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Table of Contents: ___________________________________________________________________________________ 1: Introduction List of Figures List of Abbreviations Area of Study Aim of Study Methodology Limitations 2: Accessibility in Historic Environments WHC European Symposium: Heritage and Accessibility HS: Managing Change in the Historic Environment: Accessibility COE: Making Heritage Accessible: Museums, Communications, and Participation 3: Edinburgh as World Heritage Site Outstanding Universal Value Criterion (ii) Criterion (iv) Authenticity Management Plan 4: Old Town Edinburgh and Cockburn Street as Case Study History of Closes and Cockburn Street 5: Material Accessibility Transport Passageways Facilities for Tourism Assistive Technology for the Deaf / Blind 6: Intellectual Accessibility Onsite Resources Online Resources 8: Conclusion 9: Bibliography

Section 1: Introduction ___________________________________________________________________________________ List of Figures: Maps, photos, and figures by Authors unless otherwise noted. Cover Image

“City Chambers and Cockburn Street (1895).” Miller, Robert. In The Municipal Buildings Of Edinburgh: A Sketch Of Their History For Seven Hundred Years Written Mainly from the Original Records, First: Printed By Order of the Town Council, Edinburgh, 1895. Accessed November 18, 2022, via Lost Edinburgh: Facebook. https://www.facebook.com/lostedinburgh/photos/a.251802618210762/ 924619747595709/?type=3.

Figure 1

“Area of Study”

Figure 2

“The World Heritage Site and its Conservation Areas” UNESCO WHC, 2005. Accessed November 03, 2022, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/728/multiple=1&unique_number=860

Figure 3

“Bird’s Eye View of Edinburgh in 1647.”Rothiemay, James Gordon. W & AK Johnston, ca. 1870, 1686 1615. https://maps.nls.uk/towns/rec/2741.

Figure 4

“View of bottom of Cockburn Street at the junction with Market Street-1860” “Thomas Vernon Begbie .” Edinphoto.org.uk, City Art Center. Accessed Nov 18, 2022. http://www.edinphoto.org.uk/pp/pp_begbie_0.htm.

Figure 5

“View of the bank at the junction of High Street and Cockburn Street-1893” Thomas Vernon Begbie. Edinphoto.org.uk, City Art Center. Accessed Nov 18, 2022. http://www.edinphoto.org.uk/pp/pp_begbie_0.htm.

Figure 6

“Bank of Scotland: 1695-1945”Malcolm, Charles A. (Charles Alexander). The Bank of Scotland, 1695-1945 / by Charles A. Malcolm. Place of publication not identified: [publisher not identified], 1945.

Figure 7

“Looking Down From the Scott Monument,” The Cavaye Collection of Thomas Begbie Prints: Edinburgh Photo. Accessed Nov 20, 2022. http://www.edinphoto.org.uk/pp/pp_begbie_0.htm.

Figure 8

“Demolition to Enable Cockburn Street,” The Cavaye Collection of Thomas Begbie Prints; Edinburgh Photo. Accessed Nov 20, 2022. http://www.edinphoto.org.uk/pp/pp_begbie_0.htm.

Figure 9

“Plan of Street to be Formed” Peddy, Dick, and McKay. “Plan of Street to Be Formed from Waverly Bridge to the High Street,” 1859 1858. Accessed Nov 20, 2022. https://canmore.org.uk/collection/1436613.

Figure 10

Detail of “Bank of Scotland: 1695-1945” Malcolm, Charles A. (Charles Alexander). The Bank of Scotland, 1695-1945 / by Charles A. Malcolm. Place of publication not identified: [publisher not identified], 1945

Figure 11

“Bus and Train Route”

Figure 12

“Table of Passageways in our study area: Closes, Steps, and Arcade”

Figure 13

“Closes, Steps, and Arcades”

Figure 14

“Restaurants, Shops, and Bars in the Closes”

Figure 15

“Steps in the closes between Market Street and High Street.”

Figure 16

“Barriers of the Closes”

Figure 17

“Hotels and Airbnbs”

Figure 18

“Key boxes for Short Term lets”

Figure 19

“Tourism Services and Souvenirs”

Figure 20

“Restaurants, Cafes and Bars”

Figure 21

“Raised textured pavement for the visually impaired”

Figure 22

“Braille and Audio traffic signals.”

Figure 23

“Information Panels along Royal Mile”

Figure 24

“Information Panels and Historic Inscriptions off of Royal Mile”

Figure 25

“Sculpture in City Chambers”

Figure 26

“Digital Resources”

List of Abbreviations: C CA COE DDA EWH HS ICOMOS MP MSc OUV UDHR UN UNESCO UoE WHC

Century Cockburn Association Council of Europe Disability Discrimination Act Edinburgh World Heritage Historic Scotland International Council on Monuments and Sites Management Plan Masters of Science Outstanding Universal Value Universal Declaration of Human Rights United Nations United Nations Educational Scientific Cultural Organization University of Edinburgh World Heritage Convention

WHL WHS

World Heritage List World Heritage Site

Area of Study: The selected area of study is a block of Edinburgh’s Old Town surrounding Cockburn Street which includes numerous closes cutting through it. The area of study is bounded on the East by North Bridge, on the West by Saint Giles Street and The New Steps, on the North by Market Street and Waverly Station, and on the South by High Street.1

Figure 1 “Area of Study”

Aim The aim of this paper is to examine WHS Edinburgh Old and New Towns by focusing on access as a significant factor contributing and challenging the site's authenticity. The authors will consider different types of accessibility and will comment on how authenticity and access inform each other in the study area.

Authors Note: “Royal Mile” is sometimes used interchangeably with “High Street” by the authors in this paper because the section of Royal Mile in our area of study is High Street. The authors acknowledge that the Royal Mile consists of five portions of road with differing names.

