Culture and Agroforestry: A Brief Synopsis

STIPULATED DEFINITIONS Ethnobiodiversity: “knowledge, uses beliefs, conservation practices, management systems and language and classification systems that people have for their ecosystems, species and genetic diversity. It includes both indigenous knowledge and scientific knowledge.”

Flora: “plants of a particular region or habitat.”

Agroforestry: “a land use management system in which trees or shrubs are grown around or among crops or pastureland. This intentional combination of agriculture and forestry has varied benefits, including increased biodiversity and reduced erosion.”

Ethnolinguistics: ”(sometimes called cultural linguistics) is a field of linguistics that studies the relationship between language and culture and how different ethnic groups perceive the world. It is the combination between ethnology and linguistics.”

Epistemology : “the study of the nature of knowledge, justification, and the rationality of belief.”

Ontology: “the philosophical study of being.”

Etymology: “origin of a word and the historical development of its meaning.”

“Cultural heritage” “means any aspect of the culture of the Republic as expressed in the oral traditions.”

“Culture” “means the traditions, beliefs, traditional practices, arts, crafts and other social institutions of the people of the Republic, or of a particular community within the Republic.”

“Oral traditions” “means that body of knowledge of the indigenous people of the Marshall Islands about their past, including their beliefs, traditional practices (including traditional medicine and medical practices), skills, environment, and their spiritual world, which has been handed down, primarily in spoken form, from generation to generation.”

BWIJ IN RI-BWEBWENATOàLINEAGE OF STORYTELLERS Jejjo, Laibon “The beginning of the Marshalls.” In A Preliminary Collection and Study of Marshallese Folklore by Keith Chambers, 34-38. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1969.

Jelibor, Jam “The Beginning of this World.” In Stories from the Marshall Islands by Jack Tobin, 11-36. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2004.

Kabua, Dorothy “Story of the Heaven Post Men.” In Stories from the Marshall Islands,

by Jack A. Tobin, 48. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2001.

———. “The Origin of Tattooing.” In Stories from the Marshall Islands,

by Jack A. Tobin, 49-50. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2001.

———. “Liwatuonmour.” In Stories from the Marshall Islands,

by Jack A. Tobin, 53. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2001.

LITERATURE REVIEW Taafaki, Irene J., Maria Kabua Fowler, and Randolph R. Thaman. Traditional Medicine of the Marshall Islands. Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 2006.

Debrum, Ione. ”Preserved Pandanus Paste.” In Life in the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Majuro, Marshall Islands: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 2004.

Spenneman, Dirk. Enaanin Etto: Essays on Marshallese Past. Majuro Marshall Islands: Ministry of Culture & Internal Affairs: Historic Preservation Office, 1993.

CULTUREà FOOD FACILITATES IDENTITY MAKING BECAUSE WE ALL EAT HENCE THE SAYING “YOU ARE WHAT YOU EAT” IEN RAKà Breadfruit Season (Summer) ANONEANà Pandanus Season (Winter)

Main food plant was and is sill without a doubt breadfruit (e.g. bwiro), Pandanus (e.g. Jaankun), and Taro where it could be grown in the Southern Atolls. *Arrowroot (Makmok) has been reported throughout the Marshall Islands, absent only on Wake (Enen-Kio), Bokak and Bikar.

JINED ILO KOBOà Gave the responsibility to Lorok/Lakamraan to look after the Crops and Seasons

ETHNOLINGUISTICS OF AELON KEIN ADàTHESE OUR ATOLLS AEàCurrent LONàSky KEINàPlants and things ADà Ours

COLONIAL TIMELINE à1885-1914 (Germany): Commodification of Coconut/Copra à1914-1945 (Japan): Influx of Rice à1945-1986 (Trust Territory Period under USA Trusteeship): Tin meat influx in the 1960s during JFK Reforms with monetary aid increases Role of Land Shifts from Food Security/Sustainable Livelihood Purposes to Copra Plantations (Trade) to Military/Government & Non- Government(e.g. Business) Land Leases

“You Are What you Eat” Sustainable Livelihoodà Sustainable Development “These Europeans call it Sustainable Development yet Sustainable Livelihood has been part of Pacific Existence since forever.” Dr. Nabobo-Baba

Subsistence Lifestyleà Cash Economy KajuràRijerbal First Fruits/Ekkanà Monetary Tribute (Percentage) CanoesàFossil Fuel Transportation (e.g. Boats, Ships, Planes) Traditional Local Foodà Imported and Processed Meat HealthyàDiabetes/Obesity/NCD

