Kath Khuni: An Indigeneous Art

Kath Khuni: An Indigenous Art

Course: AC10- Culture and Performance in the History of Construction Student Name: Devinth Muthusamy Student id: s2239603

Contents Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ● Subject ● Aim of the study

History of Kath Khuni………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………. ● History of Kath Khuni and location ● Form, geometry, and architecture ● Construction Methods ○ Seasonal Transformation ● Challenges and Limitations

Model Experiment……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ● Previous seismic analysis and experiments ● Design and Construction ● Model - Experiments and Analysis of Models' Behavior Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

List of figures………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

References…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Appendix………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Common terms used in the essay ● Kadil - Wooden nails ● Maanvi- Dovetail joinery ● Cheol- Vertical wooden member between two horizontal wooden beams

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Introduction Kath Khuni is an indigenous building technology found in the Himachali (Himachal Pradesh) regions of India. These Building traditions have been practiced over hundreds of years and are built using locally available materials from the region ie. stone and timber. It's a reflection of materials and environmental conditions with cultural and social beliefs of the place. This can be understood in a dual sense; architecture is an assembly of locally available materials and binding of places and people through architectural techniques. 1

Subject Although these techniques have prevailed for thousands of years, modernization, lack of skilled laborers, and geniuses, replacement of stones with much cheaper cement bricks, and unavailability of materials lead to the diminished traditional Kath Kuni practices. Apart from the heritage value these building techniques hold it is also important to understand the aspect of sustainability and how the building stands for natural calamities like heavy rain, snowfall, and earthquakes.

Aim of the study This study aims to understand the historic construction techniques used to build these structures from single-story cottages to multistorey residences, heavily detailed temples, and high towers. This essay will also discuss the parameters by which the size of the buildings, length, and height of the buildings, and usage of materials in terms of quantity and quality are determined. The failures in the construction and the reaction of the model to seismic pressures through a lab experiment as well as the observations made at the different stages of the model assembly will be described in detail.

1

Dave, Bharat, Jay Thakkar, Mansi Shah, and O. Hāṇḍā. Prathaa: Kath-khuni Architecture of Himachal Pradesh.

SID Research Cell, School of Interiour Design, CEPT University, 2013.

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History of Kath Khuni History of Kath Khuni and location Kath Khuni is a type of cator and cribbage that employs local wood and stone.2 Kath Khuni is a term that combined two Sanskrit words. Kath from the word “Kasth” means wood and Khuni from the word “Kona” means corner which implies the walls should have only wooden corners. Kath Khuni is a dry masonry building technique with alternate layers of stones and wooden beams and gravel filling between the cavities of the wooden beams without any bonding mortars. Kath Khuni buildings flex to seismic activities making them resilient. These traditional techniques can be found on various scales from majestic temples to the smallest of houses depending on the wealth.

The village of Chehni Kothi in Tirthan Valley, Himachal Pradesh, is among the last few villages that still practice Kath Khuni architecture.3 But historically these types of architecture can be seen throughout Himachal Pradesh with a wide variety of local names. The century-old technique which remains robust irrespective of harsh climatic conditions and seismic tremors can be largely found in temple towers, forts, small houses, and darbargadh(palatial residences) in the mid and central Himalayas. 4

Architecture, Materials, Form, and Geometry The demonstration of remarkable insights into traditional construction and indigenous knowledge of materials and details follow specific structural and plan forms to make this architectural style unique and sustainable.

Architecture: A typical Kath Khuni building has five components. They are 1. Plinth/foundation: A stone plinth forms the foundation and base for the house. The size of the plinth will vary according to the topography of the site. It varies from 0.6 to 1 meter for houses and temple towers it goes up to 3 meters.

2

https://www.sahapedia.org/the-himalayan-vernacular-kath-khuni-architecture

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https://www.architecturaldigest.in/content/himachal-pradesh-traditional-kath-kuni-architecture/ Dave, Bharat, Jay Thakkar, and Mansi Shah. "Details of resistance: indigenous construction systems in Himachal Pradesh." Context 9, no. 1 (2012): 4.