Methodology This research paper is produced for the World Heritage course taught by Dr. Ruxandra-lulia Stoica for the Architectural Conservation MSc program at the University of Edinburgh. The paper is based on the analysis of other published works and the author's analysis of the site. The authors visited the site between September and November of 2022 and produced many of the figures, maps, and photos included in this paper. Limitations This paper was produced with found qualitative data which excluded interviewing residents. The paper was written by international students who have resided in Edinburgh for a brief period of time, and who do not personally fall into a category of disability aligning with the topic of physical accessibility. The paper was produced within the time limit of a single semester.

Section 2: Accessibility in Historic Environments. ___________________________________________________________________________________ “Everyone has the right freely to participate in the community's cultural life, to enjoy the arts, and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits.”2 The authors identified access to heritage as a key barrier to, and a driver of change of, historic urban fabric. An initial impression we had of Edinburgh is how many steps there are. Because of this, we were initially drawn to examining physical access to Edinburgh for those with mobility limitations. Through further reading of primary and secondary sources which discuss physical access to heritage, we broadened our definition to include access for those who have visual and hearing impairments. Additionally, we found that intellectual access to heritage also falls within the broader definition of access. Successful intellectual access requires that information about a city and its heritage should be easily available for visitors, locals, and those studying the city. For the purposes of this paper, the authors define physical access as providing physical passage through urban spaces for those who have mobility limitations, are hearing impaired, or visually impaired. The authors define intellectual access as providing information about the history and heritage of a place that is easily found and understood. Physical and Intellectual access together creates a comprehensive definition of accessibility through which we can then complete an access assessment of a historic environment. World Heritage Convention: European Symposium: Heritage and Accessibility “How can one facilitate access to everything for all without threatening the heritage value of buildings and their environment?”3 In March of 2013, UNESCO WHC led a symposium on heritage and accessibility, bringing conservationists together to discuss how to conserve urban fabric while providing physical access to heritage sites. We do not have access to the resulting conclusions, but the questions posed are applicable to our assessment of accessibility.

Article 27, UDHR by General Assembly of UN 1948 WHC “European Symposium: Heritage and Accessibility,” March 2013, Accessed Nov 2022. https://whc.unesco.org/en/events/1005 3

Because form, materiality, and function are key elements of the UNESCO WHC definition of authenticity,4 altering the layout, materials, and function of historic fabric to allow for wider physical accessibility requires very careful consideration. The initial tone of the brief for the symposium reads as begrudging. It discusses protecting the urban heritage while “dealing with statutory and architectural requirements” relating to accessibility.5 This mentality aligns with earlier conservation mindsets where the originality of materials for a built environment is the basis for value and therefore authenticity. However, the brief does continue more in favour of equity as it discusses breaking down barriers and allowing more people access to heritage. The ultimate point of the symposium brief, which the authors agree with, is that everyone deserves to enjoy the historic built environment. So a balance between the demand for accessibility and the preservation of heritage sites must be achieved. Historic Scotland: Managing Change in the Historic Environment: Accessibility “Equality of access for all people is a fundamental aim of the Scottish Ministers’ policy on the historic built environment. Access to the historic environment can be both physical and ‘intellectual’, in the sense of understanding, learning, researching and training.”6 In October 2010, HS published a set of guidelines for increasing accessibility to the historic environment. The guidelines highlight six components that make improvements to accessibility more successful. These include: understanding the needs of users, understanding the historic place and its significance, an assessment of different improvement options, an access plan that takes into account the user need and the significance of the place, high-quality design and materials, and appropriate maintenance of facilities.7 These guidelines provide concrete steps to successfully navigate and implement change in a heritage environment. A comprehensive access audit allows for complete focus on the user and overcoming barriers. The heritage assessment then allows for a complete focus on the historic plan, design, materials, and cultural significance of the site. Completing both these assessments, separately and fully, allows a team of designers to make informed decisions for how to move forward in creating accessibility in historic fabric. 4

See Section 3, Authenticity. WHC “European Symposium: Heritage and Accessibility,” March 2013, Accessed Nov 2022. https://whc.unesco.org/en/events/1005 6 “Managing Change in the Historic Environment: Accessibility.” Crown Copyright Historic Scotland, 2010. https://www.aberdeencity.gov.uk/sites/default/files/managing-change-accessibility.pdf. 7 “Managing Change in the Historic Environment: Accessibility.” Crown Copyright Historic Scotland, 2010. https://www.aberdeencity.gov.uk/sites/default/files/managing-change-accessibility.pdf. 5

The concept of “reasonable alterations” to historic fabric is set out in the 1995 DDA, as protection for populations who require wider physical accessibility.8 HS states that it is the responsibility of businesses to provide physical access to their services, while also acknowledging that building standards guidance may not be met in all cases, but a “reasonable compromise can be achieved.”9 The HS guidelines provide clear considerations for steps, approaches, doors, floor surface, and signage in order to provide “unassisted and dignified physical access for all.”10 The goal for most conservationists is to maintain as much of the historic material as possible, but by examining the different improvement options and only implementing the highest quality design with the best materials, the negative impact on the fabric can be low. Council of Europe: Making Heritage Accessible: Museums, Communications, and Participation “The concepts of participation in the arts and culture and of access to heritage as a fundamental right of all people seem to have become more central now than ever.” Writing to the COE, Margherita Sani argues for a “social justice model” of access in a structured breakdown of elements of accessibility in museums.11 Though she is writing specifically for the context of museums, elements of her argument are applicable to access to the heritage of the built environment. Sani discusses both tangible and intangible barriers which prevent the public from experiencing heritage sites. She mentions components including the price of group transport for schools and the intimidation of large purpose-built museum buildings which feel impenetrable for some members of the public.12 She also discusses a lack of information in terms of navigation appearing in alternate forms, for example, clear signage which includes the use of braille, or informational videos which include sign language. She stresses the requirement for physically user-friendly spaces, including places of rest, lifts and ramps, and spaces for families with young children. She highlights the