PANDANUS PASTEàJAANKUN PRESERVED BREADFRUITàBWIRO à“Food Facilitates Identity Making because we all Eat”: Navigation Culture prioritized Breadfruit (e.g. Used for Canoes and Bwiro was used for long distance voyaging which saved us from Scurvy) and Pandanus (e.g. Used for Clothing/Mats/Sail for Canoes and Jaankun was used for long distance voyaging which saved us from Scurvy) àA Historical Event: Kemem àCultural Preservation: Life Skills and Community Building àNutrition (Pandanus and Breadfruit are excellent Substitute to Processed food although the latter has overcome Marshallese products ) àEconomy (One Island One Product: Idea to modernize local food production) àRevival (Reintroducing Life Skills lost to modernity) àDevelopment (Atoll Development Projects on various atolls at village and development partner incentive sadly these incentives to replant are often monetary)

Debrum, Ione. ”Preserved Pandanus Paste.” In Life in the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Majuro, Marshall Islands: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 2004.

FLORA OF THE MARSHALL ISLANDS -Plans in the Marshall Islands is composed of a limited number of indigenous species and dominated by exotic introduced species where out of an estimated 500 species, only about 80 percent are possible indigenous somewhere in the Marshall Islands.

-Most atolls/islets have around 20-60 of these indigenous species.

-Only two endemic species are two grasses (Leptura gasparrincensis and Lepturopetium marshallensisàHave no Marshallese Name).

-The remaining 400 or so species accounting for 84% of the total are non indigenous exotic species introduced by humans. Of this 400, it is estimated that 17 are aboriginal introductions that were brought to the RMI before European contact by either Marshall Islanders or other Pacific Islanders. The remaining remaining species were probably introduced since European contact in the early 1500s, 1526 at its earliest apparently. à 48 out of 61 medicinal plants are indigenous meaning only 13 are introduced. à Main Natural Terrestrial ecosystems (e.g. Vegetation Types). à Inland Forest à Coastal Shoreline or Littoral Vegetation à Mangroves, coastal wetlands and Swamps à Coconut-dominated agroforest and scrubland à Excavated taro pits à Household and urban gardens à Intensive vegetable gardens Taafaki, Irene J., Maria Kabua Fowler, and Randolph R. Thaman. Traditional Medicine of the Marshall Islands. Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, à Ruderal vegetation University of the South Pacific, 2006.

INLAND FOREST àThe dominant species are large broadleaved evergreen trees species, such as kanal (pisonia grandis,), pinpin (Hernandia nmphaeiafolia), kojbar (Neissosperma oppotisfolium) and kubok (Intsia bijuga). Wop (Barringtonia asiatica) is occasionally present. àSmaller Trees include uttilomar (Guetarda speciosa), bob (pandanus tectorius), ekkon or kukon (Terminalia samoensis) and kutaak (Allophyllys Timoriensis).

Lukwej (Calophyllum inophyllum) was also possible present and coconut palms (ni (cocos nucifera) but due to coconut plantations. On some atolls, such as Arno, Kamen (Dodnaea Viscosa) and kabwijlon or keinwa (soulamea amara) are also found in inland vegetation. àVines (Marlap or marpele (ipomoea macrantha) and kaonon(Cassytha filiformis), kartop or marjej (Asplenium nidus). àFerns (Kino/phymastororus grossus), anomkadede or iri (Nephrolepis acutifolia) and Aspleniuym nidues; Polynesia Arrowroot, makmok (Tacca leontopetaloides, and seedlings/saplings of larger tree species. *Inland forests are main habits for indigenous land birds, sea birds, land crabs, insects, and other indigenous invertebrates on top of introduced domesticated pigs. àBIG TREES (JALITAK/JANNOR) Taafaki, Irene J., Maria Kabua Fowler, and Randolph R. Thaman. Traditional Medicine of the Marshall Islands. Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 2006.

LITTORAL VEGETATION OR COASTLINE SHORELINE àOcean Coast Dominant Species are Konnat (Scaevola taccada) and kiden (Tournefortia argentea), Kalane (Suriana Maritama), ni (cocos nucifera), and occasionally bob (Pandanus tectoris), utilomar (Guettarda speciosa), and lukwej (Calophyllum inophyllum). àUncommon but otherwise present in some cases are wop (Barringtonia asiatica) àOn more protected lagoon coasts there is greater diversity (shrubs, konnat/ scaevola taccada, markubwebwe or marjej/wollastonia biflore, and the trees, ni/ cocos nucfera, bob/pandanus tectorius, kiden/tourneforitia argentea, lukwej/ calophyllum inophllum, kono/cordia subcordata, uttilomar/guettarda speciosa, kaar/premna serratifolia, kukkon or ekkon/terminalia samoensis, pinpin/ hernandia nymphaeifolia and occasionally kanal/pisonia grandis. àWhere limestone outcrops occur, kone (Pemphis acidula) is common

Taafaki, Irene J., Maria Kabua Fowler, and Randolph R. Thaman. Traditional Medicine of the Marshall Islands. Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 2006.

