Demographic and Health Survey 2006-2007, Department of Census and Statistics, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

The observed regional difference in female youths’ nutritional status could be an indication of low access to and use of health services in the estate sector, compared to other regions. Socially, the estate sector people are inhibited as they confined themselves to the estates, where basic needs were provided by the estate management at a minimum level.61 Also, people in the estate sector are isolated from the rest of the society, and this fact has kept this community within the estates without any social mobility due to poor infrastructure – poor roads, no transport facilities etc. These people have to travel great distances to have access to government schools, hospitals etc.

Therefore, these people suffered from low levels of education, poor health facilities, unhygienic housing—sanitary facilities, etc. Further, culture and traditions prevalent in the estate areas are less favourable for women. Women’s disadvantaged social position, which is often related to

lower levels of education and knowledge, helps perpetuate poor health and hygiene practices, poor dietary practices, women’s alcoholism, and the continued cycle of malnutrition. A combination of all these factors may lead to a higher risk of poor nutritional status among women in the estate sector.

4.3 Psychosocial and Mental Wellbeing of Youth The wellbeing and happiness of youth is very important to enhance physical health, productivity, and their quality of life. Poor levels of psycho-social competence will lead to anxiety, depression, substance abuse, and suicides, among young people. At a community level, tobacco, alcohol and other mood altering substances use and the suicide rate are indicative of poor social wellbeing.

In this section wellbeing of youth was assessed on prevalence of smoking and alcohol use among youth and deaths due to suicides.

The information is collected through an FGD done with youth from estate sector. The FGD was conducted by the Institute of Policy Studies, under the supervision of the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development as a part of the project: Commitment of Sri Lanka in Effective and Meaningful Participation of Youth in Realizing the MDGs.

61

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

59

4.3.1 Smoking and Alcohol Use among Youth Smoking and alcohol use among youth is significant and needs careful attention.Usually the first use of a cigarette, or use of alcohol, takes place during adolescence. Some youth continue smoking and alcohol use from then onwards. According to the spot survey carried out by ADIC in 2012, 33 per cent of respondents were current users of tobacco, while 35.6 per cent were users of alcohol.62, 63 According to the responses, the highest prevalence of tobacco and alcohol use was from the age category of those aged 25-39 years (Figure 4.2). Out of those aged 15-24 years, a majority current smokers and alcohol users reported that the main reasons for use of substances were to be social with friends. These substances greatly impair mental abilities and the physical skills of youth, and enhance the long run risk of developing cancers, lung diseases, ulcers, heart disease,

and liver diseases.

Further, the use of substances is a contributing factor to accidents, suicides, violence, and sexual abuse, among young people. While the substance abuse issue is directly linked to peer pressure, it also highly depends on the ability of person to cope with frustration and stress. For example, substance abuse is high among youth who live in war affected areas, compared to other parts of the country. This is mainly due to fact that youth in the reconciliation process are most of the time in highly stressful situations due to the uncertain nature of their future. Sometimes the lack of availability of guidance, employment, and educational opportunities, push them towards coping mechanisms that include smoking and substance abuse.64

Figure 4.2: Use of Tobacco and Alcohol

Tobacco

Alcohol

50 40 30 20

10 0 15-24

25-39

40 & above

Source: ADIC, 2012, Spot Survey on Tobacco Use July 2012, Alcohol and Drug Information Centre, Colombo.

62

ADIC, 2012, Spot Survey on Tobacco Use July 2012, Alcohol and Drug Information Centre, Colombo.

63

ADIC, 2012, Spot Survey on Alcohol Use July 2012, Alcohol and Drug Information Centre, Colombo

The information is collected through an FGD done with youth form North and East. The FGD was conducted by the Institute of Policy Studies, under the supervision of the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development as a part of the project: Commitment of Sri Lanka in Effective and Meaningful Participation of Youth in Realizing the MDGs.

64

60

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

4.3.2 Deaths due to Suicides The high incidence of homicides, self-inflicted injuries, and suicides are major causes of death among youth. High rates of suicide and self-harm indicate high levels of psychosocial stress amongst individuals in the community. According to the Sri Lanka police records, 3770 deaths were recorded in 2011 were due to suicides. Further, suicides were highest among females in the 21-30 year age group followed by those in the below 20 years age group (Figure 4.3). The highest male suicides were among elders, but more than 500 suicides were by young males. There should be special educational measures to protect young people from all forms of physical and mental violence, and injuries. Further, protective measures should include effective procedures for the rehabilitation and socialization of victimized young people.

Figure 4.3: Deaths due to Suicide, 2011 Male

Female

800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 20 and below

21-30

31-40

41-50

51-60

above 60

Source: Sri Lanka Police, Modes of Suicide, http://www.police.lk/index.php/crime-trends

4.4 Health Issues among Young People 4.4.1 Teenage Pregnancy and Knowledge on Sexuality Past studies, ACC/SCN (1992), show that adolescent girls are not physically prepared for childbirth, since linear growth is not complete until age 18, and the birth canal does not reach its mature size until two to three years later. As a result of this, and other factors, teenage mothers face a high risk of serious pregnancy related complications. Further, according to the study findings on the determinants of low birth weight babies, children of teenagers are more likely to have a low birth weight.65

Jayawardena, Priyanka. 2012, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Socio-Economic Determinants and Inequalities in Childhood Malnutrition in Sri Lankaâ&#x20AC;?, Well-Being and Social Policy Journal, Vol. 8 Number 1, pp. 1-22.

65

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

61

Figure 4.4: Teenage Pregnancy (%), 2006

Sri Lanka

6.4

Sabaragamuwa

5.6

Uva

Province

North-Central

5.9 8.5

North-Western

10.5

Eastern Southern

5.4 4.8

Central Western

5.4

Sector

Estate Rural

6.2

Urban

6.4 0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Source: DCS, 2009. Demographic and Health Survey 2006/2007, Department of Census and Statistics, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

According to the DHS survey 2006-2007, 6.4 per cent of adolescent women (age 15-19 years) have begun child bearing â&#x20AC;&#x201C; are already mothers or are pregnant with their first child (Figure 4.4).Looking across sectors, nearly 10 per cent of adolescent girls in the estate sector have begun child bearing; whereas child malnutrition and low weight births were also highest in this region, compared to urban and rural sectors.66 According to the FGD done with estate sector youth, female girls are in unsafe conditions, and often suffer sexual abuse at the hands of their own family members.67 Further, they explained that poor living condition â&#x20AC;&#x201C; line rooms, alcoholism, lower level of education, etc. are the main reasons for the perpetuation of this unacceptable situation. In the estate sector,

nearly half of the youth (aged 20-29 years) have achieved primary level education; on average 20 per cent of young women with only primary level education have begun teenage childbearing.

Across provinces, the Eastern Province has the record for the highest number of teenage pregnancies, while two districts in the Eastern province, Ampara district and Trincomalee district have recorded teenage pregnancy rates of 16 per cent and 14 per cent, respectively. This could be due to cultural reasons, because in these two districts a majority, around 40 to 44 per cent, are Muslim.69 Civi claws70 applicable to Muslims do not specify a minimum age for marriage, whereas under the general law minimum age of marriage is 18 years.

As reported in Jayawardena, Priyanka. 2012, in the estate sector 30% of under fiver year aged children were underweight while 31% babies born have low birth weight whereas country averages for theses 21% and 16% respectively.

66

The information is collected through an FGD done with youth form the estate sector. The FGD was conducted by the Institute of Policy Studies, under the supervision of the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development as a part of the project: Commitment of Sri Lanka in Effective and Meaningful Participation of Youth in Realizing the MDGs.

67

68

DCS, 2009.Demographic and Health Survey 2006/2007, Department of Census and Statistics, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Average Muslim population is less than 10% of the population; DCS, Sri Lanka Census of Population and Housing, 2011, http:// www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=Activities/TentativelistofPublications

69

70

62

Private matters of Muslims are governed by Muslim Law for instance marriage, divorce custody and maintenance

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

Further, teenage pregnancy has become serious issue to be considered in the Northern Province due to the three decades long conflict situation, and the post-conflict aftermath. As explained by Northern and Eastern Province youth FGD, with the end conflict, youth in these areas have received the freedom to access various means of information, such as through mobile phones, and the internet.71 They use this information to then experiment with innocent girls, many of whom are family members, close relatives, or neighbours. One of the main reasons for these teenage pregnancies is a lack of awareness on reproductive health. The FGD further revealed that the conservative nature of the cultures of both Tamils and Muslims in these areas, has limited the access to awareness programmes for female youth.

Hence, the knowledge transfer is minimal, and sometimes the awareness programmes are conducted for older ladies, despite being targeted for youth. As a result, the knowledge on reproductive health related matters among female youth is severely limited.

Knowledge on conception, pregnancy, and Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) were poor among adolescents. According to the adolescent survey findings, the overall knowledge among school-going adolescents (aged 14-19 years) on matters related to reproductive health was less than 50 per cent, while less than 25 per cent of adolescents had comprehensive knowledge on menstruation, risk of conception, and signs of pregnancy.72 Further, knowledge on STDs and HIV/ AIDS among adolescents was found to be poor.

Less than 50 per cent of adolescents had accurate knowledge on HIV/AIDS. Only about 57 per cent of adolescents had some awareness of the existence of STDs in general.73 Lack of knowledge on reproductive health will put youth in danger – increase unplanned pregnancies, unsafe abortions, and the prevalence of STDs. The Sri Lankan education system does not provide adequate knowledge on sexual and reproductive health. With information from the media and access through the internet, this information is no longer a secret to youth. However, unfiltered access to such information through the

media and internet, and the reliance on peers for information would pose higher risks to youth, as well as to society. Thus, youth friendly reproductive health education should be introduced in a culturally acceptable framework, to overcome sexual and reproductive health challenges among young people.

4.4.2 Differently Abled Youth

Disability is the consequence of impairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions that may be physical, cognitive, or sometimes a combination of both. It may be present from birth, or occur during a person’s lifetime. Sri Lanka does not have a regular statistical collection on differently abled people. Further, defining disability is complicated and controversial. According to the Census of Population and Housing 2001, 1.6 per cent of the population were differently abled, when a disable person was defined as being “a person who was unable or limited in carrying out activities that he or she can do due to congenital or long-term physical/mental disabilities”.

However, according to the ESCAP definition, “any person who, as a result of any deficiency in his physical or mental capabilities, whether congenital or not, is unable by himself to ensure for himself, wholly or partly, the necessities of life,” the proportion of disabled people rose to 7 per cent of the population in 2006.

Disability is also an important develop¬ment issue because they need to be provided with disabilityrelated services that they require.

“Some people help us. Some people neglect us.

This depends on the attitudes of a particular person. We can’t blame society as they are not aware of our needs. So there should be a programme to deliver our story to the society. It is needed to build the environment that can recognize us and support us.” – Differently abled youth, works at youth council Many people with disabilities do not have equal access to basic services such as health care, education, and employment opportunities; and experience exclusion from everyday activities (Box 4.1).

The information is collected through an FGD done with youth form North and East youth. The FGD was conducted by the Institute of Policy Studies, under the supervision of the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development as a part of the project: Commitment of Sri Lanka in Effective and Meaningful Participation of Youth in Realizing the MDGs.

71

UNICEF, 2004, National Survey on Emerging Issues among Adolescent in Sri Lanka, UNICEF Sri Lanka

72

UNICEF, 2004, National Survey on Emerging Issues among Adolescent in Sri Lanka, UNICEF Sri Lanka

73

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

63

Box 4.1 : Differently Abled Youth : Access to Services According to the FGD done with differently abled youth, persons with disabilities have experienced difficulties in accessing basic services compared to persons without disabilities. For example, despite the high enrolment rates at primary and junior secondary level; differently abled children, those needing special education facilities, stop schooling in advance or never attend school. There are many difficulties in getting education in a normal school environment, because these differently abled students need special attention— appropriate educational facilities, special education programmes, and specialized individual care, etc.

“I went to school up to grade 4. It was a regular school. I stopped schooling because others began to ridicule me.” differently abled selfemployed youth — running a fruit stall Further, there is no special curriculum for differently abled students. So they have to follow the same curriculum, and face the same national examination.

“Normal students can read books and learn, but we have to listen and learn. We have to answer the exam papers with our limited knowledge, as we can’t read the books.” Vision impaired student at the University of Sri Jayawardhanapura Students with visual impairments do not get braille translated papers even at the national level examinations. Once the exam starts, the examiner will read out the paper, and these students firstly copy it out and later write the answers. Furthermore, the paper are read section by section, so these students do not have the freedom to answer easy questions first and spend more time on the harder ones.

So, many differently abled children do not complete formal education due to these difficulties.

64

Therefore, in order to attract as well as retain the differently abled students at schools, adequate educational facilities needed to be provided at schools.

Also, there are very limited employment opportunities for differently abled youth. There are government policies to provide equal access to jobs; however this system does not function well. There are no special policies to recruit differently abled people in the private sector. As a result, there are very few opportunities for differently abled people in the private sector.

Further, there are limited opportunities for differently abled youth to start their own business.

There is no special scheme to give bank loans for differently abled people.

“When I asked for a bank loan, they asked my income statements.” differently abled self-employed youth — running a fruit stall Differently abled people should be mainstreamed in to the existing system with special facilities and access to services. Sri Lanka formulated its national policy on the differently abled in 2003, under the purview of the Ministry of Social Welfare. A special emphasis has been given for differently abled youth under this national policy. As suggested by the policy, differently abled young men and women will participate alongside their peers in all activities planned for the youth in the country. Differently abled youth will be given equal opportunity as their peers to develop their abilities, skills, and potential, to become disciplined, responsible, and responsive adults, possessing a sense of dignity and self-worth. The policy recommends that differently abled youth should be considered in the development and amendment of the youth policy, youth related research, training of personnel of youth related activities, and planning and evaluation of youth programmes.