Participation, Expert. “Disability Discrimination Act 1995.” Part III Section 21. Text. Accessed November 18, 2022. https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1995/50/section/21. 9 “Managing Change in the Historic Environment: Accessibility.” Crown Copyright Historic Scotland, 2010. https://www.aberdeencity.gov.uk/sites/default/files/managing-change-accessibility.pdf. 10 “Managing Change in the Historic Environment: Accessibility.” Crown Copyright Historic Scotland, 2010. https://www.aberdeencity.gov.uk/sites/default/files/managing-change-accessibility.pdf. 11 Culture and Cultural Heritage. “Faro Convention Topical Series.” Accessed November 22, 2022. https://www.coe.int/en/web/culture-and-heritage/newsroom/-/asset_publisher/GeBNyf6OrK1T/content/fa ro-convention-topical-series. 12 Additional barriers which should further be discussed in the context of social justice in heritage sites are how difficult heritage is handled in regards to comfort for minority populations who may have been impacted. This falls outside of the scope of the current paper but should not be overlooked.

importance of clear signage which doesn’t solely rely on the written word, including colour coding and maps. Interpretations of space should be clear for the general public; explanations should not produce a further intellectual barrier for a visitor. Sani also brings up the subject of digital accessibility of information; she discusses digital accessibility in the context of a “map my visit” function in some museums. The accessibility of digital information for a heritage site is massively important and often overlooked in the context of access.

Section 3: Edinburgh as World Heritage Site ___________________________________________________________________________________ Outstanding Universal Value

Figure 2: “The World Heritage Site and Its Conservation Areas”

“Outstanding Universal Value means cultural and/or natural significance which is so exceptional as to transcend national boundaries and to be of common importance for present and future generations of all humanity.”13 Edinburgh Old and New Towns were inscribed to the WHL in 1995 under criteria ii and iv. The original documentation of the inscription of Edinburgh Old and New Towns is brief, but there is retroactive documentation of the Statements of Outstanding Universal Value from 2013.14 “The contrast between the organic medieval Old Town and the planned Georgian New Town of Edinburgh, Scotland, provides a clarity of urban structure unrivaled in Europe.”15 These two distinct layouts are currently divided by the primary

“Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention.” UNESCO, WHC, July 2021. 14 “37 COM 8E - Decision.” UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Accessed November 17, 2022. https://whc.unesco.org/en/decisions/4964/. 15 “Old and New Towns of Edinburgh,” UNESCO World Heritage Convention, Accessed November 15, 2022, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/728/

access point for visitors coming into Edinburgh, Waverly Station, and linked by The Mound and North Bridge. The urban form of densely packed Old Town was informed by the geology of the area; a volcanic outcropping with receding glacial debris formed the crag and tail landscape that is prominent in the area. The medieval fishbone town plan followed easily, with Edinburgh Castle situated prominently at the highest point, the high road running along the raised spine of the tail, and the Abbey of Holyrood sitting at the end of the spine. Narrow plots extended perpendicularly down from the high street which were accessible by confined closes and wynds. There are many places where the surviving urban scape survives, though the narrative of a purely medieval town would be a stretch. The late 19th C regeneration of Old Town changed much of the historic urban fabric as an increased need for circulation and broader spaces meant that many of the narrow closes were cut through or infilled. The Scots Baronial style was adapted for the urban environment and infiltrated the Old Town which eventually influenced the conservation practices of urban environments.16

Figure 3, “Bird’s Eye View of Edinburgh in 1647.

The WHS listing asserts that the OUV has been maintained within the listing area. However, the OUV does not mention Edinburgh as a living city. The ideas of longevity for a residential city are only discussed in the Authenticity and Management Plan sections of the listing. The authors believe that the OUV of Edinburgh comes not only from its intact materials and urban fabric, but from the balance between the preservation of said fabric and its continual use as an inhabited place.

“Old and New Towns of Edinburgh,” UNESCO World Heritage Convention, Accessed November 15, 2022, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/728/

Criterion (ii) “To exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span of time or within a cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture or technology, monumental arts, town-planning or landscape design”17 The developments in architecture that are highlighted for Edinburgh WHS in criterion ii are the developments of New Town specifically. While architecture conservation movements developed out of both the Old and New Towns which went on to influence conservation internationally,18 the 18th and 19th C urban planning of New Town and its influence in broader urban planning in Europe is the focus for criterion ii.19 Criterion (iv) “To be an outstanding example of a type of building, architectural or technological ensemble or landscape which illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in human history.”20 Criterion iv in the WHC listing for Edinburgh Old and New Towns highlights the uniqueness of the two urban forms when they are considered together. The contrast between the two forms of town planning; defensive walled medieval city informed by topography and royal burghs, and formal “Enlightenment planning” on the grid system with planned viewpoints; is what criterion iv focuses on. Additionally, it makes mention of the rejuvenation and adaptation of Old Town with the addition of Baronial style architecture in the 19th C, see figures 4 and 5.21 The “19th C rediscovery and revival of the Old Town” highlighted in criterion iv is a key component of the area of study for this paper.