MANGROVES, COASTAL WETLANDS AND SWAMPS àMajuro but more wide spread in other atolls such as Ailinglaplap, Namdrik, Arno, and Mili. àDominant Tree Species: brown mangrove, jon (Bruguiera gyjnorrhiza), white mangrove, bulabol (Sonneratia alba), and red-flowered black mangrove, kimemem (Lumnitzera littorea), with kone (Pemphis acidua) on higher ground. àAlso seen along the margins of mangroves and coastal wetlands are the common mangrove associates lukwej (Calophyllum inophyllum), Kono (Cordia Subcordata), markubwebwe or marjej (Wollastonia biflora), marbele (Ipomoea macrantha), beach sedge, perelijma (Fimbristylis cymosa), ujuj aitok (Lepturus repens) and the fern, kino (phymatosorus grossus).

Taafaki, Irene J., Maria Kabua Fowler, and Randolph R. Thaman. Traditional Medicine of the Marshall Islands. Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 2006.

COCONUT-DOMINATE AGROFOREST AND SCRUBLAND àReplaced most of the more important food crops due to commodification of Coconut during the COPRA plantation days àCoconut stands near the seaward sides and towards the centers of islets contain a greater number of understory species including Tournefortia, Guettarda, Panadanus, Scaevola, Morinda, Citrifolia, Wollastonia bifloria, Premna serratifolia, young coconut palms. Laportea ruderalis and Cassytha filiformis are occasional while in the shade and at the base of the coconut, Psilotum nudum and Asplenium are found. àOther herbaceous species: Centella asiatia, Tacca leontopetaloides, Eustaschys petrea, digitaria setiera, conyza canadensis, and bidens pilosa. àIn more well preserved groves on shallow soils: Thuarea involuta, Lepturus repens, Stenotaphrum micranthum, Fimbristylis cymosa, Chamaesyce spp., Triumfetta procumbens, and the exotic burr grass, Cenhrus echinantus. àScattered Trees include: Calophyllum inopphluum, Cordai subcordata, Guettarda speciosa, Hernandia nymphaeifolia, Pisonia grandis, and Premna serratifolia and probably Instia bijuga and Neissoperma oppositfolum.

Taafaki, Irene J., Maria Kabua Fowler, and Randolph R. Thaman. Traditional Medicine of the Marshall Islands. Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 2006.

EXCAVATED TARO PITS àLargely abandoned due to modernity and salinity àMain plants in taro pits: giant taro (iaraj/cyrtosperma chamissonis), common taro (kotak/colocasia esculenta), giant taro (wot/alcolasia macrorhiza), tannie or America taro, kaliklik (Xanthosoma sagittifolum), and bananas or pinana or keepran (Musa cultivars).

Taafaki, Irene J., Maria Kabua Fowler, and Randolph R. Thaman. Traditional Medicine of the Marshall Islands. Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 2006.

HOUSEHOLD AND URBAN GARDENS àVaries in individual household particularly amongst more privileged landowners as Government owns less than one percent of land àIndigenous Trees common in household and urban gardens include Barringtonia asiatica, Calophyllum inophyllum, Clerodendrum inerme, Cocos nucifera, Cordia subcordota, Guettarda speciosa, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Morinda citrifolia, Premma serratifolia, Terminalia catappa, and Tournefortia argentea.

Taafaki, Irene J., Maria Kabua Fowler, and Randolph R. Thaman. Traditional Medicine of the Marshall Islands. Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 2006.

INTENSIVE VEGETABLE GARDENS àFarm Projects àDominant Species in Garden: spring onions, Chinese chives, lettuce, Chinese cabbage or pa’ak tsoi, flowering white cabbage or pa’ak tsoi sum, mustard cabbage, pumpkin, watermelon, angled loofah or ridge gourd, smooth loofah or sponge gourd, bitter gourd or balsam pear, lablab bean, long bean, tree spinach, hibiscus spinach, bell pepper, tomato, and egg plant.