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

There are many organizations such as Sarvodaya, Akshidana society etc., in Sri Lanka who work towards the empowerment of differently abled youth, covering many aspects such as employment, education, and health. All these organizations work closely with the Ministry of Social Welfare, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Health, and especially the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development.

The health sector provides a satisfactory service for all differently abled people. Differently abled people get priority when they go to hospitals; also there are special hospitals such as the eye hospital, which gives special services to vision impaired people. There are several ICT accessibility projects, including special software to read books through computers, access to the internet, and mobile phone access for people with disabilities.

Universities are equipped with these facilities for differently abled students. Possessing vocational skills significantly increases a differently abled youth’s chance of earning an adequate income.

The Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development, recognizing the importance of differently abled youth in the country’s development, has established a national strategy for differently abled youth in technical educational and vocational training. There are three avenues for skill acquisition open for differently abled people; informal sector employment and/or apprenticeships, formal sector apprenticeships, and formal vocational training in Vocational Training (VT) institutions. While the earlier two modes do not require any basic educational qualifications, the latter requires the differently abled youth to meet the entry qualifications of the respective courses to ensure access to VT institutions. For most differently abled youth, entry qualifications may act as a barrier, though most would have some aptitude for a vocational competency. A majority of vocational training and education centres are equipped with infrastructure and curriculums that are compatible with the capabilities of differently abled youth. Also, facilities for people with special needs are included in the recent government development programmes – such as separate section in roads to walk for differently abled people, special colour light system to cross the road etc.

4.5 Challenges, Conclusions and Way Forward Health is instrumental in enhancing the effectiveness of education and increasing productivity.

Although Sri Lanka performed well in achieving health targets, it has several existing and emerging health challenges. The country’s young women are at a significantly higher risk of malnutrition. To a larger extent, adolescence sets the stage

for the health and nutritional status in later life, and poor nutritional levels have harmful effects and results in the continuation of the intergenerational cycle of ill health and growth failure.

At present, measures taken to address the needs of the adolescent age group are minimal. Separate services for adolescents may be more appropriate as they are not likely to use general maternal and child health services, and may prefer facilities that are specially designed to offer young people sympathetic counselling. Further, unmarried girls may prefer separate private settings for fertility checkups. Also, the implementation of nutrition intervention programmes and regular screening tests at work places will be effective.

Teenage pregnancy, especially in the estate sector and some parts of the Northern and Eastern provinces, is a serious issue that needs to be considered. One of the main reasons for that is the lack of awareness on reproductive health. The Sri Lankan education system does not provide adequate knowledge on these aspects; hence youth must rely on peers and other sources of media for information on reproductive health and sexual behaviour. Therefore, improving knowledge on general health and disease prevention, reproductive physiology, nutritional needs, and sex education through school curricula could be viewed as a priority issue. Further, as teenage and young adult pregnancies are likely to result in small statured women giving birth to low weight babies, family planning measures must also focus on reducing pregnancies in this age group, especially in the estate sector and the Ampara and Trincomalee districts, where a higher prevalence of teenage pregnancies were recorded.

Substance abuse is a significant issue that relates the health of youth. While peer pressure and stress are two significant factors that drive youth towards substance abuse, it is a personal decision.

With proper knowledge and enforcement, these things can be prevented. Therefore, life skills education for both, school-going, and out-ofschool adolescents could be the most appropriate channel to create awareness among adolescents.

Smoking, alcohol, and other substance abuse prevention, should be integrated with life skills education. Further, in most developed countries, retail outlets are prohibited from selling tobacco and alcohol to minors, however this is not the case in developing countries.

Access to these substances is easy for youth, and given peer pressure and stress, the probability of them being victims of substance abuse is high.

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

65

Therefore, while increasing awareness to suppress the demand side of the substance abuse problem, strategies have to be formulated from the supply side also. Further, There are many organizations such as Sarvodaya, Akshidana society etc., in Sri Lanka who work towards the empowerment of differently abled youth, covering many aspects such as employment, education, and health. All these organizations work closely with the Ministry of Social Welfare, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Health, and especially the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development.

The health sector provides a satisfactory service for all differently abled people. Differently abled people get priority when they go to hospitals; also there are special hospitals such as the eye hospital, which gives special services to vision impaired people. There are several ICT accessibility projects, including special software to read books through computers, access to the internet, and mobile phone access for people with disabilities.

Universities are equipped with these facilities for differently abled students. Possessing vocational skills significantly increases a differently abled youth’s chance of earning an adequate income.

The Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development, recognizing the importance of differently abled youth in the country’s development, has established a national strategy for differently abled youth in technical educational and vocational training. There are three avenues for skill acquisition open for differently abled people; informal sector employment and/or apprenticeships, formal sector apprenticeships, and formal vocational training in Vocational Training (VT) institutions. While the earlier two modes do not require any basic educational qualifications, the latter requires the differently abled youth to meet the entry qualifications of the respective courses to ensure access to VT institutions. For most differently abled youth, entry qualifications may act as a barrier, though most would have some aptitude for a vocational competency. A majority of vocational training and education centres are equipped with infrastructure and curriculums that are compatible with the capabilities of differently abled youth. Also, facilities for people with special needs are included in the recent government development programmes – such as separate section in roads to walk for differently abled people, special colour light system to cross the road etc.

4.5 Challenges, Conclusions and Way Forward

66

Health is instrumental in enhancing the effectiveness of education and increasing productivity.

Although Sri Lanka performed well in achieving health targets, it has several existing and emerging health challenges. The country’s young women are at a significantly higher risk of malnutrition. To a larger extent, adolescence sets the stage for the health and nutritional status in later life, and poor nutritional levels have harmful effects and results in the continuation of the intergenerational cycle of ill health and growth failure.

At present, measures taken to address the needs of the adolescent age group are minimal. Separate services for adolescents may be more appropriate as they are not likely to use general maternal and child health services, and may prefer facilities that are specially designed to offer young people sympathetic counselling. Further, unmarried girls may prefer separate private settings for fertility checkups. Also, the implementation of nutrition intervention programmes and regular screening tests at work places will be effective.

Teenage pregnancy, especially in the estate sector and some parts of the Northern and Eastern provinces, is a serious issue that needs to be considered. One of the main reasons for that is the lack of awareness on reproductive health. The Sri Lankan education system does not provide adequate knowledge on these aspects; hence youth must rely on peers and other sources of media for information on reproductive health and sexual behaviour. Therefore, improving knowledge on general health and disease prevention, reproductive physiology, nutritional needs, and sex education through school curricula could be viewed as a priority issue. Further, as teenage and young adult pregnancies are likely to result in small statured women giving birth to low weight babies, family planning measures must also focus on reducing pregnancies in this age group, especially in the estate sector and the Ampara and Trincomalee districts, where a higher prevalence of teenage pregnancies were recorded.

Substance abuse is a significant issue that relates the health of youth. While peer pressure and stress are two significant factors that drive youth towards substance abuse, it is a personal decision.

With proper knowledge and enforcement, these things can be prevented. Therefore, life skills education for both, school-going, and out-ofschool adolescents could be the most appropriate channel to create awareness among adolescents.

Smoking, alcohol, and other substance abuse

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

prevention, should be integrated with life skills education. Further, in most developed countries, retail outlets are prohibited from selling tobacco and alcohol to minors, however this is not the case in developing countries.

Access to these substances is easy for youth, and given peer pressure and stress, the probability of them being victims of substance abuse is high.

Therefore, while increasing awareness to suppress the demand side of the substance abuse problem, strategies have to be formulated from the supply side also. Further, protective measures should include effective procedures for rehabilitation and the socialization of victimized young people.

The estate sector lagged behind other communities in the country, in terms of various indicators of social development â&#x20AC;&#x201C; e.g. nutrition, teenage

pregnancies, and alcoholism. Hence, to develop long-term changes, the individual causes of malnutrition within the community must be recognized and removed. Therefore it is important to identify food shortages, inappropriate feeding practices, and diversities in diet that exist in these areas, for better targeting. Further, health care services in estate areas should be strengthened with specially trained health care providers, regular nutritional check-ups, and specially designed nutritional education awareness programmes.

The living conditions in estate areas should be enhanced by providing better housing and increasing access to safe drinking water, and sanitation facilities. In addition, special education programmes can promote positive health behaviours and change harmful attitudes and practices.

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67

Gender Equality and Empowering Young Women Author

Sunimalee Madurawala

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Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

5: Gender Equality and Empowering Young Women 5.1 Introduction Gender is not so much about biological differences between men and women, but it is “the social differentiation of women and men through processes which are learned, changeable over time, and vary within and between cultures. At the economic level, gender appears as a sexual division of labour in which some types of work are strongly associated with women, and some types with men. The costs and benefits of the sexual division of labour are unequally shared between men and women to the disadvantage of the latter.” Gender, as a conceptual tool, is used to highlight various structural relationships of inequality between men and women as manifested in the households, in labour markets, in personal relationships, in ideologies, and in socio-political structures.

Ensuring gender equality matters in many ways to the development process of a country. Gender equality matters in its own right and has been recognized as ‘smart economics.’ Experiences from various countries confirm that gender equality enhances economic efficiency, and improves other development outcomes. For instance, it has been estimated that raising female employment levels to that of male levels could have a direct impact on GDP, for example, of 5 per cent in the US, 9 per cent in Japan, 12 per cent in the UAE, and 34 per cent in Egypt. Given the distinction between sex and gender, empowerment can be defined as “a process by which those who have been denied the ability to make strategic life choices acquire such an ability.” Three inter-related dimensions of empowerment can be thus distinguished; resources (defined broadly to include not only access, but also future claims, to both material, and human and social resources); agency (including processes of decision making, as well as less measurable manifestation of agency such as negotiation, deception, and manipulation) and achievements (well-being outcomes).78 A woman’s level of empowerment would vary according to other criteria like social class, caste, ethnicity, relative wealth, age, and family position, therefore these 78

contributory dimensions should be taken into account when analysing gender empowerment, or lack thereof.79 Goal 3 of the MDG is to “Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women,” and currently three indicators are used to track the progress of this goal. Indicator 3.1: Ratios of girls to boys in primary, secondary and tertiary education; Indicator 3.2: Share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector; and Indicator 3.3: Proportion of seats held by women in national parliament. With gender being a cross cutting issue, achievement of this goal is critical to the achievement of the other MDG goals, and will strengthen the gender perspective integrated in other areas, such as on poverty, education, health, environment and development co-operation; thereby creating a synergy for action.80 “Promoting gender equality means ensuring that women have the same chances as men to improve their lives, and the lives of their families.

Unfortunately, in both developed and developing countries, women are often not given the same opportunities in education, employment, and in government. Many poor households in developing countries, for example, will only send their boys to school, forcing girls to help care for the home and other family members. Goal 3 means guaranteeing that women have equal opportunities to make their lives, and the lives of their families better.”81 Indicators of MDG 3 confirm that Sri Lanka has almost achieved gender parity in primary, secondary, tertiary, and collegiate education; with the proportion of girls to boys exceeding 100 per cent (Table 5.1). Despite this achievement in the education sector, labour force participation and political representation by women have remained surprisingly low for a period of time. This indicates that more measures should be taken in order to enhance the female labour force participation and the political participation by women.

Ibid.

Mosedale S., (2003) “Towards a Framework for Assessing Empowerment,” Paper prepared for the international conference, New Directions in Impact Assessment for Development: Methods and Practice, Manchester UK, 24 and 25 November 2003 http://www. sed.manchester.ac.uk/research/iarc/ediais/pdf/Mosedale.pdf [accessed 29th May 2013]

79

Jayaweera S., Wijemanne H., Wanasundara L. and Vitharana K., (2007). “Gender Dimensions of the Millennium Development Goals in Sri Lanka”, Centre for Women’s Research Colombo

80

Global Youth Action Network, (2006). “Only With Your Voice: Millennium Development Goals Youth Action Guide”, The Millennium Campaign, New York, USA, page 08

81

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Table 5.1: Sri Lanka’s Progress on MDG Goal 3: Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women

1995

2002

2006

2015 Target

- Primary

94.2

94.6

99.0

100

- Lower Secondary

91.2

94.8

105.7

100

- Upper Secondary

107.7

101.8

- Tertiary

75.4

113.8

187.0 (2006/07)*

100

30.8 (1993)

32.8 (2001)

32.2 (2007)

No target

5.8 (1989/94)

4.2 (2000/04)

5.8 (2004/07)

No target

Indicator 3.1 :Ratio of girls to boys (number of girls per 100 boys) enrolled in

Indicator 3.2: Share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector Indicator 3.3 :Proportion of seats held by women in national parliament

100

Sources: Institute of Policy Studies (2010), Millennium Development Goals Country Report 2008/09, Sri Lanka *Department of Census and Statistics (2009), MDG Indicators of Sri Lanka a Mid Term Review 2008

Empowering young females has been duly recognized as a critical factor for inspiring a new generation to work together for a more just society.

At the World Conference on Women in 1995, it was agreed in the Beijing Platform for Action that “Special measures must be taken to ensure that young women have the life skills necessary for active and effective participation in all levels of social, cultural, political, and economic leadership.

It will be critical for the international community to demonstrate a new commitment to the future – a commitment to inspiring a new generation of women and men to work together for a more just society. This new generation of leaders must accept and promote a world in which every child is free from injustice, oppression, and inequality, and free to develop her/his own potential. The principle of equality of women and men must therefore be integral to the socialization process.” 82

In this chapter, three dimensions of gender equality and empowerment will be discussed. Firstly, gender equality at all levels of the education system for young females will be considered. Under this, the ratio of girls to boys in secondary, tertiary, and vocational training education will be analyzed. Labour market activities by females in the youth cohort will be examined as the second dimension of gender equality and empowerment.

Female labour force participation, the share of women in wage employment, percentage of women in managerial positions, and entrepreneurial activities by women are to be studied as indicators of labour market participation by the young females. Sri Lankan women’s involvement in politics will be looked at as the third dimension of women’s empowerment.