“The Criteria for Selection,” UNESCO WHC, Accessed November 15, 2022, https://whc.unesco.org/en/criteria/ 18 Hunter, Michael Cyril William. Preserving the Past : the Rise of Heritage in Modern Britain / Edited by Michael Hunter. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Alan Sutton, 1996. 19 “Old and New Towns of Edinburgh” UNESCO WHC, Accessed Nov 10, 2022 https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/728/ 20 “The Criteria for Selection,” UNESCO World Heritage Convention, Accessed November 15, 2022, https://whc.unesco.org/en/criteria/ 21 “Old and New Towns of Edinburgh” UNESCO WHC, Accessed Nov 10, 2022 https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/728/

Figure 4 (left), “View of bottom of Cockburn Street at the junction with Market Street-1860,” Figure 5 (right),”View of bank at junction of High Street and Cockburn Street-1893”

Authenticity “The understanding of authenticity plays a fundamental role in all scientific studies of the cultural heritage, in conservation and restoration planning, as well as within the inscription procedures used for the World Heritage Convention and other cultural heritage inventories.”22 The Venice Charter of 1964 was a historic set of articles that were designed to safeguard a common heritage for future generations.23 The Venice Charter was conservative in its view of authenticity and did not allow for reconstruction or adaptive reuse where historic materials would be impacted. It did not permit changes in layout or decoration, demolition or new construction, or reconstructive work. These limitations set out were seen as a means of maintaining authenticity. The Venice Charter’s restrictions for the definitions of authenticity may have worked for single, uninhabited, western stone monuments and ruins, but its constraints left a considerable portion of the global historic environment behind. For example, under the Venice Charter, the regular rebuilding and repair of historic wooden structures was seen as working in direct opposition with authenticity despite this maintenance being imperative for the retention of historic sites. This was applicable particularly to the Japanese government, so when ICOMOS suggested a conference to respond to a need for a more diverse framework, Japan brought together the Nara Committee. The Nara 22

Committee produced a broader definition of authenticity which allowed for more culturally diverse sites to be recognized as authentic. The 1995 Nara Document on Authenticity also widened the scope of authenticity to allow for practical changes to be made to a heritage site in order to facilitate conservation more effectively.24 There is still a focus on truthful credible sources as means of discerning the values of the site, but the final judgement of authenticity should come from within the cultural context of the historic site. Today, the Nara Document still provides the baseline definition of authenticity for UNESCO and is cited in the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention.25 The Operational Guidelines list 8 significant attributes for which a site must assess the degree of authenticity through credible documentation. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Form and design; Materials and substance; Use and function; Traditions, techniques and management systems; Location and setting; Languages, and other forms of intangible heritage; Spirit and feeling- attributes which are important indicators of character and sense of place (e.g., in communities maintaining tradition and cultural continuity); 8. Other internal and external factors.26 The WHC listing for Edinburgh Old and New Towns states that the authenticity in Edinburgh is high because of the intact remaining historic urban layout, the buildings tend to be well conserved, and the role of the city as an administrative and cultural hub remains.27 The authenticity listing addresses guidelines 1, 2, 3, and 7. Despite the authenticity listing including guideline 7, the high priority of guidelines 1, 2, and 3 (in combination with the OUV not discussing Edinburgh as a living city) puts constraints on the city as it attempts to grow along with its residents.

“The NARA Document on Authenticity (1994) - International Council on Monuments and Sites.” Accessed November 20, 2022. https://www.icomos.org/en/charters-and-texts/179-articles-en-francais/ressources/charters-and-standard s/386-the-nara-document-on-authenticity-1994. 25 “Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention.” Authenticity, II.E.82-86. UNESCO, WHC, July 2021. Accessed November 10, 2022. 26 “Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention.” Authenticity, II.E.82-86. UNESCO, WHC, July 2021. Accessed November 10, 2022. 27 “Old and New Towns of Edinburgh” UNESCO WHC, Accessed Nov 10, 2022 https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/728/

Management Plan “We share an aspiration for the World Heritage Site to sustain its Outstanding Universal Value by safeguarding and enhancing its exceptional historic environment. This underpins a confident and thriving capital city centre, its communities, and its cultural and economic life.”28 The World Heritage Listing of Edinburg Old and New Towns outlines the multiple parties who protect and manage the historic urban fabric and its heritage. The MP listing and subsequent 2017-2022 MP document responds to the need for balance between maintaining historic urban fabric and allowing for the WHS to continue as a functioning, vibrant city. Dennis Rodwell, in a lecture to the 2022 Architectural Conservation MSc students at the UoE, stressed the importance of understanding a city as an inhabited space.29 At first pass, this might seem obvious, but there would be many past conservationists who would feel that Rodwell’s point opposes authenticity. In Rodwell’s line of thinking, a fundamental part of Edinburgh’s authenticity is its role as cultural hub, economic centre, and administrative capital of Scotland. Therefore a successful MP should allow for as much preservation of the urban fabric as possible, as long as that doesn’t come at the expense of the city losing its functionality. In light of this, the authors argue that Edinburgh has “high authenticity” primarily because of its continuing “rich cultural and intellectual life” which has developed alongside the contrasting forms of urban master planning.30

“Old and New Towns of Edinburgh Management Plan.” UNESCO, WHC, 2017. https://ewh.org.uk/plan/assets/Management-Plan-2018b.pdf. 29 Rodwell, Dennis. “World Heritage Management and Community Engagement,.” Lecture, University of Edinburgh, October 18, 2022. 30 “Old and New Towns of Edinburgh” UNESCO WHC, Accessed Nov 10, 2022 https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/728/ Authors Note: the MP section on the listing refers to “rich cultural and intellectual life” as a point of OUV, but the cultural aspects of Edinburgh are not actually mentioned within the OUV section of the listing. Therefore, the authors do not include the cultural components in the OUV section of this paper.