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2. Walls: Stone and timber beams form the core portion of the building in alternate courses from single to multistorey structures.

3. Floors and stairs: Timber beams and planks are used for the floors and the building can be seen with stone stairs on the exterior and wooden stairs on the interior.

4. Wooden balconies. Cantilevered wooden balconies form the outer layer with detailed eaves, railings, etc., sometimes with projecting rooms.

5. Roof: A curvilinear or pent and gable roofing with stone slates supported by wooden beams and rafters on the interior is followed for all typologies of Kath Khuni.

Fig. 1: A section of Kath Khuni Architecture with all of its components.

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Materials: Kath Khuni is largely influenced by three major materials wood, hard stone, and soft stone.

Hard stone: It is used for foundations and walls and the leftover rubbles from the hard stones are used to fill the cavities between the timber beams. These stones are procured from local quarries.

Soft stone: Since the climatic conditions of these regions vary from hot summer to snowy winter to frequent monsoon rains, it is necessary to use roof slates with high quartz content so they can reflect sunlight during summer, be resistant to frost during winter, absorb heat, and act as a moisture barrier. Though metamorphic rocks are heavy, they can be cut into thin slates of rectangular and triangular units. The slates can be placed in two ways: 1. The slates are placed in rows with an overlap, which is the traditional way.

The dead weight won't allow the slates to move. 2. The slates can be nailed to the wooden frame that holds them.

Wood: Deodar or Cedrus deodara is the strongest conifer found in the western and central Himalayan regions that are used for construction. The softness of the timber allows local craftsmen to work easily, especially on the carvings and details on the doors and the timber used for temples throughout history. The durability of the timber is remarkable hence it can be used for structural purposes(posts and beams), door and window frames, shutters and panels, etc., but the oil content of the timber makes it unsuitable for painting or polishing 5.

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Dave, Bharat, Jay Thakkar, and Mansi Shah. "Details of resistance: indigenous construction systems in Himachal Pradesh." Context 9, no. 1 (2012): 4.

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Form and Geometry

Fig.2: Cuboid modules illustrated with examples

The story unit or module of Himachali vernacular architecture is cuboid. It varies from single cuboid variants to double and triple cuboid variants for houses and big mansions the same cuboid concept applies to towers but the number of storeys varies according to the height of the tower. The size of the house is determined by two factors: 1. Capacity of the family 2. Socioeconomic status of the household. The sizes and increased by stacking cuboids side by side and up to three levels by height.

It is also important to understand the void and solid spaces ie. the usable and unusable spaces and also the importance of the building to its context ie. the interior and the exterior of the building.6 An example of research conducted by Lorenzo Cocchi as part of a tu delft University academic paper gives a detailed analysis of how the void and solid spaces work discussed.

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https://repository.tudelft.nl/islandora/object/uuid:6eeaa0c7-8d00-4a8e-ae80-79f6abf050bc/datastream/OBJ/dow nload

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1. Single cuboid unit:

Fig.3: Solid and void in a single cuboid unit

Fig.4: Impact of context in a single cuboid unit

The walls are very thick in a single cuboid module to act as an insulating layer, the usable space can become very small. And also, the effect of building with the exterior can be understood with the scale and the area the whole building covers.

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2. Triple cuboid variant

Fig.5: Solid and void in a triple cuboid unit

The same approach applies to the triple cuboid variant as well. The figure above describes the Grand Kath Khuni building's total area on each floor and the amount of space that can be used by the residents. Most of the houses accommodate cattle on the ground level; in some houses, one or two can also be used as storage units. In triple cuboid units, the second level can also be used for storage, like granaries, compared to single or double units with core living space. These triple quadrants can be seen with

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cantilevered balconies on two levels. It also depicts how wealthy the family is. In grand houses, private and public spaces play an important role which determines its outwardness in the context of the site described in the image below.

second-floor

First floor

Ground floor

Fig.6: Space mapping in a triple cuboid unit

Construction Methods Most of the Kath Khuni buildings from temples to houses lie on a rectangular plane that follows the contour.7 As mentioned earlier the construction has five primary components.