UN Women, (2013). Fourth World Conference on Womenhttp://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/platform/index. html[accessed 29th May 2013]

82

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Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

5.2.1 Equal Education Opportunities for Girls Though Sri Lanka has achieved gender parity in Junior and Upper sections in Secondary Education, gender parity in the Science and Commerce streams in Advanced Level (A/L) section remain as an issue. Gender Parity Index (GPI),83 calculated for 2011 province-wise, also indicates that almost in every province gender parity is achieved at the Senior Secondary education (Table 5.2). However the GPI calculated for A/L, stream-wise, indicates that fewer girls are studying in the A/L Science and Commerce streams84 (with a GPI of 91 and 89 respectively) whereas, more girls are studying A/L Arts subjects. A Lower GPI is recorded from

the Eastern, Northern, and Western Provinces for the Science stream and Eastern, Central, and Uva Provinces for the Commerce stream. One of the reasons for this gender bias, when selecting A/L subjects, is the non-availability of schools with A/L science stream. As of 2011 data, only 7 per cent of government schools offer a science stream, and most of the best-equipped schools to teach A/L science stream are located in urban areas.85 In most cases, parents are reluctant to send girls far away for schooling due to various reasons (poor transport facilities, protection issues, and etc.). In such a situations, girls are inevitably compelled to select Arts subjects for A/L.

Table 5.2: Ratio of Girls to Boys in Secondary Education 2006 & 2011

2006

2011

Junior Secondary

A/L Science

A/L Arts

A/L Commerce

Senior Secondary

A/L Science

A/L Arts

A/L Commerce

Sri Lanka

100.2

89.9

196.0

88.8

103.32

91.39

193.49

89.86

Western

97.9

81.8

209.3

101.8

101.30

84.84

200.93

102.60

Central

101.5

94.8

213.5

77.2

104.79

96.71

193.63

77.38

Southern

99.2

96.8

209.6

93.7

99.98

98.99

205.60

94.63

Northern

102.1

87.4

164.7

87.0

108.59

82.39

179.96

82.32

Eastern

100.0

83.5

159.2

57.8

103.46

76.68

166.49

64.16

North Western

99.0

84.1

188.7

84.9

102.66

85.33

181.86

91.67

North Central

101.1

91.7

191.8

78.3

102.09

92.10

199.80

86.48

Uva

104.0

93.0

218.3

84.1

107.35

97.75

211.73

78.39

Sabaragamuwa

101.5

110.8

210.7

88.0

105.54

118.03

208.33

87.58

Province

Sources: Ministry of Education (2008), School Census 2008, Preliminary Report.

Ministry of Education (2011), Sri Lanka Education Information 2011. http://www.moe.gov.lk/web/images/stories/ statistic/sri_lanka_education_information_2011.pdf (accessed on 3rd May 2013)

Ratio of girls to boys Ministry of Education (2011), Sri Lanka Education Information 2011 85 United Nations Development Programme, (2012). â&#x20AC;&#x153;Sri Lanka Human Development Report 2012: Bridging Regional Disparities for Human Developmentâ&#x20AC;?, UNDP Colombo 83 84

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Total number of female students enrolled in universities, and the GPI, has increased from 2005/2006 to 2010/2011. 12,905 female students got university admissions for the 2010/2011 academic year, whereas only 8940 female students got university admissions for the academic year

2005/2006. In 2010/2011, 60 per cent of the total undergraduate admissions were females compared to the 54 per cent (Figure 5.1) in 2005/2006.

The percentage of women enrolled is comparatively low for technology related subjects.

Figure 5.1: Female Per cent of Under Graduate Admissions by Academic Stream

2005/2006

2010/2011 Arts Law Management & Commerce Medicine Dental Surgery Veterinary Science Architecture Indigenous Medicine Paramedical Studies Engineering Architecture / Quantity Surveying Fashion Design/ Transport &Logistic Mgt

Computer Sc./ MIT/ IT/ ICT/ BIS Science Food Science Total 100

80

60

40

20

0

0

20

40

60

80

Source: University Grants Commission, Sri Lanka University Statistics , Various Issues

Overall GPI has increased for university admissions, from 117 in 2005/2006, to 149 in 2010/2011. As in secondary education, gender bias could be observed towards certain academic streams. Extreme situations could be observed for subjects like Law, Arts, Indigenous Medicine, and Paramedical Studies with very high GPI, whereas Engineering, Computer Science, and Science streams had lower GPI, indicating fewer females were studying those subjects (Figure 5.2).

72

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

100

Figure 5.2: Under Graduate Admissions; GPI by Academic Streams

Arts Law Management & Commerce Medicine Dental Surgery Veterinary Science Architecture Indigenous Medicine Paramedical Studies Engineering Architecture / Quantity Surveying Fashion Design/ Transport & Logistic Mgt Computer Sc./ MIT/ IT/ ICT/ BIS Science Food Science Total 0

100

200

300

400

500

2010/2011 2005/2006 Source: University Grants Commission, Sri Lanka University Statistics , Various Issues

Number of female students enrolled for vocational training education, as well as the GPI for vocational training education has increased over the years. 16,589 female students have got admissions to the Vocational Training Institutes86 under the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development in 2005.

By the end of 2012, this amount has increased up to 57,293 indicating a more than threefold increase (Figure 5.3).

86 Department of Technical Education & Training (DTET), University of Vocational Training (Univotech), Vocational Training Authority of Sri Lanka (VTA), National Apprentice & Industrial Training Authority (NITA), National Institute of Business Management (NIBM), Sri Lanka Institute of Printers (SLIOP), National Youth Services Council (NYSC), International Centre for the Training if Rural Leaders (ICTRL), National Youth Corps (NYC), National Institute of Fisheries and Nautical Engineering (NIFNE)

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

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Figure 5.3: Admissions to Vocational Training Institutes and GPI (2005-2012) Female

GPI

80000

90

70000

80

60000

70 60

50000

50

40000

40 30000 30 20000

20

10000 0

10 2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

0

Source: Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development

However when analyzing the vocational training courses demanded by students, a gender bias could be observed for certain courses (Table 5.3).

In general, more female students prefer courses in Medical and Health, Textile and Garments, and Gem and Jewelry subjects, while more male students demanded technical courses (e.g. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, Heavy Vehicle, and Rubber and Plastic).

“There is very little female participation in vocational training centers. Mostly they select Food

74

technology or IT for their vocational education.

They believe that it is difficult for them to follow other vocational training programs.” -Student following Mechanical Engineering degree program at UNIVOTECH from Kandy This demand pattern for training courses clearly demarcates the segregation of certain jobs types (i.e., ‘masculinization’ or ‘feminization’ of specific jobs), according to the generally accepted gender roles in society.

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

GPI

Number of students

Male

Table 5.3: Training Performance of TVEC Registered Private Sector Training Institutions in 2011

Field of Study

No. Recruited Male

Female

No. Completed

Total

Male

Female

Total

Information Communication and Multimedia Technology

8699

9707

18406

5517

6101

11618

Finance Banking and Management

3606

4361

7967

243

230

473

Personal and Community Development

1449

3294

4743

1389

2359

3748

Building and Construction

3570

133

3703

3098

74

3172

Medical and Health Science

280

1680

1960

242

1171

1413

Textile and Garments

334

1248

1582

201

950

1151

Hotel and Tourism

1053

468

1521

865

389

1254

Electrical, Electronic and Telecommunication

1320

60

1380

871

32

903

Metal and Light Engineering

1188

15

1203

916

11

927

Automobile Repair and Maintenance

1112

7

1119

673

26

699

Food Technology

417

382

799

372

407

779

Aviation and Aeronautics

638

102

740

638

102

740

13

678

691

0

326

326

Human Resource Management

299

377

676

196

205

401

Languages

325

309

634

191

118

309

Art Design and Media (Visual Performing)

400

182

582

188

100

288

Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

553

0

553

309

0

309

Heavy Vehicle

546

0

546

556

0

556

Rubber and Plastic

543

0

543

543

0

543

Wood Related

252

38

290

195

11

206

Agriculture Plantation and Livestock

131

111

242

54

84

138

Marine and Natural Science

148

0

148

63

0

63

Printing and Packaging

91

26

117

78

23

101

Gem and jewelry

26

61

87

18

56

74

Leather and Footwear

50

32

82

16

25

41

Office Management

40

4

44

33

2

35

1654

847

2501

1121

648

1769

Trainer Training

Other Total

28737 24122

52859 18586 13450 32036

Note: Completions include the intake of previous years for courses of different duration Source: Tertiary & Vocational Education Commission (2011). Labour Market Information Bulletin, Volume 02/â&#x20AC;&#x2122;11 December, 2011

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5.2.2 Young Females in the Labour Force Labour force participation by females lags behind their male counterpartsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; labour force participation numbers across all sectors and provinces. Labour force participation rates for females stood

at 30 per cent in 2010, whereas the corresponding value for males is 60 per cent (Figure 5.4). The female labour force participation rate is considerably higher in the Estate sector and lower for the Eastern Province, compared to the national averages.

Figure 5.4: Youth Labour Force Participation by Gender 2010 Male

Female

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Sri Lanka

Sabaragamuwa

Uva

North Central

North Western

Eastern

Southern

Central

Western

Estate

Rural

urban

0

Source: Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s calculations based on Annual Labour Force Survey 2010 data, Department of Census and Statistics

Comparative data from 2006 also depicts the same picture, with lower labour force participation by women compared to men (See Table 5.4).

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Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

Table 5.4: Youth Labour Force Participation by Sector and Province 2006 & 2010

2006 Sector/ Province

Male

2010 Female

Male

Female

Urban

63.9

32.0

56.9

28.4

Rural

65.3

37.3

60.4

29.5

Estate

74.1

54.1

63.7

42.5

Western

65.1

36.9

58.7

31.7

Central

62.2

38.0

58.9

30.0

Southern

64.8

38.8

57.6

27.6

58.4

19.2

Eastern North Western

66.4

36.3

64.5

29.8

North Central

70.1

33.7

67.1

34.3

Uva

69.9

45.7

61.8

34.6

Sabaragamuwa

66.8

36.9

60.0

31.0

Sri Lanka

65.7

37.7

60.1

29.9

Source: Author’s calculations based on Annual Labour Force Data 2006 and 2010, Department of Census and Statistics

Lower levels of female labour force participation are not unique to the youth cohort. Even the national level data for 10 years and over show the same pattern, and this status has persisted over time.87 Female labour force participation is important for an economy for many reasons: It indicates the utilization of labour in an economy (the growth potential the economy has); relates to income/poverty status; and it acts as a signal of the economic empowerment of women (higher labour force participation by women implies more investment in education and health – intergenerational effect).88 Female labour force participation, however, is affected by many factors that appear

to have no effect on males. For example, other than the standard economic variables such as education, experience, wages and income, many noneconomic variables, like marital status and fertility, influence the female labour supply. A recent study by the World Bank points out three possible explanations for low female labour force participation in Sri Lanka: gender norms and household responsibilities, especially care of young children; skill mismatch in the labour market; and weaker job networks from which they may face discrimination in the labour market.89

Department of Census and Statistics, (2012), “Sri Lanka Labour Force Survey Annual Report 2011”, Department of Census and Statistics, Colombo

87

Verick, S., (2013). “Female Labour Force Participation in South Asia and Beyond” presentation made at the consultative workshop on ‘Improving Women’s Labour Force Participation in Sri Lanka,’ organized by the World Bank , May 3rd 2013 , Colombo, Sri Lanka.

88

World Bank, (2013). “Getting In and Staying In: Increasing Women’s Labour Force Participation in Sri Lanka,” presentation made at the consultative workshop on ‘Improving Women’s Labour Force Participation in Sri Lanka, organized by the World Bank , May 3rd 2013, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

89

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5.2.3 Young Women in Wage Employment At the national level, the share of women in wage employment was only 35 per cent in 2010. From 2006 to 2010 the womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s share in wage employment has decreased from 36.5 to 34.3 (Figure 5.5).

Percentage of women in wage employment is comparatively higher in the estate sector than in the other sectors. On the other hand, there are considerably fewer females in wage employment in the Eastern Province. This could be because most in Eastern province are Muslims.

Figure 5.5: Share of Women in Wage Employment by Sector and Province 2006 & 2010 2006

2010

50

40

30

20

10

Source: Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s calculations based on Annual Labor Force Data 2006, 2010, Department of Census and Statistics

78

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

Sri Lanka

Sabaragamuwa

Uva

North Central

North Western

Eastern

Southern

Central

Western

Estate

Rural

urban

0

The indicator measures only the presence or absence of work – not the quality; hence it is questionable whether an increase in the number of women in wage employment is truly representative of a movement towards gender equality or empowerment of women.90 In recent years women have sought employment mainly in garment factories and overseas as domestic labour; occupations in which they are at the bottom of the hierarchy. The apparel industry is dominated by females from the very beginning, and the share of female employment in the industry has always been above 80 per cent.91 This share is significantly higher than the share of females in the national labour force. 80 per cent of the labour force in the Export Processing Zones (EPZ), and 90 per cent in rural garment factories are women, and most of them are in the age group of 18 to 30. The comparative advantage of low cost, yet literate, female labour was used as an attraction for foreign investment, resulting in the incorporation of women in the international division of labour).92 However, males dominate upper management

jobs (Senior Managers at 84 per cent and Middle Level Managers at 62 per cent), while female participation is more prominent in operative grades (except for Mechanics and Cutters).93 Around 86 per cent of migrant workers are housemaids and 90 % of those who have migrated for professional and middle level jobs were men, in 2011.94 5.2.4 Young Women in Managerial Positions 1.5 per cent of the total employed females youth were in managerial positions in 2010. This however, is a slightly higher percentage compared with men in 2010, and a two fold increase for women compared with the 2006 figure (Figure 5.6). Same scenario could be observed for the total labour force of the country. Occupations that fall within the occupation code 1000-1299 of International Standard Classification of Occupation (ISCO-88) were being regarded as “managerial positions” when calculating this indicator (i.e. Legislators, Senior Officials and Managers).