Section 4: Old Town Edinburgh and Cockburn Street as Case Study ___________________________________________________________________________________ The authors selected the block surrounding Cockburn Street as the area of study for our access assessment because each surviving layer of the material was initially implemented to serve the access needed at the time. We also selected this area because Cockburn Street and the surrounding closes are currently the main pedestrian routes from Waverly station to Edinburgh’s Royal Mile. In the 16th C, visitors and goods travelling from London to Leith ran along the east of the Flodden Wall and would enter Edinburgh through the Netherbow Port. Within the walls, traffic filtered from the Royal Mile down through narrow closes spurring from it; these were the main routes down to the buildings which descended along the burgage plots of the city. These closes were the main access points of early Edinburgh inhabitants to the dense urban fabric surrounding the Mile. Some of these closes are still visible today; their survival is a highlight of criterion iv in Edinburgh’s WHS listing. The closes fronting the Royal Mile, shown in grey in figures 6 and 10, remain largely intact in our area of study.

Figure 6: “Bank of Scotland: 1695-1945”

In the mid 19th C, after the unification of the North British Railway, Waverly Station was built. Access to and from the area was necessary, as well as easier access between Old and New Towns for pedestrians and vehicles. “The want of a Carriage-way or other convenient access from the High Street, the Canongate, and whole Southern parts of Edinburgh to the General Railway Terminus at Waverly Bridge, has proved a serious inconvenience. Several plans have been suggested for removing this inconvenience; but that which has been most generally approved, consists of the formation of a serpentine Carriage Road, or Street, from the south end of Waverly Bridge, and passing diagonally along the slope on the north side of High Street opposite Hunter’s Square. In connection with this Road, a broad stair-case may be provided for convenient and easy access to foot passengers through some parts of the Royal Exchange buildings to the High church, Parliament Square, and Courts of Law, & and it may also be combined with other alterations tending not less to amenity thus to public utility.”31

Figure 7 (Left): “Looking Down From the Scott Monument” Figure 8 (Right): “Demolition to Enable Cockburn Street.”

This excerpt from “Prospects of the Edinburgh High Street and Railway Station Access and Sanitary Improvement Company” reveals the mindset of access which informed the Victorian changes to the earlier closes. Figure 9 illustrates the plan for the cut-through at the time. Figure 7 shows the area before demolition began to make room for Cockburn Street, figure 8 shows the 31

Sime, John. “Prospects of the Edinburgh High Street, and Railway Station Access and Sanitary Improvement Company.” 1840. Accessed Nov 20, 2022. https://canmore.org.uk/collection/1079104 .

demolition in progress. Figure 9 shows the plan described by excerpt above, and the subsequent modifications to the closes after the cut through for Cockburn Street was built can be seen in red in figures 6 and 10. Figures 6, 9 and 10 also depict the 19 C construction of new Victorian buildings in the Scotch Baronial style.32

Figure 9: “Plan of Street to be Formed”

Authors Note: As an additional point of interest, The Cockburn Association, founded in 1875, was created to continue the work of the same man whom Cockburn Street was named after (originally Lord Cockburn Street). Lord Henry Cockburn famously disapproved of changes made to the south end of Princes Street and was a pioneering architectural conservationist. His legacy, with the founding of the CA, created one of the oldest conservation, planning, and architectural advocacy organisations in the world. The Cockburn Association. “Timeline.” Accessed November 21, 2022. https://www.cockburnassociation.org.uk/history/timeline/.

Figure 10: Detail of “Bank of Scotland: 1695-1945”

The changes we see in physical access here were made to enable mobility through Edinburgh over the centuries. Today we can continue the trend of increased accessibility, without demolishing entire swaths of historic fabric, to allow for access for more people.33

Authors Note: The authors would point to the Caltongate Area in Edinburgh Old Town as a failure of balance between preserving historic urban fabric and creating access.

Section 5: Physical Accessibility ___________________________________________________________________________________ Transport There are three main vehicular transport options around our area of study; train, bus, and car. Waverley train station is the second busiest station in Scotland, after Glasgow Central. Waverley is situated in a steep, narrow valley between the Old Town and New Town; approximately 30,000 passengers pass through the station a day.34 North Bridge connects the old town’s Royal Mile and the new town’s Princes Street for cars, buses, and pedestrians.. There are 6 bus stops around our area of study, and 14 bus routes: 3, 5, 7, 8, 14, 29, 30, 31, 33, 37, 45, 49,51 and 62X pass through daily.35 On top of commuting bus routes, Edinburgh also has 3 bus tours, the Edinburgh tour, the Majestic tour, and the Citysightseeing tour. Edinburgh tour and Citysightseeing tour runs from Canongate to Southbridge, around our area of study. The Majestic tour runs along our area of study at Market Street. High Street between the City Chambers and North Bridge is pedestrian only, so cars do not travel along that portion of the Royal Mile, with rare exceptions. Cars may drive east on High Street from Lawnmarket to park at the City Chambers or to circle around St. Giles’ Cathedral. Regular car traffic runs along Market Street in both directions. Ordinarily, cars run in both directions along North Bridge, but due to construction, North Bridge currently runs cars only driving south. Cars drive west up High Street and turn down South Bridge. Cockburn Street is primarily pedestrian access, as there is no outlet, with exceptions for individuals with disability parking tags on their cars, and delivery and service vehicles.

EdinburghGuide.com. “Edinburgh Waverley Train Station.” Accessed November 20, 2022. https://edinburghguide.com/transport/train/edinburgh-waverley. 35 Lothian Buses. “Network Maps.” Accessed November 20, 2022. https://www.lothianbuses.com/maps-and-times/network-maps/. 34

Figure 11: “Bus and Train Route”

Pedestrian Passageways Pedestrian access between Waverly station and the Royal Mile includes 13 closes, 2 stairways, and 1 arcade. The closes and stairs are historic means of access, the closes are narrow and steep with many steps. People with no mobility limitations or those who are not carrying luggage or pushing strollers can move freely between Market Street, Cockburn Street, and High Street through the closes. They are very interesting places to explore for a curious tourist. No.