Taafaki, Irene J., Maria Kabua Fowler, and Randolph R. Thaman. Traditional Medicine of the Marshall Islands. Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 2006.

RUDERAL SITES àIndigenous species found in ruderal habitats: common coastal sledge, perelijman, the grasses, ujok aitok and ujoj katejukukjuk, and the berbaceous species neen kotkot, prostrate beach burr, atat, markinenjojo, topo, and beach sunflower (marjej or markubwebwe).

Taafaki, Irene J., Maria Kabua Fowler, and Randolph R. Thaman. Traditional Medicine of the Marshall Islands. Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 2006.

TRADITIONAL LAND TENURE/MANAGEMENT In the traditional way of setting out the land, a household would own a wato running from the lagoon to the ocean shore. The vegetation pattern would show a clear zonation and sorting of plants from the lagoon to the ocean shore which is correlated to the soils and the wind action; thus, having a slice of land running from shore to shore allowed people to have access to all types of resources. Only in more recent times, when the population increased to the maximum the atolls could carry, the land allotments became split, with some families having no land bordering the lagoon or the ocean.

Let us take an imaginary walk through one such wato, and let us start at the ocean side. The vegetation on the Oceanside commonly consisted of a mixed broadleaf forest, with a few tree species and a number of shrubs, usually utilomar (Guettardia speciosa), kiden (Tournefortia argentea), Pandanus (Pandanus tectorius), köno (Cordia subcordata), Pi™pi™ (Hernandia sonora), kö™e (Pemphis acidula) and könnÃt (Scaevola serica).

These plants are very resistant to the salt-laden air the constant wind brings in from the breaker zone at the reef. The soil at the ocean shore is very gravelly with little humus content. The soil in this zone would consist of boulders and large cobbles, thrown up by the waves of the sea to a distinct strand wall, resembling the backbone of an island.

Going inland, the soil would gradually become finer, first gravel and then coarse grained sand, and the humus content would increase. In this zone an abundance of breadfruit trees would have been planted, providing food. In fact the trees were planted in such an abundance that we can speak of a breadfruit forest.

In the very center of the island, there where the underlying ground water lens would be the thickest, taro patches, artificial depressions in the ground, would be present. These taro patches, in which swamp taro (Cyrtosperma chamissionis) would be grown, were surrounded by Pandanus trees, preferable the low growing variety, not used for food but for mat-weaving.

These Pandanus would act as a windbreak for the large taro leaves, and would also act as screen to filter out any salt spray the winds may bring. We have to imagine that every piece of ground in the center would have been taken up by taro patches, Pandanus plants and roads/tracks. Going further towards the lagoon shore the vegetation zonation would once again show a wide zone of breadfruit forests which would make way to utility and ornamental shrubs along the rear side of the household units.

Spenneman, Dirk. Enaanin Etto: Essays on Marshallese Past. Majuro Marshall Islands: Ministry of Culture & Internal Affairs: Historic Preservation Office, 1993.

TYPICAL ZONATION PATTERN OF TRADITIONAL AND MODERN VEGETATION TRADITIONAL & MODERN à LEEWARD SIDE

WINDWARD SIDE

Spenneman, Dirk. Enaanin Etto: Essays on Marshallese Past. Majuro Marshall Islands: Ministry of Culture & Internal Affairs: Historic Preservation Office, 1993.

CULTURAL BARRIERS/MODERN BARRIERS -Knowledge of medicinal plants and the way of preparing medicine, how to plant taro (iaraj, kotak, and wot), pandanus (bob), and breadfruit (ma) and how to fish or collect shellfish and crabs on reef are all examples of Marshallese ethno biodiversity, some for which is often kept sere within families or clans. The most knowledgeable of the older Marshallese still know many of the names and uses for, and stories and legends about the more common plants, animal, fish shellfish, crabs and other sea creatures. However, there are only a few true traditional Marshallese scientists who really know the names, appearances, habitats, characteristics, and management practices associated with most of the Marshall Islands terrestrial and marine plant and animal species and genetic varieties. Unfortunately, much of this knowledge is being lost as the older people pass away and the younger generation become increasingly affected by globalization and modernization and lose their traditional cultural links with their atolls environment.

-Most indigenous species are extinct and young Marshallese will more than likely never be able to see what these particular species look like even if a lack of interest is not a problem -Abandonment of traditional ways in favor of modernization (e.g. imported and processed foods)

Taafaki, Irene J., Maria Kabua Fowler, and Randolph R. Thaman. Traditional Medicine of the Marshall Islands.

Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 2006.