The selection of the site involves some rituals from a local deity and pooja afterward before the start of the construction. The plans for the building determine the

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Dave, Bharat, Jay Thakkar, and Mansi Shah. "Details of resistance: indigenous construction systems in Himachal Pradesh." Context 9, no. 1 (2012): 4.

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shape and size of the building. An example of programs assigned to a typical triple cuboid variant is shown below.

Fig.7: Typical program assignment in a triple cuboid module

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1. Plinth/Foundation: Carpenters and the local masons will usually decide the orientation and layout of the building, which is marked before excavating the site for the foundation. As mentioned earlier, the depth of the foundation will depend on the size of the structure, which is from 0.6 meters to 1 meter, or up to 3 meters for taller structures. Random big stones are filled to the plinth level, and the courses above are filled with more uniform stones for aesthetic and stability purposes.

2. Walls Most traditional masons or carpenters in India work in feet and inches, and in most cases, they use local terms. In Kath Khuni, the length, width, and height are measured in haths, which are equal to one arm's length or approximately 1.5 feet. The typical houses vary from four to eight meters long and up to five meters wide, but in haths, they end in even numbers.8 For example, 12 x 8 haths, 16 x 8 haths, 16 x 12 haths, and so on, depending on the house pattern. And the height of each floor goes from 2.20 meters to 2.50 meters.

Fig.8: Example of Kath Khuni building showing the walls and balcony(left) Fig.9: Wall construction detail at Kath Khuni site (right )

As we know, this style of building is built with alternate courses of hard stones and wooden beams (deodar). Once the plinth layer is done, two thick wooden beams are laid on top of the stones parallelly, which also determines the space or cavity between the wooden beams as the size of the beam varies according to availability. The wall 8

Dave, Bharat, Jay Thakkar, Mansi Shah, and O. Hāṇḍā. Prathaa: Kath-khuni Architecture of Himachal Pradesh.

SID Research Cell, School of Interiour Design, CEPT University, 2013

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thickness goes from 50 cm to 60 cm for houses and for temples and towers, it goes further up. The possibility of beam displacement is higher in this type of construction as the whole structure is made of dry stone masonry. To keep the beams intact in place by double-dovetailing wooden members at regular intervals called MAANVI.

Fig.10: Double dovetail detail and corner joint detail

As the structure increases in length and width, these beams are further reinforced vertically (perpendicularly) by a member called Cheol. Traditional details involve no nails, but nowadays these are nailed to the wooden beams by a wooden nail called Kadil 12

in the middle of the walls on the exterior and also on the interior. The same wooden nailings are used to join the alternate wooden members stacked on top of one another.

Fig.11: Detail of the perpendicular member Cheol(Left) Fig.12: Detail of a spliced joint with a wedge (right)

Splice joints with a wedge; the joinery can also be seen on the structural walls to connect another beam on the same longitude. The solid load-bearing walls above the plinth can be seen with alternating courses of dry stones, with the cornerstones being the largest to strengthen the wall with staggered joints imparting diagonal and lateral strength. 9

Fig. 13: Isometric separation of dry stones and wooden parts

The interior is finished with a mix of mud and cow-dung plaster, or rarely lime, as can be seen. The exterior is left exposed, with an exceptional amount of buildings

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Dave, Bharat, Jay Thakkar, Mansi Shah, and O. Hāṇḍā. Prathaa: Kath-khuni Architecture of Himachal Pradesh.

SID Research Cell, School of Interiour Design, CEPT University, 2013

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with plaster on the exterior walls, but mainly on the upper levels. Due to harsh weather conditions, the houses are built with smaller doors and windows with wooden shutters.