Name

Length

Width

Period

Public v Private

Lighting

Business

Scotsman Steps

50m

3-4m

1902

Public

Yes

North Bridge Arcade

40m

4-5m

19th C

Public

Yes

Fleshmarket Close

North

80m

3-4m

17th C*

Public

Yes

South

45m

2-3m

17th C*

Public

Yes

50m

1-2m

17th C*

Public

Yes

Jackson’s Close

Lyon’s Close

40m

1-2m

15th C

Mixed

Old Stamp Office Close

30m

1-2m

17th C*

Mixed

North Foulis Close

30m

1-2m

17th C*

Private

Geddes’ Entry

40m

1-2m

17th C*

Private

North

35m

2-3m

1521

Private

South

60m

2-3m

1521

Public

Yes

Anchor Close

Craig’s Close

60m

1-2m

16th C

Public

Yes

Mary King’s Close

25m

2-3m

17th C*

Mixed

Yes

Warriston’s Close

70m

4-5m

17th C*

Public

Yes

Roxburgh’s Close

90m

1-2m

16th C

Mixed

Yes

Advocate’s Close

110m

3-4m

15th C

Public

Yes

Byre’s Close

60m

1-2m

16th C

Mixed

The New Steps

70m

3-4m

20th C

Public

Yes

Figure 12: “Table of Passageways in our study area: Closes, Steps and Arcade” *Show on map of 1645 closes by Bank of Scotland.

Figure 13, “Closes, Steps and Arcades”

1. The Scotsman Steps are the only direct connection between the North Bridge and Waverley Station/Market Street. The steps were built between 1899 and 1902 by architects Dunn & Findlay for the Scotsman newspaper buildings. The Scotsman steps are now affiliated with the Scotsman hotel.36 2.North Bridge Arcade is a covered shopping arcade connecting North Bridge with Cockburn Street. Built in the mid to late 19th C, this Victorian intervention is one of the last of its kind remaining in Scotland today. 3. Fleshmarket Close led to Market Street until Cockburn Street cut through it in the 1860s.37 Restaurants and bars sit along the close, see figure 14. 4. Jackson’s Close leads to High Street from Cockburn Street. 5. Lyon’s Close, once known as 'Stalker's Close,’38 now leads to the back of a restaurant. 6. Old Stamp Office Close housed the Government Stamp Office until 1821. The Royal Bank was also located here from 1727 to 1753.39 It currently leads to a private courtyard. 36

Patrizio, Andrew. "The Twisted Arcade: Unconnected Thoughts on Martin Creed’s Work No. 1059." Architecture and Culture 3, no. 2 (2015): 219-243. 37 "Fleshmarket Close". http://www.royal-mile.com/closes/close-fleshmarket.html 38 "Lyon’s Close". http://www.royal-mile.com/closes/close-lyons.html 39 "Old Stamp Office Close". http://www.royal-mile.com/closes/close-oldstampoffice.html

Figure 14, “Restaurants, Shops, and Bars in the Closes”

7. North Foulis Close name likely derives from the apothecary of John Foulis who owned a tenement in the close.40 It currently is private. 8. Geddes’ Entry dates from the 17th Century and was named after urban planner and architect Robert Geddes.41 It is currently private. 9. Anchor Close leads to Cockburn Street from the High Street. Dating back to 1521, this site was named after The Anchor Tavern.42 The northern part of it is currently closed to the public. 10. Craig’s Close was partially demolished in 1932 to incorporate an extension to City Chambers. Originally it ran from the High Street directly to Market Street but is now cut through by Cockburn Street. The bottom part of Craig's Close still remains and allows steep access to Market Street from Cockburn Street.43 11. Mary King's Close attracts tourists interested in the paranormal; there are ghost tours visitors can take of the closes under the city chambers. Only the top of the close survives for the public. 12. Warriston’s Close was previously called Bruce’s Close after Robert Bruce of Stirling who lived here in 1566. Pedestrians access the top of Warriston's Close via Roxburgh's Close.44 13. Roxburgh’s Close is mostly private except for the top, which connects to Warriston Close through a stone-paved courtyard. 14. Advocate’s Close dates from at least the 15th century. The close was historically a fashionable address, where the Scottish gentry and professionals lived. Today, Advocate’s Close runs from High Street to Cockburn Street and provides public access to lodgings and restaurants. 15. Byre’s Close dates to the early sixteenth century and gets its name from John Byres, a wealthy merchant who lived between 1569 and 1629.45 Today, Byre’s Close connects the New Steps and Advocates close. 16. The New Steps run from St. Giles' Street at the top, down 124 steps to Market Street. 40

"North Foulis Close". http://www.royal-mile.com/closes/close-northfoulis.html "Geddes’ Entry". http://www.royal-mile.com/closes/close-geddesentry.html 42 "Anchor Close". https://canmore.org.uk/site/52309/edinburgh-243-high-street-anchor-close 43 "Craig's Close". https://canmore.org.uk/site/115342/edinburgh-265-high-street-craigs-close 44 "Warriston’s Close". https://canmore.org.uk/site/115347/edinburgh-323-high-street-warristons-close 45 "Byre’s Close". http://www.royal-mile.com/closes/close-byres.html 41

Figure 15 highlights in blue the steps within the closes. In green it shows the only available route for a pedestrian who can not go up steps between Waverly and High Street: out of Waverly, up steep and cobbled Cockburn Street, to the Royal Mile.

Figure 15, “Steps in the closes between Market Street and High Street.”