Institute of Policy Studies (2010), “Millennium Development Goals Country Report 2008/09, Sri Lanka”, Institute of Policy Studies, Colombo

90

The World Bank, (2012). ),“Sewing Success? : Employment, Wages and Poverty Following the End of the Multi-fiber Arrangement,” eds. Gladys Lopez Acevedo and Raymond Robertson. The World Bank Washington DC

91

Jayaweera S., (2003). “Continuity and Change: Women Workers in Garment and Textile Industries in Sri Lanka”, International Development Research Centre of Canada http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN025233.pdf [accessed 29th May 2013]

92

Kelegama, S., and Wijayasiri, J. (2004). “Overview of the Garment Industry in Sri Lanka.” In Ready-Made Garment Industry in Sri Lanka: Facing the Global Challenge, ed. Saman Kelegama. Colombo: Institute of Policy Studies.

93

Tertiary & Vocational Education Commission, (2011), Labour Market Information Bulletin, Volume 02/’11 December, 2011.

94

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Figure 5.6: Women in Managerial Positions 2006

2010

4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0

Male

Female Youth

Male

Female Total

Source: Author’s calculations based on Annual Labor Force Data 2006, 2010, Department of Census and Statistics

Percentages of men and women in the managerial positions in the youth cohort are considerably low compared with the total population for both the years. This is fair, as reaching the higher positions or ‘managerial positions’ in the career ladder at the early stage is difficult, and it cannot be expected that many young people within the age group of 15 to 29 be in managerial positions.

5.2.5 Entrepreneurial Activities by Young Women Women entrepreneurs have been designated ‘the new engines for growth’ and ‘the rising stars of the economies in developing countries to bring prosperity and welfare,’ yet female entrepreneurship remains an ‘untapped source’ of economic growth and development.95 An idea or innovation, employment experiences that have

been unsatisfying, frustrating, with demanding and inflexible work environments, failure to break through the ‘glass ceiling’ to higher-paid managerial positions, and sometimes forced unemployment, either from a lay-off, or a lack of marketable skills, are some of the reasons behind females starting up their own business.96 Though the rate of new businesses formed by women has significantly outpaced the rate of new businesses formed by men across the developing world in recent years, women still manage significantly fewer businesses than men.97 Women’s entrepreneurship is especially significant in the context of moving Sri Lanka towards becoming an “Upper Middle Income” country, as female-operated Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) could well cater to the demands of the rising middle class.98

Vossenberg S., (2013). “Women Entrepreneurship Promotion in Developing Countries: What Explains the Gender Gap in Entrepreneurship and How to Close It?” Working Paper No. 2013/08, Maastricht School of Management, The Netherlands.

95

Winn, J., (2005). “Women Entrepreneurs: Can We Remove the Barriers?,” International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp 381-397.

96

United Nations University, (2013). “Examining the Entrepreneur Gender Gap” http://unu.edu/publications/articles/examiningentrepreneur-gender-gap.html#info[accessed 7th May 2013].

97

International Labour Organization and Asian Development Bank, (2011). “Women and Labour Markets in Asia: rebalancing for Gender Equality”, ILO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific ; Asian Development Bank. - Bangkok:

98

99

80

Based on Annual Labour Force Data by Department of Census and Statistics for 2006 and 2010

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

However, in the case of Sri Lanka, of the total number of youth employers in the country, women’s share is less 10 per cent (as of 2006 and 2010),99 and the national level data also indicate the same status.

In Sri Lanka, a majority of women entrepreneurs are in micro-enterprises, a large number of which operate in the informal economy, and they tend to be grouped in particular sectors such as food processing and textile.100 Those who argued that men were better at business based it on sociocultural restrictions on women such as, the household work burden, limited mobility after dark and concern about reputation, better knowledge and skills of men, and superior physical strength of men.101 Lack of access to finance, negative norms and attitudes towards entrepreneurship as a career option, limited mobility, lack of access to networks, an unequal share of family and household responsibilities, and no maternity protection, are some of the barriers faced by female entrepreneurs in Sri Lanka.102 “I started this business after I separated from my husband. I never thought of becoming an entrepreneur. I wanted to be a typical housewife; be at home, looking after my children and attending household matters… I had no money to start this business; it was very difficult for me to find initial capital however my mother, brother and sister helped me a lot. Even today they help me immensely…The ease of child caring was the main reason that allowed me to start my own business, it gives me enough flexibility to attend to my

child’s work… Now I earn enough money for my living and, I don’t ask money from anybody, I feel very content…I’m really happy and proud of my achievements…Availability of and easy access to initial capital at a low interest rate is very helpful for women, particularly those who wish to start their own businesses. ” – – Female Entrepreneur operating a trading business of gift items from Kaduwela 5.2.6 Political Participation by Young Women In the last 60 years since independence, female participation and representation in politics and political institutions has been low in Sri Lanka.103 Surprisingly, this is despite Sri Lanka’s favourable performance on Human Development Indicators and the national level commitment for equal representation under various conventions and agendas (e.g. Convention for the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and MDGs). Even though the majority of the country’s population is female, there are only 13 female parliamentarians in the current Parliament, which constitutes less than 6 per cent of the total 225 seats, of which 3 are from the National List. This scenario is even worse at the district level. In 16 of 25 districts, the proportion of female representation at the national Parliament is 0.1 per cent.104 The proportion of seats held by women in the national Parliament in Sri Lanka is below the global average, as well as most of the other regional figures (Figure 5.7).

Staermose T. (2009), FCCISL - Key Note Address on Youth and Women Entrepreneurship 30th July 2009, Sri Lanka http://www.ilo. org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@asia/@ro-bangkok/@ilo-colombo/documents/statement/wcms_113665.pdf[accessed 30th May 2013]

100

Ibid.

101

Ibid.

102

Kodikara, C., (2009), “The Struggle for Equal Political Representation of Women in Sri Lanka,” United Nations Development Programme, Colombo

103

United Nations Development Programme, (2012).

104

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Figure 5.7: Proportion of Seats Held by Women in Single or Lower Houses of National Parliaments, 2000 and 2012 (percentage) 2000

2012

25

20

15

10

5

Sri Lanka

World

Develpoing Regions

Developed regions

Latin Amarica & the Caribbean

Sub-saharan Africa

Eastern Asia

Southern Asia

South-Eastern Asia

Caucasus & central Asia

Western Asia

Northern Africa

Oceania

0

Source: United Nations (2012), The Millennium Development Goals Report 2012, United Nations, New York

The obstacles to women’s equal representation in political institutions in Sri Lanka basically operates at three levels – i.e., at the personal level, at the level of political parties, and at the level of the electorate. As noted, this arises because “at a personal level, where fewer women than men selfselect themselves for a career in politics due to socio-cultural, economic, and psychological barriers; at the level of political parties, where they are mostly ignored as candidates for elections; and at the level of the electorate, when voters have to

vote for candidates.”105 It has been observed that the major political parties of the country have shown a limited commitment to the improvement of women’s political participation, despite being the major instruments for bringing people into the political arena, and mediating their participation and involvement in politics.106 “The female participation at the political front is low. There are many female members at the youth societies. However, the other levels and

Kodikara (2009).

Ibid.

105 106

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Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

youth parliament is based on election. The election is a result of participation in youth activities.

Even though there are higher numbers of female with youth societies, the female leaders are quite low.” – Member of 1st Youth Parliament “Most families, especially mothers would allow their daughters to take part in the youth society, but at a limited engagement level. Therefore, the potential of becoming a female leader is less, and is limited by the norms of the society. However, the opportunities are there.” – Member of 1st Youth Parliament “There are many women who can work far better and efficiently than most men. However, the current political system has not created a safe environment for a woman to be engaged with system.

Most of the time, the system is such that it would not like women to be working as hard as men,

and when they see some emerging female leaders, they will do everything to bring them down.

This might involve even destroying the image of that woman. As we all know, image is a crucial factor for women in a developing country like ours.” – Member of 1st Youth Parliament A special initiative has been taken by the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development by formulating the first ever “Youth Parliament” in 2011, with the aim of enhancing leadership capabilities of the Sri Lankan youth and allowing them to participate in a good quality democratic political process. This is achieved by mobilizing and creating a network of young people to bring about a positive and sustainable change to issues that affect youth and their communities in Sri Lanka (Box 5.1)

Box 5.1 Youth Parliament The year 1985 marked the beginning of a new era for youth, and was declared the “Year of Youth.” In 2011, Sri Lanka launched its first ever “YOUTH PARLIAMENT” as part of the 25th celebration of the Year of Youth. Following the theme of “Dialogue and Mutual Understanding,” Sri Lanka Youth Parliament held its first session on 16th July 2011, with the objective of building a platform for Sri Lankan youth to discuss and reason out critical policy issues in Sri Lanka. The first Youth Parliament of Sri Lanka comprised of 332 elected members, and 3 members from the National List. Ministers and deputy ministers represented a range of ministries: Ministry of Vocational Technology, Ministry of Sports, Ministry of Innovation and Research, Ministry of Co-Existence, Ministry of Cultural Affairs, Ministry of Citizens Relations, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Internal Youth Solidarity, Ministry of Planning, Ministry of Human and Capital Resource Provisions, Ministry of National Youth Policy Provisions, Ministry of Media and Information Technology, and finally Ministry of Protection of Mother Earth. Members of the Youth Parliament came through “youth societies.” Therefore, they have well established links with Sri Lankan youth, and were comprised with a deep and educated understanding of the youth related issues in the country. The Youth Parlia The year 1985 marked the beginning of a new era for youth, and was declared the “Year of Youth.” In 2011, Sri Lanka launched its first ever “YOUTH PARLIAMENT” as part of the 25th

celebration of the Year of Youth. Following the theme of “Dialogue and Mutual Understanding,” Sri Lanka Youth Parliament held its first session on 16th July 2011, with the objective of building a platform for Sri Lankan youth to discuss and reason out critical policy issues in Sri Lanka. The first Youth Parliament of Sri Lanka comprised of 332 elected members, and 3 members from the National List. Ministers and deputy ministers represented a range of ministries: Ministry of Vocational Technology, Ministry of Sports, Ministry of Innovation and Research, Ministry of Co-Existence, Ministry of Cultural Affairs, Ministry of Citizens Relations, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Internal Youth Solidarity, Ministry of Planning, Ministry of Human and Capital Resource Provisions, Ministry of National Youth Policy Provisions, Ministry of Media and Information Technology, and finally Ministry of Protection of Mother Earth. Members of the Youth Parliament came through “youth societies.” Therefore, they have well established links with Sri Lankan youth, and were comprised with a deep and educated understanding of the youth related issues in the country. The Youth Parliament was a place filled with opinions, suggestions, and debate. Members of the parliament were able to bring in many perspectives to the discussion; urban and rural, male-female, different ethnicities and religions, and above all, these discussions were free of any hidden or outside political agenda, and hence, the discussions were fruitful and had a clear vision on

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implementation.

The Youth Parliament is a place that harnesses future politicians. It was a platform for youth to develop their skills to become future leaders and politicians. Out of the 332 members, 44 went on to compete in the elections, and 16 were selected as the members of local authorities in many parts of the country. Therefore, the Youth Parliament was able to produce offspring, even before its term ended.Youth Parliament had many debates, they discussed policy matters in all the areas they represented as ministries. All the recommendations made by the members were recorded on the Hansard Report. Furthermore, these recommendations were conveyed to the parliament, so that policy makers can evaluate them and see whether they can be integrated it to national policy discussions. The Youth Parliament gave the leaders of Sri Lankan youth a great opportunity to participate in the ongoing policy debates and to make their recommendations to the house of governance.

ka in many international forums, for example: Commonwealth Youth Parliament, Rio +20, UNHABITAT Building Network for Youth forum etc. The many opportunities they had locally should not be discounted, for example, Youth Parliament holds its representation in the steering committee of the National Youth Policy and ministers of the Youth Parliament were always invited to take part in the steering committee of the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development. Therefore, the Youth Parliament is undoubtedly the best opportunity that the youth leaders of Sri Lanka received to make their contribution to the national policy discussion.

At this juncture, steps are been taken to establish the second term of the Youth Parliament, and nominations have already been called for.

Therefore, looking forward to the post 2015 development agenda of Sri Lanka, the youth leaders will get their second chance to make their contributions to the development discussion of the country, and to build their capacities as leaders and future politicians.

Members of the Youth Parliament were blessed with many opportunities to represent Sri Lan-

5.3 Challenges, Conclusions and Way Forward Though Sri Lanka has achieved gender parity in Secondary Education, Tertiary Education, and Vocational Education in general, stream-wise selection by the students indicates that there is no gender parity in certain subjects, especially for technology/engineering related subjects. Nonavailability of adequate schools offering Science subjects, social attitudes towards girls’ education, and other infrastructure issues are the main reasons behind this.

“I entered a school in Badulla for my A/L. Science subjects were not available for A/L in my pervious school. Many of my friends were willing to sit for A/L in science stream, but due to infrastructure issues they have to follow art subjects for A/L. We had fewer facilities at the school and I am not satisfied with the assistance of the teachers either.”

– Student Following Software Engineering degree programme at UNIVOTECH from Badulla “There are some issues for girls in following this

84

degree programme (Sports and Recreation Management) as their parents and other relatives do not allow them. Many of my friends at the university, especially the girls, have to give up their efforts due to influences from parents and other relatives. And also we need to buy some expensive sport equipment to support the degree programme. So, both social attitudes and financial matters are standard as the constraints to them in following the degree program. We can’t survive our career without the support of others, especially the support of our family members.” – Final year student at University of Kelaniya in the degree programme of Sports and Recreation Management.

The Third Billion Index, which combines input factors (women’s level of preparation for joining the workforce; the country’s access-to-work policies; entrepreneurial support) and output factors (inclusion in the workforce; the degree of advancement in the national economy; equal pay for equal work in practice) of women’s potential

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

for economic participation, ranked Sri Lanka at 96th place among 128 countries in 2012.107 While Sri Lankan women fare better in most health and education indicators than women in most other countries in the region, their participation in the economy is not on par with this achievement. The stagnant female labour force participation rate suggests that given the current socio-economic and institutional environment and growth levels in the economy, a point of saturation in female labour force participation has been reached. As pointed out earlier in this discussion, most of the time females are constrained from labour market activities due to their child care responsibilities.

“For most females, education and employment have to be given up for other commitments. Most men would like to have their wives taking the lead role in raising kids, not because they don’t want them to work, but to make sure that their children would grow up in a safer environment.

There is evidence where families have failed in raising their kids especially when both parents are working. Therefore, sometimes it might be useful to have the female out of the workforce, so that children’s are in good and safe hands.” – a member of Youth Parliament FGD There appears to be little awareness of the fact that the reproductive role of women is a national contribution, as well as a social responsibility to the whole community. More efficient interventions by the government in this regard, by regulating and monitoring existing day care centers and crèches, is a practical step that should be taken immediately. A more formalized regulatory framework would also encourage the private sector to make more investments on day care centers and crèches, thus closing the gap in supply.

Apart from child caring and other familial responsibilities put on females poor social networking, restrictions on mobility (either self-imposed or socially imposed) and lack of choices (in selecting educational streams/ jobs) are some other factors that affect negatively on labour force participation by young females.108 It is true that attempts have been made by several interested groups to increase women’s politi-

cal participation, including through lobbying and advocacy. However, progress is rather slow since it needs a ‘system change.’ Women’s political participation should be encouraged from the grassroots level (i.e. at the local government level). In this context, abolishing the preferential voting system (which is seen as the main reason for political violence)109 at the local government level and passing the new Local Authorities Election Amendment Bill and the Local Authorities Special Provision Bill, by the national parliament can be regarded as a good move. Strong commitment by the highest level of political parties is another crucial factor in increasing female political participation.

Women on the other hand, have a responsibility to be vigilant; to vote and elect women who can address their problems and issues effectively.

Sri Lanka has ratified major international instruments, which are important in the ensuring of gender equity and empowerment [e.g. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination Against Women (1979)].

Further, Sri Lanka is a signatory to the Vienna Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (1993). At the national level, the Prevention of Domestic Violence Act No. 34 of 2005 was passed, and the Forum against Gender Based Violence was set up in 2005. A separate ministry was set up to work on women’s issues in 1983 (the Ministry of Women’s Affairs – currently known as the Ministry of Child Development and Women’s Affairs).

Women have been identified as the ‘pioneer of development’ in the “Sri Lanka: The Emerging Wonder of Asia Mahinda Chintana – Vision for the Future”, the development policy frame work of the government of Sri Lanka.110 Ministry of Child Development and Women’s Affairs is the focal Ministry that address the issues related to women. Implementation of policies, plans, and programmes, for the advancement of quality of life of women, promotion of gender equality, and gender justice and Implementation of Women’s Charter to protect women’s rights, are some of the key functions by this Ministry. A ‘Five Year National Plan of Action for Women’ has

Aguirre, et. al., (2012).

107

The information is collected through FGDs done with youth representing various groups. Theses FGD were conducted by the Institute of Policy Studies, under the supervision of the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development as a part of the project:Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth.

109 South Asian’s for Human Rights, (2010). “Parliament Watch-Sri Lanka, 3rd Quarterly Report October – December 2010”. http:// www.southasianrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/SL-3Q-October-December-20101.pdf [Accessed 30th May 2013] 108

The Department of National Planning, (2010). “Sri Lanka: The Emerging Wonder of Asia, Mahinda Chintana – Vision for the Future, The Development Policy Framework”, Government of Sri Lanka.

110

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been drafted by the Ministry of Child Development and Women’s Affairs. Five areas have been identified as highlighted in the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 to be incorporated in the national action plan for women. They are internally displaced women, violence against women and women trafficking, peace building and resettlement, women headed households, and poverty and income generation. DiriyaKantha Programme, KanthaSaviya Programme, Entrepreneurship Training Programme, Skills Development Programme, Trade Fair and Marketing Programme, Home Gardening and Livestock Development Programme by the Ministry of Child Development and Women’s Affairs; National Food Package for Expectant Mothers (PoshanaMalla) and Thriposha Programme by the Ministry of Health; Single Parent Families Project by the Ministry of Social Services; are some of the initiatives taken by various Ministries in order to upgrade the status of women. Gender focal points have been established in every government ministry to ensure a gender perspective in the implementation of national programmes. Women and Child Development Units have been designed for all 25 Districts in the country, jointly by Ministry of Social Services, Ministry of Child Development and Women’s Affairs, and Provincial Councils. These Units consist of a Social Services Officer (Central Govt./ Provincial), Counseling Assistants, Elders Rights Promotion Officer,Social Development Assistant, Child Rights Promotion Officer (CRPO), Women’s Development Officer (WDO), Early Childhood Development Officer (ECCD), Relief Sister, Counseling Assistant, and a Psychosocial Assistant.

86

The Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development being the main responsible Ministry for youth affairs, has taken several initiatives to ensure gender equality among youth. Several vocational training institutions under the Ministry have facilitated thousands of young females in the country to obtain a vocational education, and directed them as successful employees as well as entrepreneurs. Institutions such as National Youth Services Council (NYSC), Leadership Development National Centre (NYSC), National Human Resource Development Council (NHRDC) and National Youth Corps (NYC) are playing a crucial role in building the leadership capacities of young females.

“Young people need to be leaders in the fight to end unfair discrimination against women. But ending gender inequality can’t be just a woman’s responsibility. We need men to join the fight to end discrimination against women, too. Just imagine if a football team was only playing with half of its players, do you think they could win a game? The world will never be able to achieve the MDGs if women don’t have an equal chance, and we need everybody to join their voice and demand that governments make a real change now.” –Global Youth Action Network (2006). Only With Your Voice: Millennium Development Goals Youth Action Guide, The Millennium Campaign, New York, USA, page 08

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Youth and Environment Author

Chatura Rodrigo

88

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

6: Youth and Environment 6.1 Introduction The Mahinda Chinthana, the government manifesto towards comprehensive sustainable development, identifies environmental sustainability as a priority of the government of Sri Lanka. Furthermore, Sri Lanka and 108 other countries reached a global agreement and were signatories to an action plan for sustainable development following the 2012 Earth Summit at Rio de Janeiro.111 Sri Lanka’s strategy for sustainable development was introduced in 2008, and the National Green Accounting Mechanism was unveiled in 2010. In addition, the Ministry of Environment (MOE) initiated the setting up of a National Action Plan for sustainable development, entitled the Haritha (Green) Lanka Programme. The main objective of the Programme was to address environmental issues in economic development while incorporating an environmental dimension into the economic development process, and to ensure the long term sustainability of human development. The Programme was initiated with the establishment of a National Council for Sustainable Development (NCSD), and the development of a National Action Plan for the Haritha Lanka Programme, aimed at greening economic development within the framework of sustainable development.112 “Environment is an integral part of our lives. We need to preserve it, while using it for our day to day activities. Both intergenerational equity, as well as the intra-generational equity, has to be assured. Youth voice on environment protection is very strong these days. This is one of the main issues that was debated at the Youth Parliament during its first session. Securing our environment is essential for the sustainable development of the country. Natural resource management, solid waste management, use of renewable energy is essential for Sri Lanka to attain sustainable development” – member of a Youth Parliament Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

6.2 Youth Environment Indicators Youth related environmental indicators examined in this study are both quantitative and qualitative in nature. The quantitative indicators are; youth living in secured housing, youth having access to safe sanitary facilities, and youth having access to safe drinking water facilities. The qualitative indicators are; opportunities for green jobs, and environment stewardship programmes targeting youth.

6.2.1 Youth in Secured Housing Youth live in several different types of housing.

These include single houses, flats, annexes, line/ row rooms, and slums/shanties. Among these, single houses, flats, and annexes, are considered secured houses, while the rest are considered otherwise. Figure 6.1 below illustrates the percentages of youth living under secured and unsecured housing for the periods of 2006 and 2010, at national, urban, rural, and estate levels. Youth living in secured environments at the national level was recorded at 91 per cent in year 2006, and it improved to 92 per cent by 2010. Urban sector also showed a 1 per cent improvement in secured housing among youth, from 2006 to 2010. The rural sector does not record any significant changes, while the estate sector recorded a significant improvement in the year 2010, where the percentage of youth in secured housing changed from 77 per cent in 2006, to 85 per cent in 2010. Therefore results suggest that a significant improvement has been made in the estate sector, compared to other sectors. Comparing the data has revealed that there are regional differences as well. As suggested by the 2006 data, the Central Province recorded the lowest secure housing condition for youth, at 73 per cent. However, this figure has risen to 85 per cent as suggested by the 2010 data.

All other provinces recorded a value of over 80 per cent for 2006, and a value of over 85 per cent based on the 2010 data.

Sri Lanka actively participates in the global-environment-partnerships and has ratified 36 Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) over the years. In addition, Sri Lanka has adopted major declarations in the field of environment that include the Stockholm Declaration, the Nairobi Declaration, the Rio Declaration and the Washington Declaration. Sri Lanka also recognizes the Charter of the United Nations, the Statute of the International Court of Justice (ICJ), the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties and the UN resolution 2625 (XXV) of 24th October 1970 on the Declaration of Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Co-­operation among states in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations. Sri Lanka is an active member of the South Asian Co-­operative Environment Programme (SACEP), South Asia Association of Regional Cooperation (SAARC), and the South Asia Regional Seas Programme as well.

111

Wijayadasa K.H. J, 1986, “The Evolution of Environmental Strategies and Policies in Sri Lanka”, Central Environment Authority, Ministry of Local Government Housing and Construction.

112

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Figure 6.1 Youth Living under Secure Housing

2010

2006

Secure Houses

Usnecure Houses

National

91

9

Estate

77

23

Rural

92

8

Urban

92

8

National

92

8

Estate

85

15

Rural

92

8

Urban

93

7

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Source: Authors calculation based on HIES data 2006 and 2010

The 2006 and 2010 figures suggest that a majority of youth in Sri Lanka are living in secure households. However, in comparison, the estate sector is lagging behind in the provision of secure housing for youth. The estate sector is comprised of specific characteristics such as households being poorer and relatively of lower levels of education, when compared to the other sectors. Most of the houses in the estate sector were built by the owners of the estates, and were inherited by the estate workers over several generations. Therefore apart from the youth who move away from the estates to urban areas or overseas, others often have to be content with their poor housing conditions.

This group needs continued government/nongovernment assistance to build secure houses.

“The Ministry of Construction, Engineering Services, Housing, and Common Amenities, has done a tremendous job in providing secure housing for a majority of the families in urban areas, who used to live in slums and shanties. A lot of work is being done to provide secure housing for the estate population also. The housing projects in the urban sector are quite challenging because of the high population and infrastructure density. Sometimes, especially in urban areas, people tend to live in slums and shanty houses due to land encroachment, and sometimes for convenience since they have easy access to other facilities. These people need to be educated, especially the youth, on the

90

importance of safe housing otherwise the future generations will also be living in these vulnerable environments” – Officer at the Urban Development Authority “Living conditions are very bad in the estate sector. Our houses were built generations ago. Most of us have no money to renovate the houses.

There are government assistances as well as other organizations that try to help us in building our houses, but the process is not transparent. The assistance for housing is managed by the “Thalevar” and they stand above all of us. Most of the time the assistance is given to youth who are friends with Thalevar. Privacy is also very limited in our houses. There are always disturbances”-a member of the Estate Sector Youth FGD 6.2.2 Youth in Secured Sanitation The Water Seal and Pour Flush types of latrines are considered safe sanitation. The Pit type and any other, is considered to be unsafe. Youth occupy both these types of sanitation facilities. Figure 6.2 below depicts how the availability of sanitation facilities among youth differs on national, urban, rural, and estate sector levels. Youth in the rural and estate sector recorded a 1 per cent improvement in access to secure sanitation from year 2006 to 2010. In the urban sector, percentage of youth that have access to secure sanitation facilities have

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

improved from 91 per cent in 2006, to 97 per cent in 2010. The national level does not show any significant changes between 2006 and 2010. All the provinces recorded coverage of more than 90 per

cent based on the 2006 data, with Sabaragamuwa Province having the lowest numbers. These values have improved as suggested by 2010 data.

Figure 6.2 Youth in Secured Sanitation

2010

2006

Secure Sanitation

Unsecure Sanitation

National

93

7

Estate

96

4

Rural

93

7

Urban

91

9

National

93

7

Estate

97

15

Rural

94

6

Urban

97

3

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Source: Authors calculation based on HIES data 2006 and 2010

Access to safe sanitation facilities is a major determinant of the health status of a young person.

These facilities have to be provided at schools, as well as homes. Results suggest that households have been able to provide secure sanitation facilities for a majority of youth. Since 2006, the percentage figures for safe sanitation facilities are above 90 per cent for all sectors, including at a national level.

“Young children at schools are given a better awareness of the importance of the safe sanitary facilities. Most of the time these awareness programmes are conducted with the collaboration of the Ministry of Healthand Medical Officer of Health (MOH) and the Divisional Secretariat (DS) officials. These programmes were also helpful in disseminating the message to the households. But these interventions are only prominent in the urban sectors and rural sectors. Estate sector is mostly left out with capacity issues in the MoH office and the DS office” – member of the Educational FGD “Over time, sanitation conditions have improved in the estate sector. But still these improvements

are not enough at all. We have shared sanitation facilities and the privacy is very limited. This is a major problem for young girls”-a member of the Estate Sector Youth FGD 6.2.3 Youth Access to Safe Drinking Water Access to safe drinking water represents by the water source that is used by youth. Safe drinking water sources consist of; wells inside the premises, wells outside the premises, taps inside the premises, taps outside the premises, and tube wells.

Open water sources such as, streams and rivers are considered to be unsafe drinking water sources.

As explained in the Figure 6.3 below, on a national level, youth access to safe drinking water has improved from 83 per cent in year 2006, to 94 per cent in 2010. Urban, rural and estate sectors also shows improvements in providing access to safe drinking water in the same time period. The urban and estate sectors show an improvement of 5 per cent each, while the rural sector shows an improvement of 11 per cent from 2006 and 2010.

The Uva Province only recorded 70 per cent coverage of access to safe drinking water for youth in 2006, however this figure improved to 91 per cent by year 2010.

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91

Figure 6.3 Youth Access to Safe Drinking Water

2010

2006

Protected

Unprotected

National

83

17

Estate

68

32

Rural

84

16

Urban

87

13

National

94

6

Estate

73

27

Rural

95

5

Urban

92

8

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Source: Authors calculation based on HIES data 2006 and 2010

Providing safe drinking water to youth has been a priority for the authorities in Sri Lanka. The youth in the estate sector have had the lowest levels of access to safe drinking water. However, steps have been taken by the Water Supply and Drainage Board over the years to rectify these limitations. Urban sector households have also received many interventions aimed at improving access to safe drinking water. However, interventions in the urban areas take a longer time to complete as a result of the high density of population and infrastructure. With the support of major government interventions such as “Gama Neguma,” rural sector households have also seen an increase in their access to safe drinking water.

“We have to appreciate the work done by the authorities such as Water Supply and Drainage Board in providing water facilities to estate, rural, and urban sectors of the country. This is very clear when you travel to villages and estates. However, people have to remember that water is a limited resource. It is important that more awareness is generated among youth on preserving water and using it efficiently, so that the future generation can also enjoy the water” – member of the Educational Youth FGD While there are many sources of drinking water in the estates sector, a majority of them are not safe. Therefore, the provision of safe drinking water is a priority for the estate sector. However,

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interventions are slow as the costs of establishing pipelines are costly in the terrain topography. The Public Health Inspectors (PHI) are doing their best to visit the estate sector houses, and check on the water and sanitation facilities but are unable to do that regularly due to limited capacity.

“There are water sources available in the estate sector, but we don’t have money to establish the pipelines. Management has been kind enough to establish pipe bourne water for some estates. Diseases easily spread with the polluted water and families really need assistance to get proper water facilities. Awareness on the safe drinking water is also at a lower level among the estate sector youth. PHI does visit us time to time and give advises, but they have a large area to cover. So it is not fair to expect them to visit us all the time” a member of the estate sector youth FGD 6.2.4 Potential for Greener and Decent Jobs Green jobs are a means of achieving a sustainable economy while preserving the environment for present and future generations. Green jobs are fundamentally more equitable and inclusive. The need for green growth and cleaner development is seen as a win-win situation where environment and economic development is concerned. Green jobs reduce the environmental impact of enterprise and economic sectors, to levels that are sustainable. Specifically but not exclusively, this includes jobs that help to protect ecosystems and

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

biodiversity; reduce energy, materials, and water consumption, through high efficiency strategies; de-carbonize the economy; and minimize or altogether avoid the generation of all forms of waste and pollution.113 Furthermore, green jobs stand on two pillars: decent work and environmental sustainability. Therefore green jobs are decent employment opportunities that contribute to environmental sustainability. However, decent work needs to address the core of international labour standards, such as freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining; elimination of all forms of forced or compulsory labour; effective abolition of child labour; elimination of discrimination in employment; occupational health and safety, while aligning to the laws applicable to Sri Lanka’s environmental sustainability objectives.114 Research done by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and International Labour Organization (ILO) suggests that the demand for green jobs will increase in the future as more emerging economies are working towards climate change mitigation and adaptation; sustainable energy production; pollution prevention and control; and conservation of eco-systems and biodiversity.115 In a Sri Lankan context this list can be expanded to include renewable energy; energy efficiency; green buildings and construction; conservation of natural resources including water, fisheries etc.; forestry, afforestation/reforestation, and environmentally friendly agriculture (pesticides free, water efficient, etc); clean transportation and fuels; mass transit; pollution prevention; and control in manufacturing, including cleaner production, good house-keeping, and clean-up operations. In order to see a positive growth in green jobs, organizations must foresee the benefits of green jobs, and they should explore the possibility of moving towards becoming greener businesses by catering to green needs and opportunities.116 “Youth today are very keen on environment protection. However, concepts like green jobs are

fairly new, and most of the time urban youth are more familiar with them as compared to rural youth. But if you look closely, most of the natural resources that are at risk are based in rural areas of the country. Most of these natural resources are being used without proper conservation plans.

Therefore it is important that information regarding concepts such as green jobs reach the rural youth also, so they will be better able to protect the natural resources and environment through sustainable mechanisms of resource use” – member of the youth parliament group FGD. 6.2.5 Environment Stewardship Programmes for Youth Environment Stewardship Programmes for youth are mainly implemented under the guidance of the Central Environment Authority (CEA) and the MOE. These programmes are aimed at youth in schools, as well as youth that are connected to youth societies all over the country.

The CEA has introduced several special environmental programmes to school children which require the active participation of children who are over 15 years of age, to lead the others. The Environment Pioneer Brigade Programme is one such programme implemented at a school level.

This programme helps school children to appreciate the value of the environment, improve their knowledge of the environment, and bring about a change in their attitudes towards it and its uses.

This programme is being implemented in a number of schools across the country, and requires students to carry out active environmental conservation practices under the guidance of teachers and the leadership of their peers. In order to make sure that these initiatives are well implemented, the CEA has compiled an Environment Pioneer Teachers Guide Book. This book is used by teachers to ensure that students are conducting satisfactory environment conservation work at schools. An Environment Pioneer who takes part in the programme has the chance to obtain 5 medals: Environment Pioneer logo, green medal, silver medal, gold medal, and the President’s medal. At school

Ministry of Environment, 2011, National Green Reporting System of Sri Lanka, Reporting Guidelines, Ministry of Environment, Sri Lanka

113

International Labour Organization, 2007, International Labour Conference on conclusions concerning the promotion of sustainable enterprises, ISBN 978-92-2-120131-1 (print), ISBN 978-92-2-120132-8 (web pdf), International Labour Office, Geneva

114

United Nations Environment Programme, 2008, Green Jobs: Towards decent work in a sustainable, low carbon world, ISBN: 978-92-807-2940-5. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Nairobi.

115

Jayaweera M, Manatunge, J and Witharana A, 2012,”Are Green Jobs Sustainable for Sri Lanka?”, Journal of Tropical Forestry and Environment, Vol 2, No 2, pp 1-12.

116

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level, teachers are responsible for awarding students the necessary medals as they progress with their conservation work. The nominations for the medal are closely followed by CEA officers in order to maintain the standard of the medal, and to make sure that true Environment Stewards are being rewarded. When a group of Environment Pioneers leave school at grade 13 after A/L, the brigade recruits 25 students from year 7, ensuring the continuation of the programme. Students who have left school also have the chance of completing the process of obtaining all the medals, up to the president’s medal. This is done under the guidance and the directions of the teacher in charge of the relevant brigade. Students who have obtained the President’s medal will be given special considerations in the selection process for university entrance.

The CEA encourages students to actively participate in environment conservation activities even after they leave school. This is very important, since the knowledge and the experience that Environment Pioneers receive through the school system needs to be conserved for activities outside of it as well. Therefore the CEA encourages students who have left the school to form their own environmental organizations or join with an existing one in the area, and engage in environment conservation activities. CEA officers are eager to help students who have already left school to engage in any environmental conservation activities.

“There are lots of students who are interested in carrying forward what they have been doing in schools. Some have established links with existing environment organizations and some have formed their own groups. We always help them to develop sustainable project proposals which they can then use to attract funds. All such projects are closely monitored by the environment officers in the regional offices of CEA” – Senior Environment Officer at CEA In order to target Sri Lankan youth outside the school system, the CEA initiated the “Soba TharunaSamaja” programme in 1990’s. This programme was a voluntary programme where youth from youth societies in many parts of Sri Lanka had the opportunity to participate in environmental conservation activities. Youth from different youth societies at the GramaNiladhari (GN) level were nominated to take part in this activity. However, the programme proved to be a failure in the long run because majority of the youth that were nominated were not interested in environment but were there for the sake of nominations, etc. In order to have a more sustainable youth led initia-

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tive, the CEA started the “Sri Lanka Green Youth Clubs Programme” in 2011. This programme brought together 100 young environmentalists, representing youth societies at Divisional Secretariat (DS) levels. They were selected by a careful interview process conducted by the CEA and the National Youth Council of Sri Lanka. Compared to the previous programme, this new initiative was able to select the best and most motivated youth for environment conservation activities. The programme operates with the vision statement “Green World from the Power of Youth.” It has several objectives: provide access to youth to actively take part in environmental conservation activities, enable youth to have a voice against the activities that harm the environment, empower youth to efficiently and successfully deal with environment conservation issues in their areas and develop new concepts and innovations through youth participation that will ensure sustainability.

“The Sri Lanka Green Youth Clubs Programme is the first to bring together youth who are really interested in conserving the environment. These youth have well developed ideas on how to preserve the environment and they all have experiences through youth societies and Environment Pioneer Programmes in schools. They are empowered and represent the youth voices in their areas on environment protection” – FGD with youth parliament group 6.3 Challenges, Conclusionand Way Forward One important thing that needs to be understood is that environment conservation is a voluntary activity. There needs to be a genuine interest and this interest needs to be cultivated in youth from a kindergarten level. From this point on this interest needs to develop regardless of differences, such as whether he/she attends a state or private school. Therefore, it is essential that environment protection and conservation principles and practices be built in to the school curriculum from the earliest possible stage.

Programmes such as the Green Youth Clubs only bring a handful of youth together in preserving the environment. While these efforts are essential, it is not adequate. Such programmes need to motivate more youth to take action. At the moment there are representatives for all 26 districts of Sri Lanka. The number representative per district ranges from a minimum of 2 to a maximum of 10. However, if these programmes are to be sustainable in the long run, the number of representatives per district needs to be increased. The stability of the physical environment is directly linked to disaster resilience. Safe housing, safe

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

sanitary facilities, and safe drinking water, will reduce the vulnerabilities of youth being victims of disasters. While youth understand the importance of preserving the environment, the understanding of the linkages between the importance of safe housing and vulnerability to disaster is little understood. Increasing awareness on this is important if we are to move the remaining youth out from shanties and slums in the metropolitan areas of Sri Lanka. For example, slums and shanties in Colombo are the most vulnerable to flooding and the spread of diseases. However due to the fear of losing their land, and mistrust of the government’s efforts to provide safe housing, the number of people opting to move out are limited.

Therefore proper awareness, especially among youth, on the hazards of unsafe housing has to be increased.

“We all love to live in a nice environment, clean, and less vulnerable to disasters. However sometimes we do not have the money to build safe houses, safe sanitary facilities, and get access to safe drinking water. Our parents need to think about how we eat, what we wear, and how their children are going to school, so sometimes our priorities make us live in the way we do. However, we hope that the government will help us to get

the proper facilities” – a member of the Estate Sector Youth FGD Green jobs have been a relatively new concept for most of the youth in Sri Lanka. In order to create a demand for green jobs, young entrepreneurs must be given proper awareness on green jobs, and be presented with the opportunities and necessary facilities to start green enterprises. Sometimes these green enterprises have new technologies, and need larger start-up investment compared to other enterprises.

“There are many green business ventures that youth can take part in. Many are interested in businesses related to generating renewable energy, environmental friendly products, organic farming, and waste management. However all these enterprises demand high startup capital and technical know-how. Most youth have neither. Therefore the risk of getting in to these businesses alone is very high. If they were given a helping hand either from the government or private sector, they will come out and explore these opportunities - a member of the Youth Entrepreneurs FGD

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Infrastructure and ICT for Youth Author

Chatura Rodrigo

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Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

7: Infrastructure and ICT for Youth 7.1 Introduction We no longer live in an isolated world. With the development of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) the world is now interconnected. Youth are one of the major stakeholders of this development. Their engagement with these global development partnerships and their attainments of literacy in ICT and global languages, will determine their future and ultimately, that of Sri Lanka. Enabling youth to enjoy electricity, telecommunication facilities, and ICT, will open the door for them to link with the rest of the world, debate their ideas on development, and then make informed contributions to the policy dialogue of the country. While enabling youth to use IT and telecommunication facilities, it is essential to develop their skills in using them effectively and efficiently. English is considered a second language in Sri Lanka, and is essential for the development of global partnerships. Therefore, the government has to make sure that English literacy among youth is improving, and is at the desired target levels. At the same time, ensuring the financial stability of youth is important.

Youth entrepreneurships are seen as a successful mechanism to secure the financial stability of youth. However, these youth enterprises needs to proactively use IT and telecommunication facilities backed up by English and computer literacy so that youth can take their enterprises to the next level. Development in English and computer literacy, as well as use of IT and telecommunications will allow youth entrepreneurs to connect globally with their enterprises and attract a global demand for their products and services. Youth entrepreneurs that export organic products under the fair trade certification and enterprises that offer leisure and travel packages to local and foreigners are two such examples.

7.2 Youth Related Indicators Youth indicators related to the Millennium Development Goal of “Global partnership for development” is measured both qualitatively and quantitatively. The quantitative indicators are; the access of youth to electricity, land line telephones, mobile phones, personal computers, and bank loans.

The qualitative indicators are; the youth attainments of ICT literacy, and English literacy. Further this section will touch up on the commonwealth youth programme, world youth conference 2014

and international youth exchange programmes.

7.2.1 Electricity Provisions for Youth Provision of electricity is essential for the development of a country, regardless of whether you are a youth or not. However, the youth represent a proportion of the population that is essential for development. Hence, the provision of electricity is important for their studies, employment activities, and for their social activities, such as networking and communications. On a national basis, 94 per cent of youth had access to electricity as of 2010, compared to 89 per cent in 2006. Continuing the positive trend, 94 per cent of rural youth had access to electricity by 2010, as opposed to 88 per cent in 2006. The percentages of access to electricity for the urban sector stands at 94 per cent and estate sector stands at 90 per cent and has not changed from 2006 to 2010. Based on 2006 data, the Western Province recorded the highest coverage of electricity among youth, at 98 per cent and the North-Central and North-Western Provinces recorded the lowest, at 88 per cent. By the year 2010, both North-Central and the North-Western Provinces recorded coverage of well above 90 per cent (Figure 7.1).

“Youth from age 15-29 are people with great potential. Access to basic facilities such as electricity, water, and sanitation, is essential for their development. Today a majority of youth have access to electricity and is using that for education, and even for entrepreneurial activities. Surprisingly there are youth who have invented smart ways to consume electricity. There are entrepreneurial activities started by university students who manufacture CFL bulbs to save electricity” – official from Young Entrepreneurs of Sri Lanka.

“Today we hardly hear stories of youth who are studying using oil lamps. Even in the estate sector, a majority have electricity. Government is doing its best to provide electricity to all citizens and provision is almost close to 100 per cent now, and will be achieved within couple of years. As youth, we also have a responsibility to consume electricity in an efficient and effective manner. Energy is an issue for Sri Lanka, as it is for many developing countries. Therefore youth programmes must be implemented to disseminate the message to use

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electricity wisely. At the same time, as a country, youth can take part in renewable energy production. There are many village level hydropower initiatives that could use youth participation and leaderships” – a member of the Youth Parliament

FGD

Figure 7.1 Electricity Provision for Youth

2010

2006

Yes

No

National

89

11

Estate

90

10

Rural

88

12

Urban

94

6

National

94

6

Estate

90

10

Rural

94

6

Urban

94

6

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Source: Authors calculation based on HIES data 2006 and 2010

7.2.2 Landline Telephone Provisions for Youth Several years back the demand mainly for landlines. While, over the years the demand has shifted to mobile phones, the number of outstanding connections, yet to be established by the telecommunication companies indicates that a majority of households would still prefer to have a landline. At a national level, by the year 2010, 38 per cent of youth had landlines as opposed to 26 per cent in 2006. This trend extends to the urban, rural, and estate sectors also. Approximately 43 per cent of youth in the urban sector, 35 per cent of youth in the rural sector, and 50 per cent of youth in estate sector had access to landlines by 2010.

Based on 2006 data the Sabaragamuwa province recorded the least coverage, with only 25 per cent in 2006, and this value has risen to 45 per cent by 2010 (Figure 7.2).

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“If you look at the number of subscribers, the demand for mobile phones is higher than for landlines, and this demand is mainly created by the youth population. This is due to several reasons, but mainly because a mobile can be easily purchased and is easy to use and is cheap. Establishing landlines takes time. However, landlines are most of the time a signal of the stability of your residence, because generally landlines are issued for permanent structures. Therefore the increase in the landline coverage is an indirect measure of housing conditions” – official at the Sri Lanka Telecom

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

Figure 7.2 Landline Telephone Provision for Youth

2010

2006

Have National

26

74

Estate

25

75

Rural

26

74

Urban

29

71

National

38

62

Estate

50

50

Rural

35

65

Urban

43

57

0%

20%

40%

60%

Have Not

80%

100%

Source: Authors calculation based on HIES data 2006 and 2010

7.2.3 Mobile Phone Provisions for Youth Close to 70 per cent of the population has a mobile phone, and ownership is much higher in the youth age group. Mobile penetration, which measures the level of active mobile numbers among a given population, stands at over 80 per cent in Sri Lanka, corresponding to more than 16 million mobile connections, among a population of nearly 20 million. Approximately 46 per cent of users access the internet through their mobile phones, and the majority of those belong to the youth age category.117 As explained by the Figure 7.3 below, in 2006, 27

per cent of youth had mobile phones, and this figure has risen to 61 per cent by 2010. Sector wise, also, the same trend continues. A significant improvement in mobile phone usage among youth across the country can be observed. In all the sectors the mobile phone usage increased by nearly 50 per cent from year 2006 to 2010. Mobile phone possession among the youth improved in the urban sector to 65 per cent, to 61 per cent in the rural sector, and to 63 per cent in the estate sector by 2010. As suggested by the 2006 data, the Eastern Province recorded the lowest percentage for youth mobile phone possession, at 44 per cent.

This value rose to 54 per cent by the year 2010.

Lanka Business Report, 2011,â&#x20AC;?Sri Lanka Mobile Internet Usage Poised for Growth: Neilsonâ&#x20AC;?, http://www.lbr.lk, visited online 20th May 2013.

117

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Figure 7.3 Mobile Phone Possession by Youth

2010

2006

Have National

27

73

Estate

19

81

Rural

26

74

Urban

33

67

National

61

39

Estate

63

37

Rural

61

39

Urban

65

35

0%

20%

40%

60%

Have Not

80%

100%

Source: Authors calculation based on HIES data 2006 and 2010

“For some people their mobile phone is like their life. They will not be able to do anything without it. Almost all the youth in universities have mobile phones; even though it is not allowed inside the schools, youth at schools also have mobile phones.

People who have extra money will be able to buy smart phones, those are like small computers. Several years back, mobile phones were not affordable to the majority, but they are very cheap now, and you can easily get a connection. With many companies there are very good competitive rates to choose from” – a member of the Educational FGD Technology development and competitive prices have enable youth to use mobile phones more extensively. The technology has developed to such an extent that youth will be able to do many of the things that they do with a computer, using their mobile phones. Mobile phone technology has helped disabled youth also to a certain extent.

With new technologies, youth with visual impairments are able to use mobile phones effectively to talk, and also to send text messages. Video conferencing and instant messaging (IM/chat) facilities have enabled youth with hearing impediments to communicate with each other effectively.

“Mobile phones are the lifelines of both blind and deaf youth. This communication device holds us

together and our parents can always make sure that we are safe. We can easily contact our friends when we need help, and that is the confidence we need to go out the world and be like normal youth and be productive” – a member of the Disable FGD 7.2.4 ICT Literacy and Computer Provision for Youth ICT is a powerful tool in attaining educational development. ICT has become an essential part of a youth’s life, and it has facilitated their education, social activities, and networking to a great extent.

The government is increasingly making provisions to improve the ICT literacy of students and youth through programmes such as One Laptop per Student Project (OLSP) and “Nenasa” TV programme.

Through the OLSP programme, close to 1500 students in 17 schools have already benefited, and the programme has received additional budgetary allocations for the year 2013. At the moment computer literacy among Sri Lankans stands at close to 38 per cent, and a majority of this is number is represented by youth. There are nearly two million internet users in Sri Lanka, representing 14 per cent of the population. Of this, 1.2 million users access the internet weekly or more often, with the majority being in the 15 to 25 year age group, where internet usage is as high as 26 percent.118

Lanka newspapers.com, 2012,”Sri Lanka’s literacy rate”, http://www.lankanewspapers.com, visited online 20th May 2013.

118

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Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

The objective of the government is to increase ICT literacy among youth to reach 75 per cent by 2016. There are many provisions made to achieve that objective. The government has already trained more than 22,000 teachers in the Western, Uva, Central, Sabaragamuwa, Northern, Eastern, Southern and North Western provinces.119 The computer literacy rate is higher in urban areas (close to 32 per cent) and lowest in the estate sector (close to 8 per cent). However these results cover a wider age range, from 5-69, and is not available exclusively for youth between 15-29 years of age.120 “Sri Lanka is ranked 66th in ICT literacy in the world. This achievement is mainly due to the high ICT literacy among youth of the country. Today, internet is an essential part of a youth’s life. They are well connected with the social media such as facebook, twitter, MSN, Skype etc… there are many programmes at school levels and university levels that encourage youth to use the ICT facilities to build networks, share information and update their knowledge on any subject they desire.

Therefore youth involvement with ICT, and the way they have been using it for their betterment is impressive. However we have to acknowledge that fact that there are differences among urban, rural, and estate sector youth. Majority of youth who are ICT literate are urban. But interestingly, youth who migrate from rural and estate sector to urban areas waste no time in becoming ICT literate, which is a positive trend” – Official at the Information and Communication Technology Agency (ICTA) Figure 7.4 below, shows the possession of a personal computer (desktop) as a percentage of the youth population. At a national level, considering the year 2006, 5 per cent of youth possessed a personal computer and this figure has improved to 10 per cent by 2010. When comparing different sectors, it is clear that there is an improvement. By 2010, 16 per cent of youth in the estate sector, 9 per cent in the rural sector, and 11 per cent in the urban sector, had a personal computer to themselves. One reason for the higher figures in the estate sector is that the total youth population there is relatively, low compared to other sectors.

“The first thing most youth in the estate sector buy as soon as they have money is a mobile phone. Then they will buy a personal computer.

This is not necessarily a desk top. Most buy either a laptop or a tablet. You will be surprised to know that majority of them are having e-mail and Facebook accounts. I can’t assure that they use these for productive purposes, but they know how to use them. Therefore what must be encouraged is to use them for productive purposes, maybe link with friends that can help you with a job opportunity. Maybe they can use these facilities to find vegetable market prices or find contacts to government institutions. Mobil phones have allowed them to use the internet very easily. But we have to make sure these technologies are used in a sensible manner - a member of Estate Sector Youth FGD It is quite interesting to note that the possessions of personal computers in all the sectors have increased. This also shows that the number of youth who use computers have also increased over time, since most youth are computer literate despite not owning one for themselves. Based on 2006 and 2010 data, all provinces also showed an increase in the possession of personnel computers for youth. For instance, the Eastern Province recorded only 4 per cent in 2006, and the number increased up to 7 per cent by year 2010.

“It is hard to find a youth who does not use a computer, especially in the urban areas. You don’t necessary have to own a computer to use it. Many youth have computers provided by the employer.

There are facilities available in schools, universities, and there are plenty of internet cafes all around the country. If you take universities, all the students have e-mail accounts, majority of them are on Facebook and Skype. Most undergraduate students find scholarships for graduate studies through the internet by themselves. There are students at schools who develop computer games and mobile phone applications using their home computers” – a member of the Educational FGD

Daily news, 2011, “Lanka’s computer literacy rate best in South Asia”, http://www.dailynews.lk, visited online 20th May 2013.

119

ICTA, 2009, “DCS completed 3rd National Computer Literacy Survey”, http://www.icta.lk, visited online 22nd May 2013.

120

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Figure 7.4 Possessionof Desktop Computers by Youth

2010

2006

Have National

5

95

Estate

3

97

Rural

5

95

Urban

7

93

National

10

90

Estate

16

84

Rural

9

91

Urban

11

89

0%

20%

40%

60%

Have Not

80%

100%

Source: Authors calculation based on HIES data 2006 and 2010

7.2.5 Status of Bank Loans It is essential that youth are engaged in financial activities with banks. Having an active bank account is one of the indicators used to measure the financial wellbeing of youth. However it is always advisable to maintain liabilities at a minimum level. Youth on a national level, as well as in the estate and rural sectoral levels, have recorded reduced liabilities coming from the year 2006 to 2010. On a national level, the percentage of youth who had taken bank loans reduced from 26 per cent to 25 per cent. In the estate sector this number reduced from 26 per cent to 23 per cent, in the rural sector this was reduced from 28 per cent to 23 per cent. However these figures increased from 23 per cent to 25 per cent in the urban sector (Figure 7.5). In the year 2006, only 12 per cent of youth in the Eastern Province had a bank loan, which is the lowest number recorded from all provinces.

This value changed only 1 per cent by year 2010.

All the other provinces showed increasing as well as decreasing changes, however the changes were not significant, as is the case of Eastern Province.

“The ability to obtain loan facilities is one of the major requirements for youth entrepreneurship.

Majority of youth do not have enough financial capital start businesses, and they have to rely on bank loans. However since this is a challenge for most business, youth have started joint ventures as opposed to single entrepreneurships. These activities have helped to share the business risk as well as attract more financial capital from part-

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ners, eliminating the heavy need of depending on bank loans. This is a very positive trend that could boost entrepreneurships in the country, especially among youth” – a member of the Youth Entrepreneurship FGD The reduction in the numbers of youth who sought bank loans in the estate sector is not necessarily due to lack of trying. Estate sector youth face far greater difficulty in obtaining loans from banks compared to those from other sectors. This is mainly due to a lack of collateral. Youth who live in the estate sector do not have land ownership, therefore banks tend to turn their loan requests down quite often.

“It is almost impossible for us to get loans from the private banks. SANASA development bank gives us some credit facilities. The most commons way of obtaining loans are the informal channels and their interest rates are very high. We have very little access to commercial bank. Most of the time the “seettu” systems help us to get credit.

We do not own these lands. We can’t rent or divide them either. You are allowed to live here as long as you work in this estate. But there are families who live in these lands who do not work in the estates. They have been living here for generations so the management of the estate do not ask them to leave, and that is a blessing for us”- a member of the Estate Sector Youth FGD

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

Figure 7.5 Youth with Bank Loans

2010

2006

Obtained bank loans

Not obtained

National

26

74

Estate

26

74

Rural

28

72

Urban

23

77

National

23

77

Estate

27

73

Rural

23

77

Urban

25

75

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Source: Authors calculation based on HIES data 2006 and 2010

7.2.6 English Literacy among Youth English was taught only as a subject in the state owned schools. Therefore students got minimum exposure to English as a language. However, in late 1990’s and early 2000’s, the education system introduced English as a compulsory subject at A/L. Students were required to pass the English language test at A/L in order to secure the university entrance. This step created more motivation among the young students to learn the English language.

“Most of the students, especially those who are studying in the rural and estate sectors, are afraid of leaning English. However, students started paying more attention, once English was made compulsory for university entrance. Students used to give up learning English after O/L, and focused on university entrance. They want to study English again only after the A/L. It is good that the system changed, so students will continue to learning English” – a member of the Education FGD With new education reforms, the Sri Lankan education system has introduced English medium instruction up to O/L and even A/L. However, with a lack of teacher capacity, this attempt has been successful only in major schools, particularly in the urban areas. This step has been taken with the objective of improving English literacy among children, and will help young children who leave school at O/L and A/L stage, either for higher

studies or employment. Almost all the universities conduct their degree programmes in English medium. Therefore, generally at the start of any degree programme, there is an introductory course in English to prepare students for lectures. With options for studying A/L in English medium, students will be better prepared once they enter the university, and at the same time it will benefit all the students who move out to other educational institutions and employment.

“Except for several arts degrees, all science, maths, and commerce degrees, are being taught in English at the university. If students have done their A/L in English medium, it is very easy for them to follow the lectures and read books in the libraries. There are still introductory English programmes taught in the university, but for students who did A/L in Sinhala medium, sometimes it is not adequate. Therefore doing A/L in English medium should be accessible to all, not only for those who are at major schools” – a member of the Education FGD It is interesting to see that the youth have realized the importance of learning English. It is an essential element of higher education, as well as employment. In addition to the education system, there are private ventures that teach students English, and allow them the opportunity to obtain international certifications. Learning English is important for information sharing and absorb-

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ing knowledge through the internet and books.

Close to 5 per cent of university entrances are earned by disable students every year. Therefore, universities are challenged to provide access to these students, while keeping up with others, especially if the medium of teaching is English. Most universities have adequate facilities to help the disable students. There are computers and software available that helps blind students learn in English. However all universities must be equipped with these facilities so that more disabled students can be helped to reach their potential.

or Tamil. English is taught as a second language.

Approximately 50 per cent of students who have completed their higher education are trained in the technical and the business disciplines. English is widely spoken in the country and is the main language used by the business community. As a result of extensive investment in education & welfare programmes by successive Governments, any foreign investor will find our work force highly skilled, energetic & intelligent, adaptable and trainable” – Official representing the BOI of Sri Lanka

“Several universities have computer labs with software that help blind students to learn. Students who come to the university have a basic understanding of English, and lecturers give us the orientation before they start the lectures. Once the lectures start we can go to the computer labs and read English books on the computer. Otherwise we have to use the braille system, which is not as convenient as using the computer” – a member of the Disable FGD

7.2.7 Programmes for Youth in Developing Global Partnerships

As suggested by the Department of Census and Statistics of Sri Lanka, nearly 17 per cent of the population can read and write English. It also suggests that the ability to read and write is higher than the ability to speak. However, English literacy differs among urban and rural sectors, with the urban sectors having higher levels particularly among youth. Nearly 33 per cent of urban youth can speak English and close to 35 per cent of urban youth can both, read and write English. They English literacy is very low among the estate sector youth. The do not have enough teachers in the schools and the importance of English education has not been conveyed to them fully. Therefore students learn Sinhala or Tamil and forget about English. However estate sector youth who migrate to urban sectors learn some English.

“English knowledge among estate sector youth is very low. They know how to operate a mobile phone but then can’t read or write proper English.

Youth who have access to computers and internet know English a little bit, but all these new technologies have translation facilities therefore English really does not matter for them to use ICT and communication. This also gives an idea of what they use these facilities for. The use of English, ICT and communication in the learning process is very minimum among the estate sector youth”- a member of the Estate Sector Youth FGD “Sri Lanka’s adult literacy rate is around 93 per cent, where the youth literacy is close to 97 per cent. The language of instruction is either Sinhala

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Commonwealth Youth Programme (CYP) was established by Commonwealth Heads of Government in 1973 and Sri Lanka has been an active member since. CYP works to engage and empower young people (ages 15-29) to enhance their contribution to development. It does this in partnership with young people, governments and other key stakeholders.CYP advocates the effective participation of young women and men in the development process and for social transformation. CYP works with young people as equal partners and it sees them as key stakeholders in society, whose voices must be heard and whose input must be taken on board. The CYP’s mission is grounded within a rights-based approach, guided by the realities facing young people in the Commonwealth, and anchored in the belief that young people are: a force for peace, democracy, equality and good governance, a catalyst for global consensus building; and an essential resource for sustainable development and poverty eradication. CYP is also the only inter-governmental youth development agency that has young people participating at every level of its management and operations. The Pan-Commonwealth Office is responsible for strategic leadership and direction of the entire coordinated CYP programme. The Regional Centres are responsible for developing and running programmes and activities within each region. Their presence in the field gives the CYP continuous contact with young people, youth ministries and relevant organizations. This allows CYP to identify new youth development issues at an early stage and provides a vast pool of experience and resources (at the grassroots, national and regional level), all of which makes CYP more effective. The Commonwealth Youth Programme (CYP), Asia Centre, was set up in 1975 as the Asia Pacific Centre and now continues its role as the CYP Asia Centre based in Chandigarh, India. It is one of four regional offices of the Youth Affairs Division, Commonwealth Secretariat. The Centre

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

endeavors to address youth issues and concerns through specific policy and programme initiatives.

The Centre works with eight member countries in Asia; Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, India, Malaysia, Maldives, Pakistan, Singapore and Sri Lanka; national and international agencies, other stakeholders and young people themselves, including their networks.

Amongst the different personal development programs to empower the Sri Lanka Youth in various aspects, the Youth exchange program is proven a success in exposing them to the world. Sharing of experience, live in different atmospheres, understanding the different cultural, social and behavioral patterns will support them to be more competent in their life. Arranging International Symposiums, workshops, seminars and other similar events also very much supportive for the youth empowerment and these would add much value to their life. The Sri Lanka National Youth Service Council (SLNYSC) started the Youth Exchange programme in 1975. It was stopped in 1987 due to political unrest and recommenced in 2000. Sri Lanka had many youth exchange programme since, and some are highlighted below.

With a view to increasing international understanding and heighten awareness, the National Cadet Corps (NCC) presently has Youth Exchange Programme with youth organizations / NCC of 6, SAARC countries namely Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Nepal, Bhutan and Pakistan. This exposure was expanded to officers and cadets of the NCC to visit all the SAARC Countries with effect from 2007 under the guidance of the Director. Under Youth Exchange Programme Sri Lankan cadets visit India to participate in the Republic Day Camp Celebrations held every year. With the vision of “Young people in Sri Lanka and the United Kingdom are empowered to be leaders across society and the Commonwealth” the first phase of the UK—Sri Lanka Commonwealth Youth Exchange programme took place from 22 -29 April 2013in Sri Lanka. where eight UK young leaders arrived to Sri Lanka visit of five days, they were able to travel to the Northern part of the country with fellow Sri Lankan Commonwealth Youth Exchange Programme delegation team. The entire youth exchange programme was organized by Dare-2 lead Youth Organization in UK with the guidance of Commonwealth Youth Exchange Council (CYEC) and the Sri Lanka Federation of Youth Clubs in Sri Lanka with the guidance of the National Youth Services Council (NYSC). In addition to these Sri Lanka had several youth programmes with Canada, India, Pakistan, Ruwanda and Bangladesh. The Canada-Sri Lanka youth exchange programme

ended in 2004, however discussions are under away for future exchange programmes.

Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development in collaboration with the Ministry of External Affairs have geared process to host a World Youth Conference in 2014 at the Bandaranayake Memorial International Conference Hall, Colombo.

This will be held from 07th - 09th May 2014 with a participation of thousand delegates approximately representing all the countries. This Conference will focus on the commitment of Sri Lanka on effective and meaningful youth participation in achieving Millennium Development Goals and Post 2015 sustainable Development Agenda. The Government of Sri Lanka is willing to take the responsibility of organizing the groundwork for the global process with global ownership which will enable young people to contribute to the decision making process for a post -2015 development agenda as well as discuss their partnership in its implementation. Sri Lanka as a Member State of the United Nations and in order to fulfill its commitment towards global cooperation and support for youth is willing to undertake the financial cost of facilitating and hosting a UN World Youth Conference in 2014.

7.3 Challenges, Conclusions and Way Forward One of the biggest challenges with respect to electricity is the increased prices and the inability to meet the demand. This is not specific to youth, but in general, to the whole country. However the youth cohort will be significantly affected since they are one of the major consumers of electricity.

Therefore even though the coverage will increase over time to reach 100 per cent throughout the country, the prices will limit the usage. The only way to balance the prices in the long run would be to depend on other energy sources, such as renewable energy. Youth can play a bigger part in achieving these goals. Youth can be examples in their households, work places, and in schools, by engaging in energy saving activities. Also there are many opportunities for youth to take part in the production of renewable energy at community levels, mainly with mini-hydropower projects.

There are villages in Sri Lanka that produce their own electricity using hydropower, and youth are taking the lead in these efforts.

“Energy saving is a heavily discussed matter in schools. Some schools have started pilot programmes to save energy at schools levels. These programmes are implemented under the guidance of teachers. One such programme is to switch off the light in the school for 15 minutes every day to reduce the electricity bill. This initiative is

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called Impact 15 and is now at the pilot stage in many schools in the Colombo metropolitan areas.

If this is a success, then it can be introduced to all schools” – a member of the Educational FGD. Computers, mobile phones, land phones, and ICT, will connect the youth with the global community enabling access and providing them with the ability to process information on a global scale without any limits. However the challenge is to use proper information, build the correct and acceptable networks, and use these accessibilities to the betterment of the society. While these technologies expose youth to valuable information, they are also exposed to certain dangers. With the expansion of ICT, youth are exposed to crimes, violence, and whole set of social misbehaviors. It is a thin line, but youth should be educated and made aware of what information should be used and what to leave out. This awareness process needs to start from schools at the earliest stage of exposure to ICT facilities. However, these things can’t be controlled or managed only by efforts at schools, parents also have a large role to play.

When young children are always using ICT, parents have to be vigilant. Choosing the right information is a personal decision, and this can’t be

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achieved through command and control. A youth who understands the social responsibilities will be able to do that, and also will be able to show others the right path. Youth Societies as groups of responsible youth can play a major role in this regard.

“Majority of youth who are coming out of the war in North and East use ICT for questionable activities. Most of the time the internet is being used to look at socially unacceptable information and these have transformed in to activities at most households. Most youth do not have proper guidance even from their friends on these, so they act as they will. These can only be reduced through proper awareness and it has to come from their peers. At the same time, some information sources have to be banned in the country, so that youth will not be able to access them” – a member of the Reconciliation Youth FGD. Ministry of Youth and Skills Development and the Sri Lanka National Youth Council, has engaged in many initiatives to help Sri Lankan youth be connected with the globe. These initiatives involves enabling Sri Lankan youth to form a Youth Parlia-

Youth and Development: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for Sri Lankan Youth

ment in Sri Lanka; enabling youth to take part in the Commonwealth Youth Secretariat; and enabling youth representatives to take part in the United Nations Assemblies. These initiatives have helped Sri Lankan youth to have a voice at global platforms, discuss youth development in Sri Lanka, and look for solutions for youth issues by looking at the best practices in other regions of the world.

However one challenge is to make sure that youth who represent these global platforms are disseminating the information they gather through these opportunities, with the rest of the country. Youth, who have had these opportunities should be ambassadors, and take the positive messages out to all the youth in the country, through Youth Societies, through schools, and through initiatives such as the Youth Parliament. These opportunities to build global partnerships are assets to Sri Lankan youth, and they should not merely be qualifications for those who represented the country at these global platforms.

“Youth Parliament gave us many opportunities to make our voices heard at global platforms.

We were able to connect with local political and policy making authorities, as well as global youth related organizations. We have discussed our thoughts and recommendations on youth issues within the Youth Parliament to a great extent.

Everything that was debated is printed in the Hansard Reports, but we failed to publish these as recommendations for the public to see. We are planning to address this issue in our second term with the Youth Parliament. What we debate and discuss, and our recommendations for youth issues will come out as a publication and that will be available for all the citizens of the country. This way what we think of as youth of Sri Lanka and what we have learnt from other global platforms, will be known to the rest of the youth in the country” – a member of the Youth Parliament FGD. Youth reconciliation is a prime concern of the government in all development aspects. Whether it is economic, social, or political development, youth in the North and East must have significant representation. War affected these youth in many ways. Their education was disturbed, health and sanitation deteriorated, and their livelihoods were abandoned. Most importantly, youth in North and East were separated from rest of Sri Lanka, and the world. They hardly had electricity and telecommunication facilities or internet, English and computer literacy was just a dream.

Things have changed since 2009, and these youth have had the opportunity, and access to enjoy the same facilities as the youth from south. They are now been given the chance to actively take part

in the development activities of the country. However, the images and memories still haunt many.

Even though they know that the war has ended, the daunting memories still keeps them awake at night. Therefore, the government is faced with a bigger challenge than ever. It is not an easy task to develop the mentality and comfort-levels of youth in the North and East, and then engage them in the development activities of the country.

Their inclusion in to the development process has to be gradual, and it should be ensured that they are treated well and given a fairer chance.

“Even to this date we fear that things might happen again that will push us back to war. Some youth are scared of seeing army officials even.

They are terrified of war and guns. However, they believe that the government is taking all the necessary steps to make them as comfortable as possible. It will take time for youth to forget what they had gone through during their entire childhood. But it is a rebuilding process, and the confidence in government efforts will rise gradually” – member of the Youth Reconciliation Group FGD How we enable estate sector youth in to the development process is a question that has been debated over and over again. Not only do they have limited facilities compared to urban and rural sectors, they are most of the time being looked down on. This attitude towards the estate sector youth have caused them to be backwards and they are not making contributions to solve their problems.

This is a challenge and measure are needed to build the gap between urban and estate sector youth. The National Youth Council of Sri Lanka is leading these measures through many programs that bring together all youth from the country “Urban sector youth most of the time look down on us. They think that we are not educated and can’t engage with them. This has trickled down to the society also. Sometimes even when we go to buy groceries we are been asked to wait until others finish. Sometimes this is clear at government institutions especially at the police. However, at the same time we have to appreciate the efforts that the National Youth Council makes in bridging the gap between estate and urban sector youth. We do not feel that discrimination when we are at youth camps”- a member of the estate sector youth FGD.

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