3. Floors and stairs The ground floor is finished with adobe or stones as it is meant for cattle and storage. The levels above that have wooden floors supported by wooden beams. There are three types of stairs in Kath Khuni, mostly made of wood: a standard set of wooden stairs, a wooden ladder, and a step ladder.

Fig.14: Sketches of wooden flooring and stairs

4. Balconies

Fig.15: Detail for cantilevered beams for the balcony

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Balconies play an important role. It can be seen on different levels, with intricate details and joineries. They are built all around the structures, in C or L shapes, as per the requirements of the family. The beams to support the open or closed balconies are cantilevered entirely, as shown in the concerns. These extensions are fixed with vertical members, which connect to the roof members or the balcony extension of the above floor. Though traditional balconies do not have bracings to support the beams, recent-century constructions are seen with decorative bracings, which add aesthetic value and additional strength.

Fig.16: An illustrated dwelling with balcony details

5. Roofs The design of the roofs slightly varies from region to region. The style changes are related to the altitude at which the building is located, and the commonly noted roof compositions are pent and gable, pure gable, and pure pent.10 It is designed in such a way as to shed snow and rain from the roof. And the soft stones are strong enough to protect the roof from high winds, and the slates vary from regular cut shingles to random shingles arranged in a pattern.

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Dave, Bharat, Jay Thakkar, Mansi Shah, and O. Hāṇḍā. Prathaa: Kath-khuni Architecture of Himachal Pradesh.

SID Research Cell, School of Interiour Design, CEPT University, 2013

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Fig.17: Isometric projection of the roof composition

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The figure depicts the phases involved in erecting the roof, from vertical members to horizontal construction to shingle installation. To provide strength, shingles can be fastened to the wooden elements below.

Fig.18: Pent and gable with rectangular shingles

Fig.19: Pent and gable with random shingles

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Seasonal Transformations The Himalayan regions have major effects from the three seasons: summer, winter, and monsoon.

Fig.20: Schematic representation of climatic conditions in different seasons

The thickness of the wall and smaller openings help the interior of the building to remain warm, and the heat from the cattle also keeps the wooden floor warm during the winter and monsoon seasons. The thickness and the insulation capacity of the wooden members make the interior cooler, and the cross-ventilation makes this technique viable for construction.

Fig.21: cooling scheme during the summer

Fig.22: Sample living scenario during monsoon

Challenges and Limitations The impact of the modern construction has affected vernacular architecture practices globally, and the Kath Khuni technique is also one of them. People opting for concrete buildings or modern bricks not only affect traditional practice but also increase carbon emissions. The lack of adequate materials, craftsmanship, and understanding of these practices leads to the diminishment of this craft. Procuring wood has also become difficult because of laws.

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Model Experiment A Master's thesis by Marloes Lisa van der Zanden for TU Delft University on the assessment of seismic performance gave an insightful idea about how Kath Khuni buildings react to seismic tremors.

The analysis done on the walls using out-of-plane and in-plane ductility tests and building box actions using physical models in the laboratories gave outputs on failures and successful construction techniques.11 A special setup was designed to perform the quasi-static test on the model at the Indian Institute of Technology, Roorke. It was tested by applying a pre-compressed load on the model and the load was applied to a model of different heights. The setup was removed and arranged every time to increase the height of the walls.

Fig.23 & 24: Experimental setup at IIT Roorke 1 and 2

During the test, Marloes Lisa van der Zanden missed two Kadils at the third layer of the model, which led to the failure of the walls at the missing junction. The failure not only affected the corners but led to the split of the wooden beam near the maanvi. The diagram below depicts the missing Kadil connection and the failure that happened because of it. The same experiment was carried out with kadils, and successful results were observed. This experiment inspired the author to do similar tests with loads on different levels of model construction.

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https://www.tudelft.nl/onderwijs/voorlichting-en-ervaren/student-stories/graduation-project-on-the-kath-kuni-ar chitecture-in-india

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Fig.25: Illustration showing missing Kadil at the corner joint Fig.26: Structural failure due to missing kadil

Model design and construction The main idea behind this model is to show the traditional corner joint to understand the technique and how this vernacular practice lives beyond time through earthquakes and harsh weather conditions.

The material used for the making of this model is 1. Softwood - 47mm x 47mm 2. Flat stones of varied sizes.

3. Gravel 6mm 4. Mdf sheet to indicate the floor The scale used to make this model is 1: 10.

The whole model was set up on a strong base made of thick plywood. The construction of the model started with the plinth layer, after a detailed analysis and testing with different sizes of stones, large size stones which relate to the chosen scale were stacked on alternate courses to provide stability to the first layer of wooden members. After a couple of trials and errors, a stable plinth for the wood was done.

The image below shows the first layers of plinth stones.

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step 1 Fig.27 & 28:Stone layout on the plinth level: Image 1 and Image 2.

On the other hand, wooden members were cut to an appropriate scale and size to start the upper layers of the wall. Holes of 1 cm were made on the corners after a sample arrangement to insert the kadils (wooden nails). The pictures below show the initial arrangement of wooden members of the wall.

Note: Maanvi was not included at the initial stage of the model.

step 2 21

Fig.29: Sample arrangement of wooden beams

step 3 Fig.30: Wooden beams over the plinth- sample arrangement

step4 Fig.31: Addition of kadil to the alternate beams

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step 5 Fig.32: Final Arrangement of the first layer of the plinth and wooden beams

step 6 Fig.33 & 34: Addition of gravel to the cavity: Image 1 and Image 2

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step 7 Fig.35: Final layer off the balcony level Fig.36: Final layer off the balcony level with 10kg weight

Once the destined layers are arranged, a sample load test is done, as seen in the above image. Weights of 5kg to 20 kg were used to test the stability of the wall. After this layer, floor plates and balcony projection were done using an mdf board with cantilevered beams and vertical posts, and another layer of the wall was added above the balcony to stabilize the sheet.

step 8 Fig.37: Finished model with a balcony

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Fig.38: Finished model- sectional view Fig.39: Finished model- internal view

Fig.40: Finished model- view of the cantilevered beams and the corner details

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Fig.41: Final finished view

Model - Experiments and Analysis of Models' Behavior To understand the stability of this model, some intentional experiments like load testing and missing maanvi were done. As mentioned earlier, maanvi (double dovetailed joint) was not added in the initial stage. When the kadil was used to join the second layer of wooden members with the ones below, a vast deviation in the position of wooden members was observed, as shown in the illustration below. It was resolved after adding the maanvi to keep the members in place.

Load testing proved the stability of the model and helps understand what a missing member or double dovetail joineries can cause. It was also observed that the improper stacking of dry stones can also lead to structural failure.

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Fig.42: Deviation with and without double dovetail joint.

Conclusion: This study and model assist to comprehend how a culturally invasive vernacular practice may be structurally successful, blend with the environment, be finely detailed, and last for centuries. Kath Khuni gives an overview of the materials, structural levels, joinery details, composition richness, and corners that manifest integrity and uniqueness.

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List of Figures No

Description

Source

Cover Image

Section of timber cut from a tree

https://www.sahapedia.org/thehimalayan-vernacular-kath-khu ni-architecture and illustrated by the author

Fig.1

A section of Kath Khuni Architecture

Dave, Bharat, Jay Thakkar, Mansi Shah, and O. Hāṇḍā.

Prathaa: Kath-khuni Architecture of Himachal Pradesh. SID Research Cell, School of Interiour Design, CEPT University, 2013.

with all of its components.

Fig.2

Cuboid modules illustrated with examples

Thakkar, Jay, and Skye Morrison. "for 11 th International conference on humane habitat (ICHH) 2009 by International Association for Humane Habitats (IAHH) at Rizvi College of Architecture."

India An Analysis of Kath-khuni Architecture as a Sustainable Humane Habitat in Himachal Pradesh,(January) (2009): 1-18.