In addition to physical access limitations in the closes because of the vast number of steps, there are also intangible barriers to access. Some people do not feel safe going down some of the closes at night. A number of the closes lack lighting and they all are very narrow. Because of these factors, marginalised members of the community sometimes seek refuge in these areas, which creates a self perpetuating cycle of discomfort. In some closes there is a lot of litter, broken glass, and graffiti, which also makes some people uncomfortable. In all of the closes, the steep grade of the ground means that when it rains the ground is slippery, so some visitors who would usually feel comfortable using the closes in nice weather, may feel unsafe doing so in poor conditions.

Figure 16, “Barriers of the Closes”

Facilities for Tourism Tourism is a contentious topic in Edinburgh (as with most tourist destinations) as it fuels the economy but puts strain on local communities and urban fabric. Increased tourism is a goal and expectation when inscribing a site to the WHL, therefore there needs to be ample appropriate facilities for the influx of visitors. However, there are negative implications for a city that is highly dependent on tourism. Hotels and Short Term Lets: At its construction, Cockburn Street was a vibrant money spending centre and had a number of hotels for visitors to stay in, some of which remain today. In our area of study, there are more than 12 hotels and many more airbnbs and other short term lets. Short term lets are currently the subject of new legislation for Edinburgh, so while hotels will likely continue similarly to their current form in Edinburgh, the culture of visiting a city and staying in an airbnb or similar short term let may shift over the coming years. Airbnbs are not the only short term lets available to tourists in our area of study, but Airbnb provides a map when booking, so it was possible for us to get a baseline understanding of their ubiquitous spread. Additionally, most of the key boxes on door frames are for short term lets, which provides another way of estimating how widespread they are in Edinburgh.

Figure 17, “Hotels and Airbnbs”

Figure 18, “Key boxes for Short Term lets”

Info Centers and Shops: Another facility to assist with tourism are information centres and souvenir shops. There are three information centres in our study area.

Figure 19, “Tourism Services and Souvenirs”

Restaurants, Cafés, and Bars: Restaurants, Cafés, and Bars are a facility used both by residents and tourists. There are restaurants on the main roads and along the closes in our study area, and they serve a wide variety of cuisines. There are at least 13 restaurants, 9 Cafés, and 8 Bars which we have identified in our study area.

Figure 20, “Restaurants, Cafés and Bars”

Assistive Technology for the Visually and Hearing Impaired Our area of study contains the primary path of travel from Waverly into Old Town, but not all routes provide assistive technology. Raised textured pavement lines the curb outside Waverley Station, at the North Bridge, and at the entrance of Cockburn Street, as can be seen in figure 21. These sections of raised textured pavements are an accessibility feature for individuals who navigate with a cane. The closes do not have raised textured pavement.

Figure 21, “Raised textured pavement for the visually impared”

Outside Waverly Station there are audio traffic signals at the pedestrian crosswalk. Because of construction on the North Bridge, the audio signals at the pedestrian crosswalk with the intersection of High Street are not currently

working. There are no audio signals at Saint Giles Street or at the tri-junction of Market Street, Cockburn Street, and Waverly Bridge. The only location we found braille in our study area was at the station entrance to Waverley station on Market Street.

Figure 22: “Braille and Audio traffic signals.”

Section 6: Intellectual Accessibility ___________________________________________________________________________________ Onsite Resources Information on the heritage of Edinburgh is sprinkled through the area of study via information plaques and surviving historic inscriptions and paintings. The majority of the information panels which provide onsite access to information are on the Royal Mile, examples of which can be seen in figure 23, but a few information panels and historic inscriptions can be found on Cockburn Street and in lower in the closes, examples of which can be seen in figure 24.

Figure 23: “Information Panels along Royal Mile.”

Figure 24: “Information Panels and Historic Inscriptions off of Royal Mile.”

There are two sculptural monuments in the area of study, and both sit in the City Chambers cobbled square, set back from the road, accessible through a vaulted arched arcade. One is the central bronze sculpture Alexander Taming Bucephalus by John Steell, and the other is of General Stanislaw Maczek, a WWII tank commander, by Bronislaw Krzysztof, see figure 25.

Figure 25: “Sculpture in City Chambers.”

Digital Resources In Sani’s framework for a “social justice model” of heritage, outlined in Section 2, she stresses the importance of accessible heritage both onsite and digitally. Edinburgh has a wealth of digital resources which allow even a more casual visitor to access a lot of information about the heritage of the city. With sites of compiled images, scanned maps, and documents like Canmore and the National Library of Scotland, it is easy for someone to access information about the history of Edinburgh. There are also many digital maps for Edinburgh, including the GIS layers on OpenStreetMaps, and interactive maps provided by EWH.46 Sites like the Cockburn Association and CityDev Edinburgh enable 46

“Edinburgh Maps” https://ewh.org.uk/maps/

residents to respond to material changes occurring in city planning. Including the residents of a city in its development is a huge means of access, it allows the public to weigh in on the heritage that they are a part of.

Figure 26: “Digital Resources.”

Section 8: Conclusion ___________________________________________________________________________________ In addition to the remarkably intact historic urban fabric of Edinburgh’s Old and New Towns, a fundamental component of Edinburgh’s authenticity is its role as cultural hub, economic centre, and administrative capital of Scotland. These roles require a commitment to pursuing physical and intellectual access for as wide a range of people as possible. Utilising both the Management Plan and the discussed accessibility guidelines will allow for Edinburgh to continue successfully as an inhabited place while maintaining the intact contrasting urban planning heritage as stated in its listing under criterion iv and OUV. Increased access to a living city WHS may slightly impact the originality of historic urban fabric, but if changes are implemented properly, it will not negatively impact the authenticity of an inhabited place.