Fig.3

Solid and void in a single cuboid unit

https://repository.tudelft.nl/isla ndora/object/uuid:a002b8f4-d5 af-4ddd-947a-baee280b86a2/da tastream/OBJ1/download

Fig.4

Impact of the context in a single cuboid unit

https://repository.tudelft.nl/isla ndora/object/uuid:a002b8f4-d5 af-4ddd-947a-baee280b86a2/da tastream/OBJ1/download

Fig.5

Solid and void in a triple cuboid unit

https://repository.tudelft.nl/isla ndora/object/uuid:a002b8f4-d5

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af-4ddd-947a-baee280b86a2/da tastream/OBJ1/download Fig.6

Space mapping in a triple cuboid unit

https://repository.tudelft.nl/isla ndora/object/uuid:a002b8f4-d5 af-4ddd-947a-baee280b86a2/da tastream/OBJ1/download

Fig.7

Typical program assignment in a triple cuboid module

https://repository.tudelft.nl/isla ndora/object/uuid:a002b8f4-d5 af-4ddd-947a-baee280b86a2/da tastream/OBJ1/download

Fig 8

Example of Kath Khuni building showing the walls and balcony

https://www.sahapedia.org/thehimalayan-vernacular-kath-khu ni-architecture

Fig .9

Wall construction detail at Kath Khuni site

https://www.sahapedia.org/thehimalayan-vernacular-kath-khu ni-architecture

Fig.10

Double dovetail detail and corner joint detail

https://repository.tudelft.nl/isla ndora/object/uuid:a002b8f4-d5 af-4ddd-947a-baee280b86a2/da tastream/OBJ1/download

Fig.11

Detail of the perpendicular member cheol

https://www.sahapedia.org/thehimalayan-vernacular-kath-khu ni-architecture

Fig.12

Detail of a spliced joint with a wedge

https://www.sahapedia.org/thehimalayan-vernacular-kath-khu ni-architecture

Fig. 13

Isometric separation of dry stones and wooden parts

https://repository.tudelft.nl/isla ndora/object/uuid:a002b8f4-d5 af-4ddd-947a-baee280b86a2/da tastream/OBJ1/download

Fig.14

Sketches of wooden flooring and stairs

Mansi Shah- Faculty at CEPT Mansi Shah (weebly.com)

Fig.15

Detail of cantilevered beams for the balcony

https://repository.tudelft.nl/isla ndora/object/uuid:a002b8f4-d5

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af-4ddd-947a-baee280b86a2/da tastream/OBJ1/download Fig.16

An illustrated dwelling with balcony details

Mansi Shah- Faculty at CEPT Mansi Shah (weebly.com)

Fig.17

Isometric projection of roof the composition

https://repository.tudelft.nl/isla ndora/object/uuid:a002b8f4-d5 af-4ddd-947a-baee280b86a2/da tastream/OBJ1/download

Fig.18

Pent and gable with rectangular shingles

https://www.sahapedia.org/thehimalayan-vernacular-kath-khu ni-architecture

Fig.19

Pent and a gable roof with random shingles

https://www.sahapedia.org/thehimalayan-vernacular-kath-khu ni-architecture

Fig.20

Schematic representation of climatic conditions in different seasons

https://repository.tudelft.nl/isla ndora/object/uuid:a002b8f4-d5 af-4ddd-947a-baee280b86a2/da tastream/OBJ1/download

Fig.21

Cooling scheme during summer

https://repository.tudelft.nl/isla ndora/object/uuid:a002b8f4-d5 af-4ddd-947a-baee280b86a2/da tastream/OBJ1/download

Fig.22

Sample living scenario during monsoon

https://repository.tudelft.nl/isla ndora/object/uuid:a002b8f4-d5 af-4ddd-947a-baee280b86a2/da tastream/OBJ1/download

Fig.23

Experimental setup at IIT Roorke 1

https://www.tudelft.nl/onderwij s/voorlichting-en-ervaren/stude nt-stories/graduation-project-on -the-kath-kuni-architecture-in-i ndia

Fig.24

Experimental setup at IIT Roorke 2

https://www.tudelft.nl/onderwij s/voorlichting-en-ervaren/stude nt-stories/graduation-project-on

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-the-kath-kuni-architecture-in-i ndia Fig.25

Illustration showing missing Kadil at the corner joint

https://www.tudelft.nl/onderwij s/voorlichting-en-ervaren/stude nt-stories/graduation-project-on -the-kath-kuni-architecture-in-i ndia

Fig.26

Structural failure due to missing kadil

https://www.tudelft.nl/onderwij s/voorlichting-en-ervaren/stude nt-stories/graduation-project-on -the-kath-kuni-architecture-in-i ndia

Fig.27

Stone layout on the plinth level: Image 1

From Author

Fig.28

Stone layout on the plinth level: Image 2

From Author

Fig.29

Sample arrangement of wooden beams

From Author

Fig.30

Wooden beams over the plinth- sample arrangement

From Author

Fig.31

Addition of kadil to the alternate beams

From Author

Fig.32

Final Arrangement of the first layer of plinth and wooden beams

From Author

Fig.33

Addition of gravels into the cavity: image 1

From Author

Fig.34

Addition of gravels into the cavity: image 2

From Author

Fig.35

Final layer off the balcony level

From Author

Fig.36

Final layer off the balcony level with 10kg weight

From Author

Fig.37

Finished model with balcony

From Author

Fig.38

Finished model- sectional view

From Author

Fig.39

Finished model- internal view

From Author

Fig.4o

Finished model- view of the

From Author 31

cantilevered beams and the corner details Fig.41

Final finished view.

From Author

Fig.42

Deviation with and without double dovetail joint.

From Author

References 1. Dave, Bharat, Jay Thakkar, and Mansi Shah. "Details of resistance: indigenous construction systems in Himachal Pradesh." Context 9, no. 1 (2012): 4.

2. Kumar, T. Akshya, and Swtantra Kumar. "An Out Line of Vernacular Architecture of Himachal Pradesh."

3. Thakkar, Jay, and Skye Morrison. "for 11 th International conference on humane habitat (ICHH) 2009 by International Association for Humane Habitats (IAHH) at Rizvi College of Architecture." India An Analysis of Kath-khuni Architecture as a Sustainable Humane Habitat in Himachal Pradesh,(January) (2009): 1-18.

4. Dave, Bharat, Jay Thakkar, Mansi Shah, and O. Hāṇḍā. Prathaa: Kath-khuni Architecture of Himachal Pradesh. SID Research Cell, School of Interiour Design, CEPT University, 2013.

5. https://www.sahapedia.org/the-himalayan-vernacular-kath-khuni-architecture 6. https://www.himalmag.com/the-story-of-kath-kuni-preserving-vernacular-archi tecture-himalaya-2021/ 7. https://www.tudelft.nl/onderwijs/voorlichting-en-ervaren/student-stories/grad uation-project-on-the-kath-kuni-architecture-in-india 8. https://repository.tudelft.nl/islandora/object/uuid:6eeaa0c7-8d00-4a8e-ae80-7 9f6abf050bc/datastream/OBJ/download 9. https://repository.tudelft.nl/islandora/object/uuid:a002b8f4-d5af-4ddd-947a-b aee280b86a2/datastream/OBJ1/download 10. https://portfolio.cept.ac.in/student/jhanvi-suresh-chauhan-uc2416/case-study-k athkuni-architecture-shimla-spring-2021-sd4704-uc2416 11. https://www.academia.edu/195866/KATH_KHUNI_IN_HIMACHAL_PRADES H_DOCUMENTING_AND_PRACTICING_TRADITION_by_Jay_Thakkar_and _Skye_Morrison 12. https://www.slideshare.net/mansiarch/kath-khuni-of-himachal-pradesh-autosa vedpdf-low 13. Mansi Shah- Faculty at CEPT - Mansi Shah (weebly.com)

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Appendix Some additional images from the model-making process.

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