Section 9: Bibliography ___________________________________________________________________________________ “Bank of Scotland: 1695-1945” Malcolm, Charles A. (Charles Alexander). The Bank of Scotland, 1695-1945 / by Charles A Maclom. Place of publication not identified: [publisher not identified], 1945 “Bird’s Eye View of Edinburgh in 1647 / by James Gordon of Rothiemay. - Town Plans / Views, 1580s-1940s - National Library of Scotland.” Accessed November 10, 2022. https://maps.nls.uk/towns/rec/2741. “Bank of Scotland: 1695-1945” Malcolm, Charles A. (Charles Alexander). The Bank of Scotland, 1695-1945 / by Charles A Maclom. Place of publication not identified: [publisher not identified], 1945 “City Chambers and Cockburn Street (1895).” Miller, Robert. In The Municipal Buildings of Edinburgh: A Sketch Of Their History For Seven Hundred Years Written Mainly from the Original Records, First: Printed By Order of the Town Council, Edinburgh, 1895. Accessed November 18, 2022, via Lost Edinburgh, Facebook. https://www.facebook.com/lostedinburgh/photos/a.251802618210762/ 924619747595709/?type=3. Culture and Cultural Heritage. “Faro Convention Topical Series.” Accessed November 20, 2022. https://www.coe.int/en/web/culture-and-heritage/newsroom/-/asset_publishe r/GeBNyf6OrK1T/content/faro-convention-topical-series. “City Chambers and Cockburn Street (1895).” Miller, Robert. In The Municipal Buildings of Edinburgh: A Sketch Of Their History For Seven Hundred Years Written Mainly from the Original Records, First: Printed By Order of the Town Council, Edinburgh, 1895. Accessed November 18, 2022, via Lost Edinburgh, Facebook. “Edinburgh, 243 High Street, Anchor Close | Canmore.” Accessed November 22, 2022. https://canmore.org.uk/site/52309/edinburgh-243-high-street-anchor-close. “Edinburgh, 323 High Street, Warriston’s Close | Canmore.” Accessed November 22, 2022. https://canmore.org.uk/site/115347/edinburgh-323-high-street-warristons-clos e.

Edinburgh World Heritage. “Edinburgh Maps,” November 17, 2017. https://ewh.org.uk/maps/. EdinburghGuide.com. “Edinburgh Waverley Train Station.” Accessed November 21, 2022. https://edinburghguide.com/transport/train/edinburgh-waverley. EdinPhoto.org.uk. “Thomas Vernon Begbie .” City Art Center, 1915 1840. http://www.edinphoto.org.uk/pp/pp_begbie_0.htm. International Council on Monuments and Sites.“The NARA Document on Authenticity (1994) -” Accessed November 20, 2022. https://www.icomos.org/en/charters-and-texts/179-articles-en-francais/ressou rces/charters-and-standards/386-the-nara-document-on-authenticity-1994 International Council on Monuments and Sites.” The Venice Charter”-Accessed November 20, 2022. https://www.icomos.org/en/participer/179-articles-en-francais/ressources/char ters-and-standards/157-thevenice-charter. Lothian Buses. “Network Maps.” Accessed November 22, 2022. https://www.lothianbuses.com/maps-and-times/network-maps/. Malcolm, Charles A. (Charles Alexander). The Bank of Scotland, 1695-1945 / by Charles A. Malcolm. Place of publication not identified: [publisher not identified], 1945. “Managing Change in the Historic Environment: Accessibility .” Crown Copyright Historic Scotland, 2010. https://www.aberdeencity.gov.uk/sites/default/files/managing-change-accessi bility.pdf. Miller, Robert. “Photo: City Chambers and Cockburn Street (1895).” In The Municipal Buildings Of Edinburgh: A Sketch Of Their History For Seven Hundred Years Written Mainly from the Original Records, First. Lost Edinburgh; Facebook: Printed By Order of the Town Council, Edinburgh, 1895. https://www.facebook.com/lostedinburgh/photos/a.251802618210762/9246197 47595709/?type=3. “Old and New Towns of Edinburgh Management Plan.” UNESCO, WHC, 2017. https://ewh.org.uk/plan/assets/Management-Plan-2018b.pdf. “Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention.” UNESCO, WHC, July 2021. Peddy, Dick, and McKay. “Plan of Street to Be Formed from Waverly Bridge to the High Street,” 1859 1858. https://canmore.org.uk/collection/1436613.

Patrizio, Andre. “The Twisted Arcade: Unconnected Thoughts on Martin Creed’s Work No 1059.” Architecture and Culture 3, no. 2 (2015): 219-243. Rodwell, Dennis. “World Heritage Management and Community Engagement,.” Lecture, University of Edinburgh, October 18, 2022. Rothiemay, James Gordon. “Bird’s Eye View of Edinburgh in 1647.” maps.nls.uk: W & AK Johnston, ca. 1870, 1686 1615. https://maps.nls.uk/towns/rec/2741. “ROYAL-MILE.COM ROYAL MILE CLOSES.” Accessed November 22, 2022. http://www.royal-mile.com/royalmile-closes.html. Sime, John. “Prospects of the Edinburgh High Street, and Railway Station Access and Sanitary Improvement Company.” ,” 1840. https://canmore.org.uk/collection/1079104 . The Cockburn Association. “Timeline.” Accessed November 21, 2022. https://www.cockburnassociation.org.uk/history/timeline/. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. “European Symposium: Heritage and Accessibility.” UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Accessed November 22, 2022. https://whc.unesco.org/en/events/1005/. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. “Old and New Towns of Edinburgh.” Accessed November 15, 2022. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/728/. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. “The Criteria for Selection.” UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Accessed November 15, 2022. https://whc.unesco.org/en/criteria/. UNESCO World Heritage Center. “37 COM 8E - Decision.” UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Accessed November 17, 2022. https://whc.unesco.org/en/decisions/4964/. “Universal Declaration of Human Rights .” The UN General Assembly, 1948. https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights.