Innovative Affordable Housing

INNOVATIVE AFFORDABLE HOUSING ARC 402/503 Advanced Architectural Design | Spring 2025 | Professor Thomas Barrie FAIA

contents Delivery Methods

05

Sustainable Practices

29

Housing Typologies

77

Ownership Models

125

Planning

177

Zoning Reform

211

Appendix

245

Brandon Rumley | Corey Wazniak

Naveen Vanapalli | Srinath Sivakumar

Sanchana Bandari | Harshavardhan Raju

Wayne Evans | Noelle Robinson

Alap Parikh | Anushree Zumkhawala

Caroline Coyle | Riya Chaudhary

DELIVERY METHODS Brandon Rumley Corey Wazniak

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Chapter Contents Introduction

08

Overall History

10

Current Practices

18

Evaluations

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Introduction

Delivery Methods Delivery Method is a term used in construction to describe the process from the projects initial inception to completion.

While there are many different types of delivery methods to choose from, this chapter will be focused on modular construction and manufactured housing as the delivery methods. describing the potential benefits and drawbacks when using these delivery methods in the context of affordable housing.

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Modular + Manufactured Housing The term “Modular Construction” refers to several types of building techniques that partially fabricated offsite in separate peices/units and shipped to the building’s site to be assembled and finished. Within this term, there are various levels of completness: panelized, traditional modular, prefabricated prefinished volumetric construction (PPVC), and manufactured housing. In this chapter, we will be referring to panelized, traditional modular and PPVC as modular construction, separating these from manufactured housing. While generally modular and manufactured housing are created in a similar process, their legalities fall within different classifications.

Essentially, modular construction is built to local building code whereas manufactured housing is built to the federally maintained Housing and Urban Development (HUD) code. The reasonings behind these separate classifications are due to how the premanufactured units are secured to the foundation. Modular structures are permanently secured to a monolithic foundation, exactly the same as traditional construction.

However, manufactured housing is built on a transportable frame (often referred to, although not legally known as, “trailers”) that are secured to pier foundations via tie downs. In other words, this method of security to the site is considered temporary.

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Overall History

1800

1900 10

2000

Present 11

Mid 1800’s - Early 1900’s

Early Ideas Early examples of modular construction include the “Portable Colonial House” created by London Carpenter H. John Manning in the 1830’s. Manning created this prefabricated home to be set up with only a wrench for his son who was immigrating to Austrailia at the time. By the 1850’s, the California Gold Rush attracted many Americans to move to the undeveloped west coast of the United States. This created the need for a large amount of housing to be built in a short period of time. Modular housing became the solution as it could be built on the east coast and then shipped out west.

These early examples became a topic of discussion amongst prominent architects such as Le Corbusier and Jean Prouve. Corbusier however, argued for standardization of Housing in coorelation to the promotion of modernist styles in order to more quickly and affordably increase the housing stock. This concept tackled housing shortages more broadly as standardization doesn’t literally translate to modular and manufactured delivery methods as the solution.

Modular construction continued to be experimented with through prototypes and exhibitions at small and large scales such as the Jean Prouve’s Prefabricated House and Joseph Paxton’s Crystal Palace.

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Early 1900’s

Industrial Revolution Stemming from the early efforts from the 1800’s, Modular construction became popular during the Industrial Revolution, especially in the United States as cities were becoming densely populated, unsanitary and dangerous.

Modular housing became part of the of the larger solution to the problems of the city by allowing people to avoid cities almost entirely. Housing could be built outside of cities at affordable rates and catered to use of automobiles.

Companies like E.F. Hogsdon and Sears, Roebuck and Co. began selling single family homes through mail order catalogs. Customers would send a deposit and recieve their home order via train a few weeks later.

The Levitt brothers were also large contributors to the mass production of single family housing outside urban areas. Instead of premanufacturing the homes in pieces in a factory, they created an onsite assembly line-like construction process. This allowed them to more efficiently to build a large amount of housing homogenously in the same area. Whole housing communities (know today as suburban neighborhoods) were build rapidly in the countryside.

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Mid 1900’s

War + Mass Destruction Throughout the first half of the twentieth century, the world experienced mass destruction during both world wars. This pre-exisisting shortage of housing, exacerbated by these wars, called on solutions to quickly saturate the housing stock both during and after the wars. Modular housing became a popular solution to this shortage as they could be deployed in most areas quickly and, in some cases, discreetly. This was largely seen as a temporary solution to house people until the war concluded and cities could be reconstructed.

Modular housing supplied dwellings for displaced both civilians and people directly involved with war efforts.

The creation of the Manhattan Project prompted the constructino of a top secret facility in the remote area of Morgantown, West Virginia. “Alphabet Housing” was created for workers and their families and provided multiple housing types. This premanufactured form of housing allowed these structures to be built prior to inhabiting the area.

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Mid - Late 1900’s

Mass Housing + Modernism From the conclusion of the second world war through the cold war era, the need for housing was increasing continuously. Planners and architects began to draw on the ideas put forth by early modernist efforts such as standardization to achieve affordable, quality mass housing solutions. While these projects set out to provide large amounts of housing, they often weren’t supported and sufficiently maintained by the owners and stakeholders which left occuopants in grotesque and unsafe living conditions. As countries continued to build their economies and wealth, the interest of affordable housing dwindled with some of these housing projects eventually failing.

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Late 1900’s - Present Day

Present Day The failures of early mass housing projects showed that the basic needs of all people are far more complex that was was initially accounted for. The lack of artistic expression, quality public spaces, and durable components displayed the blatant disinterest that some planners and stakeholders had when creating these projects.

Today, professionals are constantly working to produce inclusive, quality affordable housing that acknoledges the diverse needs of people.

Modular housing, often being constructed parallel to traditional methods, is seen as a potential contributor to achieving better affordable housing. Modular Construction allows architects and developers to be more flexible in what these solutions are and how they are delivered. different housing types and layouts can be efficiently produced and depending on the project details, modular construction can be an effective way to conserve resources in certain stages of the project.

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17

Conventional Construction vs.

Modular Construction

Trucks storing material

Climate Controlled Evironment

Automative Construction

18

Modular construction is always done in a factory while conventional construction takes place on the site. In the factory, organized assembly lines construct panels and units efficiently with the help from machinery or robots. When units are completed, they are loaded on trucks and shipped to the site. The trucks unload the parts, then a temporary crane assembles the parts. This construction method allows for a clean site with little debris, differing from conventional construction.

On a conventional construction site, materials lay on site and are exposed to the elements for days or weeks before it becomes part of the building. The construction process also lasts longer, requiring a more permanant crane to be borrowed and for a longer period of time, ultimately increasing the price of the project.

Trucks dropping off units

Figure 1.1

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Construction Types

Conventional

Panelized

Conventional framing or platform framing, is a method of building structures where each piece of material is cut and assembled on-site to create the framework.

This includes the walls, floors, and roof. The process involves constructing the building from the ground up, piece by piece, using standard material sizes and traditional framing techniques.

Panelized houses utilize wall panels manufactured in a controlled environment.

The panelized walls are then shipped to the construction site, where they will be installed on the prepared foundation.

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Modular

Manufactured

A modular home is partially built in a plant, then shipped to a development site where it will be placed on a foundation, and its roof structure and exterior finishes will be completed.

Also prefabricated and built in a plant, manufactured homes require a platform or structure to mount them, making them the more permanent version of mobile homes. Manufactured homes are transported in their entirety, and must meet HUD safety and quality regulations.

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States of Completion Drywall Glued to Studs

Sealed Window

Sealed Door

Top of Wall Sealed

Electrical

Bottom of Wall Sealed Sheathing Plumbing

Figure 1.2 22

Modular units vary in completeness, commonalities of units include framing of floors, walls, ceiling as well as insulation and sheathing. Specificied packages that include more finishes are possible and cost more.

Some packages include rainscreen battens, flashing, windows, and doors. Once the unit arrives on site, other trades complete the construction by adding roof structure, interior and exterior finishes. Modular units have mainly been built with 3 materials, those being wood, steel, and the less common, concrete.

Figure 1.3 23

Why Modular?

Modular Construction Schedule Design + Engineering

Permits & Approvals

Site/lot Development & Foundation Building Construction at Plant

Install and Site Restoration

Time Savings Simultaneous site development and home construction at the plant can reduce the schedule by 30% to 50%

Site Built Construction Schedule Design + Engineering

Permits & Approvals

Site/lot Development & Foundation

Building Construction

Site Restoration

Figure 1.4 24

Pros vs. Cons?

Less Waste

Reduced Time on Site Affordable Design Flexibility

Controlled Environment

Delivery Issues

Standardization Lack of Communication Easy to Transport

Reduced Risk Stronger Assemblies

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PROJECT + PRODUCTION DATA NORTH AMERICA

Figure 1.5A

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Projects analyzed were from the following markets:

Multifamily 20% Office (incl. government) 18% Educational 15% Retail 11% Workforce housing 8% Healthcare 6% Correctional 2% Bathrooms/Pods 2% Other (includes data centers, testing labs, kiosks, ticket booths) 18%

Structural Materials Used:

Wood frame 50% Steel frame 42.9% - Completed modular projects, 2023 - 75 analyzed by MBI - 62 in U.S. - 13 in CAN - Supports other collected data

Concrete 7.1%

Figure 1.5B 27

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SUSTAINABLE PRACTICES Naveen Vanapalli Srinath Sivakumar

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Chapter Contents What is a Sustainable Practice?

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How to achieve and certify sustainability?

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LEED

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Adaptive Reuse

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Case Study

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The Hannover Principles Design For Sustainablity

The Hannover Principles were collaboratively developed by a diverse group of environmentalists, architects, and policymakers during the 1991. International Conference on the World Future in Hannover, Germany at 2000.

WHAT IS A SUSTAINABLE PRACTICE ?

32

1) Insist on the right of humanity and nature to co-exist in a healthy, supportive, diverse and sustainable condition, 2) Recognize interdependence. The elements of human design interact with and depend upon the natural world, with broad and diverse implications at every scale. Expand design considerations to recognize even distant effects.

WILLIAM MCDONOUGH & MICHAEL BRAUNGART

3) Respect relationships between spirit and matter. Consider all aspects of human settlement, including community, dwelling industry and trade, in terms of existing and evolving connections between spiritual and material consciousness.

4) Accept responsibility for the consequences of design decisions upon human well-being, the viability of natural systems and their right to coexist.

5) Create safe objects of long-term value. Do not burden future generations with requirements for maintenance or vigilant administration of potential dangers due to the careless creation of products, processes or standards.

6) Eliminate the concept of waste. Evaluate and optimize the full life cycle of products and processes to approach the state of natural systems, in which there is no waste.

7) Rely on natural energy flows. Human designs should, like the living world, derive their creative force from perpetual solar income.Incorporate this energy efficiently and safely for responsible use.

8) Understand the limitations of design. No human creation lasts forever, and design does not solve all problems. Those who create and plan should practice humility in the face of nature. Treat nature as a model and mentor, not as an inconvenience to be evaded or controlled.

9)Seek constant improvement by the sharing of knowledge. Encourage direct and open communication between colleagues, patrons, manufacturers and users to link long-term sustainable considerations with ethical responsibility and to reestablish the integral relationship between natural processes and human activity.

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1987

1990

1993

Establishment of the Hannover Principles

Introduction of BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method)

Founding of the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC)

EVOLUTION

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1998

2006

2014

Launch of LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design)

Introduction of the Living Building Challenge

Establishment of the WELL Building Standard

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Various certifications exist to evaluate and validate whether a building meets the standards of green and sustainable construction. These certifications provide a comprehensive framework for assessing a building’s environmental performance, energy efficiency, resource conservation, and overall sustainability.

Some of those certifications are - LEED, WELL, Living Building Challenge.

LEED Certified Buildings

AVG. SITE OUI KBtu/ft2

Non - LEED Buildings

HOW TO ACHIEVE AND CERTIFY SUSTAINABILITY ?

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37

Points for each credit

15 LOCATION AND TRANSPORT

9 SUSTAINABLE SITES

LEED

12 WATER EFFICIENCY

34 ENERGY AND ATMOSPHERE

13 MATERIALS AND RESOURCES

16 INDOOR ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY

6 INNOVATION

4 REGIONAL PRIOIRITY

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LEED v4.1 for Residence provides a set of credits and performance metrics tailored to assess and promote sustainable practices in the design, construction, and operation of single-family and multi-family residences.

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Points for each category

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18

01

02

Reduce the building’s overall energy consumption through high-efficiency design, insulation, systems, and renewable energy integration.

Set up automated energy monitoring systems and provide regular reports on energy performance.

Use smart technology to reduce electricity use during peak times.

ENERGY AND ATMOSPHERE

40

05

Add solar panels or other renewable energy sources to power the building.

01

Choose refrigerants that are less harmful to the environment and check for leaks.

01

06

Design shorter and better-insulated pipes to save energy and water.

Test building systems before and after construction to ensure they run efficiently.

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Reduce the building’s overall energy consumption through high-efficiency design, insulation, systems, and renewable energy integration.

Design shorter and better-insulated pipes to save energy and water.

AFFORDABILITY = PASSIVE DESIGN 42

NON FUNCTIONAL LOADS 36%

SPACE HEATING 33.1%

WATER HEATING 12.9%

According to the Center for Sustainable Systems - University of Michigan, The usage of energy in a residential sector is as shown in the figure. In 2022, miscellaneous loads used more electricity than any other residential end use (lighting, HVAC, water heating, and refrigeration), accounting for 36% of primary energy and 50% of electricity use.

RESIDENTIAL ENERGY USAGE

SPACE COOLING 11.5% LIGHTING 6.5%

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Sustainability practices in Raleigh prioritize reducing energy consumption for cooling during hot, humid summers while ensuring adequate insulation and air sealing to retain warmth during mild winters. This balanced approach differs from other climates where the emphasis might be solely on cooling, heating, or water conservation.

By understanding Raleigh’s specific climatic needs, architects and builders can design buildings that are both comfortable and energy-efficient, enhancing sustainability and reducing environmental impact.

USA Köppen climate classification

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COOLING IN SUMMER

HEATING IN WINTER

PASSIVE STRATERGIES

PRODUCER

ACTIVE STRATERGIES

REDUCER

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PASSIVE DESIGN STRATEGIES

Optimize building orientation Orienting a building along the east-west axis maximizes solar control by reducing exposure to harsh morning and afternoon sunlight, enhances passive heating and cooling, and optimizes natural daylighting for energy efficiency.

HOW TO DESIGN AN ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDING ?

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PASSIVE DESIGN STRATEGIES MONITOR CLERESTORY

SIDE LIGHT SKYLIGHT

Daylighting Options Daylighting strategies like side lighting, clerestory windows, skylights, and monitor windows reduce the need for artificial lighting and heating, but may increase cooling demands in warmer months.

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PASSIVE DESIGN STRATEGIES

Double Pane Air Filled Window

Window to Wall Ratio (WWR) For Raleigh’s climate, the most optimal WWR is in the range of 20-30% if a double pane, air filled window type is used on the south facade.

On the east and west facade, the most favourable condition is a range of 20-70% when, double pane, argon filled windows are used when combined with blinds as a shading device.

Double Pane Argon Filled Window

HOW TO DESIGN AN ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDING ?

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PASSIVE DESIGN STRATEGIES

Overhangs and Lightshelves To optimize daylighting and shading in Raleigh, overhangs on the south façade should be 3’8” deep for a 5’ high opening, effectively blocking the high summer sun (78°) while allowing lower winter sun (30°) to enter. Additionally, a light shelf extending 3’8” outside and 1’5” inside for a 5’ high opening with a 2’ clerestory will provide shade until the equinox (54°) while reflecting natural light deeper into the space, enhancing winter solar gain and reducing glare.

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PASSIVE DESIGN STRATEGIES

Vegetative Cooling Shaded walls and surfaces may be 11-25°C (20—45°F) cooler than unshaded surfaces.

Temperatures under a canopy of shade trees may be reduced 1-5°C (2-9°F) compared to open terrain,and 11-17°C (2030°F) compared to parking lots.

Locate: Trees on the east, west, southeast, and southwest sidesof a building (east, west, northeast, and northwest in southern latitudes).

HOW TO DESIGN AN ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDING ?

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PASSIVE DESIGN STRATEGIES

Cool Roof

In hot climates, and climates with hot summers, a light colored roof reflects sunlight, remains cooler, offsets C02 warming, and reduces the amount of heat transferred to the interior of a building.

Cool roofs have surfaces that reflect sunlight and emit or discharge heat efficiently, keeping them cooler on sunny days.

In hot climates, cool roofs can help mitigate urban heat islands, reflect solar radiation back to space,and keep indoor spaces comfortable.

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PASSIVE DESIGN STRATEGIES

Cross Ventilation Window openings located perpendicular toprevailing winds, and coupled with openings on theopposite side of a space or building, will providenatural ventilation for fresh air and/or spacecooling.

Adequate cross ventilation will removeheat from a space or building and maintain indoorair temperatures approximately 1.5 C° (2.7 F°)above the outdoor air temperatures.

HOW TO DESIGN AN ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDING ?

52

PASSIVE DESIGN STRATEGIES

Stack Effect In hot climates, and climates with hot summers, a light colored roof reflects sunlight, remains cooler, offsets C02 warming, and reduces the amount of heat transferred to the interior of a building. Cool roofs have surfaces that reflect sunlight and emit or discharge heat efficiently, keeping them cooler on sunny days.

In hot climates, cool roofs can help mitigate urban heat islands, reflect solar radiation back to space,and keep indoor spaces comfortable.

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PASSIVE DESIGN STRATEGIES

Vegetative Cooling Shaded walls and surfaces may be 11-25°C (20—45°F) cooler than unshaded surfaces.

Temperatures under a canopy of shade trees may be reduced 1-5°C (2-9°F) compared to open terrain,and 11-17°C (20-30°F) compared to parking lots.

Locate: Trees on the east, west, southeast, and southwest sidesof a building (east, west, northeast, and northwest in southern latitudes).

HOW TO DESIGN AN ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDING ?

54

PASSIVE DESIGN STRATEGIES

Vegetative Cooling Shaded walls and surfaces may be 11-25°C (20—45°F) cooler than unshaded surfaces.

Temperatures under a canopy of shade trees may be reduced 1-5°C (2-9°F) compared to open terrain,and 11-17°C (20-30°F) compared to parking lots.

Locate: Trees on the east, west, southeast, and southwest sidesof a building (east, west, northeast, and northwest in southern latitudes).

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PASSIVE DESIGN STRATEGIES

Water Conservation Water is being increasingly viewed as a finiteresource. In evaluating water improvements forgreen buildings, the delivery and consumption ofboth cold and hot water should be considered.

Reducing the consumption of hot water saves bothwater and the energy for heating the water

HOW TO DESIGN AN ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDING ?

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PASSIVE DESIGN STRATEGIES

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Choosing Smart Locations – Build in areas with existing infrastructure, avoiding environmentally sensitive sites like floodplains and farmlands.

Supporting Community Revitalization – Prioritize high-density urban areas, brownfields, and underserved neighborhoods to boost economic and social development.

LOCATION AND TRANSPORT 58

Reducing Car Dependency – Ensure proximity to public transit, walkable destinations, and bike facilities to encourage alternative, low-carbon transportation.

Minimizing Environmental Footprint – Reduce parking space, install EV charging stations, and integrate bike-friendly designs to lower emissions and promote sustainability.

- HOW TO CHOOSE A SITE ?

59

existing infrastructure,

Choosing Smart Locations – Build in areas with avoiding environmentally sensitive sites like floodplains and farmlands.

LOCATION AND TRANSPORT 60

ROADS BIKE LANES

PUBLIC TRANSPORT HOSPITAL

SCHOOLS

WATER SUPPLY ELECTRICITY SUPPLY TELECOMMUNICATIONS

EMERGENCY SERVICES

EXISTING BUILT FORM = ADAPTIVE REUSE 61

BENIFITS REDUCES COST New builds in New York City generally cost US$600-700 per square foot, while a conversion is closer to US$300-400 per square foot. Across the board, reports show that on average adaptive reuse typically cost 16% less than new build projects. Operating costs are improved as well, thanks to apartment vacancy rates being half of average office vacancy rates.

The process of reusing an existing building for a purpose other than which it was originally built or designed for.

ADAPTIVE REUSE 62

REDUCES TIME OF CONSTRUCTION

SUSTAINABLE

While new developments usually take 4-5 years, conversion projects average just 2.5 years, including the permitting phase.

Studies show that repurposing an existing building produces 50-70% less emissions than new builds.

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Cable and Wire Manufacturing - Multi-Family Housing in Williamstown, Massachusetts

ADAPTIVE REUSE - EXAMPLES

Cheese Factory

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Contemporary Art : THE MOMENTARY hub for resident artists- Bentonville, AR

Airplane Hangar - Google’s LA Headquarters

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Cable and Wire Manufacturing - Multi-Family Housing in Williamstown, Massachusetts

1873

A. Loop & Company

1892

Boston Finishing Works

1912

Boyd Corduroy Company

1936

Cornish Wire

1960

General Cable Company

1984

Carol Cabel 1996 - Mill Shut Down

2003 96,000 SQ.FT. 1 BEDROOM

61 UNITS 2 BEDROOM

13 AFFORDABLE 3 BEDROOM

utilizes highly sustainable, energy efficient and eco-friendly systems and materials.

ADAPTIVE REUSE - EXAMPLES

Adaptive Reuse + Restoration - FineGold Alexander Archtiects

2016

Rental Community

2022

Selling Flats

66

Adaptive reuse of mill buildings and materials

Walkable and bikeable neighborhood

Durable and native landscaping

Water and energy conserving appliances, fixtures, and mechanical systems

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Zero-Carbon Housing Roosevelt Village

Passive Design

995 E Santa Clara Ave ,CA 6-storey - 75 unit 71,000 sqft Decarbonising Electric grid Optimized Solar PV

Dynamic Ventilation

Load Shifting Domestic Hot Water

Virtual Net Meter Building Passive Features Human-centered Design Design Intergration

CASE STUDY 68

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Zero-Carbon Housing

CASE STUDY 70

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Zero-Carbon Housing

CASE STUDY 72

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IS SUSTAINABILITY AFFORDABLE ?

CONCLUSION

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The answer is Yes and No. Some sustainable design strategies can reduce costs, making sustainability an affordable choice. Passive design strategies, such as optimizing daylighting, natural ventilation, and thermal mass, help lower energy consumption by reducing the need for artificial lighting, heating, and cooling. Adaptive reuse of existing structures also minimizes construction costs by repurposing materials and reducing demolition waste.

However, some sustainable solutions require a higher upfront investment. Active strategies, such as high-efficiency HVAC systems, AI-driven energy management, and solar panels, can be expensive to install. But over time, these technologies reduce energy costs and improve building performance, making them financially beneficial in the long run.

The affordability of sustainability ultimately depends on the balance between initial investment and long-term savings, as well as the scale and implementation of sustainable strategies.

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HOUSING TYPOLOGIES Harsha Raju Sanchana Bandari

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Chapter Contents What is missing middle housing?

83

What are the typologies?

85

Did we have them before?

107

Why should we bring them back?

113

Who is doing it?

119

Characteristics of Missing Middle

2 - 2.5 stories maximum <12 Units in a building Building Width 55–75 ft Building Depth 55–65 ft 1 off-street parking space per unit Shared open space Single-wide or narrow driveways

DANIEL PAROLEK According to Daniel Parolek, even though each type has different form characteristics that define them, all of the core Missing Middle Housing types share the above form characteristics. Anyway, the list of housing types that fit this description, does not cover every possible variation of good Missing Middle Housing types.

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what is missing middle housing?

SINGLE FAMILY

MISSING MIDDLE HOUSING Missing Middle Housing is a range of multi-unit or clustered housing types, compatible in scale with Single-family homes, that respond to shifting household demographics, and meet the need for more housing choices at different price points.

MISSING MIDDLE HOUSING

MIDDLE The term middle represents the middle scale of buildings between single-family homes and mid-rise apartments.

MID-RISE APARTMENTS

MISSING We label these housing types “missing” because, even though they have played an instrumental role in providing housing choices and affordable options historically in towns and cities across the country, we are building very few of these housing types today and have built very few in the past thirty to forty years.

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82

what are the typologies?

Missing Middle: Accessory Dwelling Unit Courtyard apartment Cottage court Town-house Fourplex Triplex Duplex Live-work Other Typologies: Single Room Occupancy Micro apartment 83

Attached ADU

Detached ADU

Accessory Dwelling Units (ADUs) are secondary residential structures on the same lot as a primary dwelling. Attached ADUs share a wall with the main house, often configured as an addition or converted basement. Detached ADUs are separate from the main dwelling, sometimes built at the rear of a lot.

Above-garage ADUs can be either attached or detached, utilizing air rights above existing parking structures

Accessory Dwelling Unit (ADU) 84

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U-Shaped Courtyard

Double-Wing Courtyard

A courtyard apartment is a multi-unit residential building organized around a shared central courtyard, offering both private and communal spaces.

These buildings are typically two to three stories, integrating natural light and ventilation while maintaining a pedestrian-friendly scale

Courtyard Apartment 86

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Classic Cottage Court

Duplex Cottage Court

A cottage court consists of small detached homes arranged around a central shared space, fostering community interaction. Contemporary designs often utilize cross-laminated timber (CLT) for sustainability and structural efficiency, reducing material waste while enhancing construction speed

Cottage Court 88

89

Traditional Town House

Classic Row House

A townhouse is a narrow, multi-story residence with a direct street entrance, typically sharing walls with adjacent units. When townhouses form an uninterrupted row along a block, they are referred to as row housing. This typology balances density with private living space, making it ideal for urban contexts.

Town House 90

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Side-by-side Fourplex

Mansion Fourplex

A fourplex is a single residential structure divided into four separate units, each with independent entrances. When stacked vertically rather than side by side, it is classified as a mansion apartment, resembling a large house but functioning as multi-unit housing.

Fourplex 92

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Side-by-side Triplex

Triplex Stacked

A triplex consists of three residential units within a single structure. These units can be arranged side by side, stacked, or in a combination of both, depending on site constraints and zoning allowances.

Triplex 94

95

Side-by-side Duplex

Duplex Stacked

A duplex is a two-unit residential building that can be arranged side by side or stacked, with each unit functioning as a separate residence. This typology is a staple of Missing Middle Housing, bridging the gap between singlefamily homes and larger multifamily developments.

Duplex 96

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Ground Floor Retail

Loft Live-Work

A live-work unit is a mixed-use residence that integrates living quarters with workspace, typically at the street level.

This typology supports small businesses, independent professionals, and artisans by reducing commuting needs and activating ground-floor spaces in urban environments.

Live-work Unit 98

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Studio-Style SRO

Co-Living SRO

A Single Room Occupancy (SRO) provides private bedrooms with shared kitchens and bathrooms, offering cost-effective housing for individuals in high-density urban areas. SROs historically served transient workers but are increasingly recognized as a solution for affordable housing.

Single Room Occupancy (SRO) 100

101

Studio-Style Micro Apartment

Convertible Micro-Unit

A micro-apartment is a compact, selfcontained living unit, typically under 400 square feet, designed for efficiency with built-in storage and convertible furniture.

These units cater to urban professionals, maximizing affordability within highdemand housing markets.

Micro Apartment 102

103

104

did we have them before?

105

Forest Park, Raleigh

N Scale 1:25000

CITY OF RALEIGH

0’

1000’

2000’

4000’ 106

MULTI- FAMILY RESIDENTIAL PARCELS BEFORE 1945

MULTI- FAMILY RESIDENTIAL PARCELS AFTER 1945

107

N Scale 1:5000

FOREST PARK

0’

200’

400’

800’ 108

MULTI- FAMILY RESIDENTIAL PARCELS BEFORE 1945

MULTI- FAMILY RESIDENTIAL PARCELS AFTER 1945

SINGLE FAMILY PARCELS

RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS

ACCESSORY DWELLING UNITS (ADUs)

DOCUMENTED AREA 109

Benehan Street

Alley

110

111

112

why should we bring them back?

113

AFFORDABILITY

MISSING MIDDLE HOUSING IS AFFORDABLE BY DESIGN

Missing Middle Housing is affordable by design, which means that it can achieve affordable price points for rental or for-sale units without subsidies. It achieves this by increasing supply and filling the gap for neighborhood living; using simple, lower-cost construction methods; reducing reliance on automobile ownership; using land more efficiently with shared and smaller units; and providing more income opportunities for residents. All of these factors result in an end product that is much more attainable for households, typically those making 60 percent or more of the area median income, or middle-income households.

COSTS BY TYPOLOGY

114

CLIMATE CHANGE

MULTI-FAMILY HOMES USE LESSER ENERGY

Denser housing types, like fourplexes and townhouses, offer significant energy savings compared to single-family homes, making them more sustainable.

Shared walls reduce heat loss, decreasing overall energy demand and operational costs.

Compact housing types enable walkable communities, reducing reliance on cars, which are a major source of CO2 emissions.

Encouraging more fourplexes and townhouses in urban planning can help cities reduce residential energy consumption and promote climate resilience.

ENERY USAGE BY TYPOLOGY BTU - British Thermal Units

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HOUSING SHORTAGE

SHORTFALL OF ABOUT 4 MILLION HOMES

The United States is currently facing a significant housing deficit, with estimates indicating a shortfall of approximately 4 million homes.

This shortage has escalated housing costs and limited availability, particularly in urban areas.

Implementing Missing Middle Housing can effectively mitigate this crisis by increasing density through the development of multi-unit dwellings that occupy the footprint of traditional single-family homes, thereby expanding the housing supply without necessitating extensive land use change

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CHOICE

CHANGE IN PREFERENCES

Emerging generations, particularly millennials and Gen Z, are exhibiting a shift in housing preferences, favoring diverse and flexible living arrangements over traditional single-family homes.

This change is driven by a desire for walkable communities, proximity to urban amenities, and sustainable living environments.

Missing Middle Housing addresses these preferences by providing varied housing options that align with contemporary lifestyle choices, thereby enhancing residential satisfaction and community engagement

117

118

who is doing it?

119

$$

FINANCIAL INCENTIVES ZONING REFORMS

BUILDING CODES

Means to bring back Missing Middle Housing

EDUCATE THE COMMUNITY INFRASTRUCTURE

120

CITIES

STATES

01. MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA

01. OREGON

02. PORTLAND, OREGON

02. CALIFORNIA

03. HOUSTON, TEXAS

03. MAINE

04. SACRAMENTO, CALIFORNIA

04. MINNESOTA

05. RALEIGH, NORTH CAROLINA

05. WASHINGTON

MINNEAPOLIS 2040 PLAN

RESIDENTIAL INFILL PROJECT 2020

LIVABLE PLACES PROJECT 2023

2040 GENERAL PLAN

MISSING MIDDLE 2.0

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Minneapolis, Minnesota

+ 37,000 new residents 2010

2011

2012

+ 12,000 new housing units 2013

2014

2015

2016

PRODUCTION OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING

ELIMINATED MINIMUM PARKING REQUIREMENTS

45% INCREASE IN PERMITS ISSUED FOR 2-4 UNITS

BOOST THE AVAILABILITY OF HOUSING

ESTABLISHED MINIMUM BUILDING HEIGHTS

THE CITY INCREASED ITS HOUSING STOCK BY 12%

INCREASE DENSITY WITHIN THE CITY

ELIMINATED ‘SINGLE FAMILY ONLY’ ZONING

THE RENT INCREASED BY ONLY BY 1%

ENSURE EQUITABLE OUTCOMES

APARTMENTS IN COMMERICAL CORRIDORS

THE CITY’S HOUSING SUPPLY HAS ENHANCED

intent

measures

outcomes

122

123

OWNERSHIP MODELS Wayne Evans Holness Noelle Robinson

Chapter Contents History

132

Current Context

134

Ownership Models

139

Comparative Summary

175

Portion of the appreciation.

Principal payments or forced savings.

Improvement value.

Program support.

Shared equity homeownership builds wealth through payments, limited appreciation, and improvements while preventing displacement, and maintaining stable, affordable housing for future buyers. 1.0

128

SHARED-EQUITY HOUSING Programs which make owner-occupied homes permanently affordable through resale price restrictions in exchange for a below-market purchase price. 1.0

129

IN A CAPITALIST SOCIETY, ARE ALTERNATIVE OWNERSHIP MODELS A VIABLE SOLUTION TO THE HOUSING CRISIS?

Fig. 1.1

Fig. 1.1

Fig. 1.2

Fig. 1.3

Early Coop Housing Movements

First U.S. Condominium Law

New Communities, Inc. (Albany, GA)

CLTS Expand into Urb

LECs have roots in labor movements, developed by unions to provide affordable housing in dense cities like New York (1920-1039s). 1.8

Puerto Rico was the first to pass a condominium law, setting a legal precedent for shared ownership within a larger building. 1.9

SNCC civil rights activists provide Black farmers with secure land tenure and economic independence. 1.10

Champlain Housing Trust (1 Burlington, VA demonstrate CLT model with governmen

Dense Urban Expansion

Federal Housing Administration (FHA)

Condo Boom Speculation

LECs created in response to urban renewal which displaced low-income residents. NYC’s Mitchell-Lama Program established housing. 1.8

The FHA insured mortgages for condominiums, legitimizing and popularizing the model, and increasing homeownership.

Rental apartments converted to condos during real Rental buildings converted estate booms as major segments in real estate market, through the Tenant Opportu though residents were at risk to being priced out. 1.11 in D.C. allowing renters to b

1950

1960

1970

Tenent-Led Housing C

1980

U.S. Census Bureau 132

Fig. 1.4

Fig. 1.5

Fig. 1.6

Fig. 1.7

4,000,000

70

3,000,000

ban Areas

Cohouisng Comes to the U.S.

Cohousing and Sustainability

CLTs Popularized in the Housing Crisis

Charm City Land Trust

1984) in es an urban ntal support. 1.12

Muir Commons (1989) was the first cohousing community in Davis, CA for wealth building and intentional community 1.14

Eco-conscious communities like EcoVillage (1991) create models for longterm health and living. 1.15

CLTs were recognized as a tool for preventing foreclosures over conventional homeownership.

A nonprofit community land trust in Baltimore, MD maintains safe open space and housing. 1.17

Conversions

Growing Cohousing Movement

Condo Risks Exposed

to LECs by tenants unity to Purchase Act buy their buildings. 1.13

Cohousing expanded in the U.S. and in Canada, emphasizing sustainability, social connection, and multi-generational living.

The Great Recession (2008) led Biden Administration provided historic to a major drop in condo sales federal funding to support CLTs for due to declining demand. 1.16 more affordable housing programs.

65

American Rescue Plan (ARPA) 2,000,000

60

1990

2000

2010

2020 U.S. POPULATION U.S. HOMEOWNERSHIP RATE 133

The Federal Housing Administration (FHA)

Home Affordable Raleigh’s Affordable Modification Program ‘09 Housing Bond ‘16

Mortgage subsidies that expanded homeownership for white middle-class families in the 1930s-40s. 00

Fair Housing Act ‘68

Prohibited discrimination in housing to combat the legacy of discriminatory practices like redlining. 00

Low-Income Housing Tax Credit ‘86

Incentivizes private developers to build and rehabilitate affordable rental housing, though required income levels and rent caps fluctuate. 00

Helped homeowners at risk of Fund affordable housing in the face of foreclosure by offering rising housing costs and population growth. mortgage modifications, but left out many low-income. 00

POPULATION HOUSE VALUE 10,000 UNITS

Opportunity Zone Tax Incentives ‘17

Tax incentives for investments in economically distressed areas has worsened gentrification and displacement. 00

450,000

450,000

350,000

300,000

250,000

150,000

150,000

50,000

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2020

2030

0

American Community Survey Housing Units Occupancy Variables // Wake County Parcel Data.

Rising housing costs in Raleigh are driven by rapid population growth, supply chain issues, restrictive zoning laws, increasing land costs, fluctuating interest rates, and a shortage of affordable housing, with gentrification exacerbating displacement and further limiting affordable options. 1.0 134

28%

88%

85%

local housing burden

limited housing stock

foreclosure rate increase

In Raleigh, over 28% of households are cost-burdened. Some must spend more than half their income on rent alone. 1.18

Raleigh is projected to face a housing shortage of over 110,000 units by 2029, or about 22% of its current housing stock. 1.19

Foreclosure filings in North Carolina escalated by approximately 85% yearover-year in 2024. 1.20

135

Shared equity homeownership models: + Provide sustainable and affordable housing solutions. + Reduce displacement. + Foster long-term community stability in Raleigh.

COMMUNITY LAND TRUST (CLT)

What are Community Land Trusts?

A Community Land Trust (CLT) is a nonprofit corporation that stewards long-term affordable housing, community gardens, civic buildings, commercial spaces and other community assets by holdinng the land for a place-based communtiy. 2.1

Non-profit corporation.

One shared property.

Units for Purchase at below-market rates.

140

Land can attribute to 20-50% of total housing costs. CLTs remove land from the speculative market, ensuring that homes remain affordable long-term. 2.3 Homeowners are protected from foreclosure as the organization can assist with financial difficulties. 2.3 CLTs have a more stable financial model, as the nonprofit land trust ensures oversight. 2.3 Homeowners may pass their homes to heirs, maintaining affordability for future generations while allowing limited wealth transfer. 2.4

SECURITY COMMUNITY EQUITY ACCUMULATION

CLTs cap resale profits, ensuring affordability but limiting real estate appreciation. 2.3 CLTs emphasize collective governance through tripartite boards (residents, community members, and public stakeholders), ensuring long-term resident participation. 2.4 The scale of CLTs is often limited to available land, housing stock, and funding - reducing the capacity for larger, interconnected communities. 2.5

Community Land Trusts excel in permanent affordability and community resilience, making them vital for low-income and marginalized communities though they limit homeowner’s ability to build substantial generational wealth.

141

Seattle, WA

Burlington, VT

New York, NY

San Francisco, CA

Why are there so few?

Unlike private real estate developers who receive tax incentives and subsidies, CLTs rely heavily on grants and nonprofit funding, which are inconsistent and difficult to scale. 2.1

Miami, FL

142

New Communities Albany, GA (1969 -1983) 211 active CLTs established from 1965 to present day. 2.2

Setting a precedent...

New Communities, established in Albany, Georgia, in 1969, was the first Community Land Trust (CLT) in the U.S. It was developed by the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee to provide land access and economic independence for Black farmers facing racial discrimination.

The land trust’s legacy influences modern CLTs, proving that shared equity homeownership can preserve affordability, empower marginalized communities, and promote long-term housing security. 1.2

The first CLT, for and by Black Farmers (newcommunitiesinc.com).

143

Community Land Trust 1

Ownership Process 1. The CLT non-profit entity purchases land for property development.

2. The non-profit acquires a onetime loan from a bank or private investor to build on the property.

3. The non-profit entity sells units at below-market rates.

Residents who meet the income requirements apply and purchase a unit. The non-profit uses these payments to repay the loan until it is paid off.

4. Residents lease the land and own the property, while the non-profit entity retains ownership of the land the properties are built on. This reduces the list price for long-term affordability despite surrounding future development. 2.5

3

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2

4

145

Champlain Housing Trust Burlington, Vermont (1984-Present)

146

An Urban Model The largest and most successful CLT in the U.S., Champlain Housing Trust (CHT) was pioneered under Mayor Bernie Sanders to ensure permanently affordable housing through community ownership of land.

CHT has created thousands of permanently affordable homes while keeping homeownership within reach for low-income residents, serving as a national model for CLTs. 2.5

147

LIMITED EQUITY COOPERATIVE (LEC)

What are Limited Equity Cooperatives?

A Limited Equity Cooperative (LEC) is a homeownership model in which residents purchase a share of the nonprofit cooperative development rather than an individual unit. Limited resale formulas ensure long-term affordability. 3.3

Non-profit governance structure.

Resident owns a share of the non-profit corporation.

150

LECs foster community bonds due to their cooperative structure residents build a sense of shared responsibility without requiring intentional social programming. 3.1 The mandatory governance participation can be a burden for some, and internal conflicts can arise over decision-making. 3.2 LECs remove housing from the speculative market, making monthly costs lower than traditional homeownership. 3.1 If well-managed, LECs can remain permanently affordable, though residents have less personal control over their living space.

COMMUNITY SECURITY EQUITY ACCUMULATION

Access to LECs is limited due to low housing supply and complex financial requirments - lenders are often hesitant to finance LECs. Resale restrictions severely cap equity gains to ensure long-term affordability. 3.2 Shares can be inherited, but the cooperative board must approve new members.

Limited Equity Cooperatives offer a strong sense of community and long-term affordability due to their governance and financial management - though they do not offer substantial wealth accumulation for generational wealth-building.

Since LECs are collective, members cannot leverage their housing asset for loans. 3.1 151

Limited Equity Cooperative 1 Ownership Process 1. The LEC corporation purchases land for property development.

2. The LEC takes out a loan from a bank to cover the costs of developing the property.

3. Members of the corporation select residents from a list of applicants. Residents buy a share of the corporation and become a member.

3

4

4. Residents each own a share of the corporation that owns the property, the land it is built on, and the common spaces like outdoor areas, shared kitchens, etc. 3.3 152

2

153

Cooper Square Mutual Housing Association New York, New York (1959-Present)

154

Protecting Residents Cooper Square is one of the oldest and most successful LECs in the U.S., formed in response to urban renewal plans that threatened mass displacement in Manhattan’s Lower East Side. 3.4 Residents collectively own and manage the cooperative, maintaining affordability in an area that would have otherwise been overtaken by luxury development.

155

Cottages of Idlewild Raleigh, North Carolina

NEW BERN AVE

LEVELLE MOTON PARK

156

SHARED COURTYARD

Local Cottage Court Raleigh Area Land Trust (RALT) will bring diverse affordable options for homeownership and rental opportunities for Raleigh households within 30-80% of annual median income.

Utilizing the Community Land Trust (CLT) model, RALT will retain ownership of the land, while homeowners possess the buildings. This structure reduces property tax burdens for residents, as they are taxed only on the home itself, not the land, thereby enhancing affordability. 3.5

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COHOUSING

What is Cohousing?

Cohousing is an intenional community designed with private units and shared common spaces to encourage social interaction. Investment is greater and common property is managed by the community members. 4.3

Resident owns a unit.

Resident owns a share.

160

Cohousing is an intentional community designed around social interaction and communal spaces.

Residents engage in informal decision-making with a strong emphasis on mutual support. 4.2 Cohouisng requires significant upfront planning and investment and can attract higher-income residents, limiting accessibility. 4.1 Cohousing units follow a marketbased model, allowing residents to build full equity, but limiting lowincome buyer accessibility. 4.1 The community shares expenses to reduce financial burden.

COMMUNITY EQUITY ACCUMULATION SECURITY

Cohousing allows for property inheritance and wealth transfers, making it viable for generational wealth-building. 4.2 Buyers invest in both private and shared space, making cost higher than traditional homeownership.

Stability is fostered through longterm residency and discouraged rapid turnover. 4.2

Cohousing is a powerful tool for low-income and marginalized communities seeking collective care networks, but without deliberate affordability measures, cohousing offers wealth-building benefits for middle- and upper-income groups.

Cohousing developments are susceptible to market fluctuations if demand increases.

161

Cohousing

Ownership Process 1. Individuals form a community with shared values and beliefs.

2. The community creates a corporate entity, under which it purchases land and develops the property.

3. Members of the corporation select residents from a list of applicants. Residents buy a share of the corporation and become a member.

3

4

4. Residents each own a unit on the propery, and a share of the land it’s built on. 4.3 162

1

2

163

Muir Commons

Davis, California (1991-Present)

164

OUTDOOR COMMUNITY GATHER

Intentional Community The first modern cohousing community in the U.S., Muir Commons set the standard for collaborative living, sustainable design, and affordability by balancing private homeownership with shared community spaces.

It has inspired numerous cohousing communities nationwide that emphasize social connection, shared resources, and cooperative decision-making. 4.2

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CONDOMINIUM

What are Condominiums?

A Condominium is a residential unit which is owned by an individual homeowner.

There are limited shared spaces and homeowners pay fees for maintenance to the complex managers. 5.1 Realtor Corporation

Resident owns the unit from the studs in.

Unit is separate from the land and the building.

168

Condominium ownership allows for full equity accumulation as owners can sell at market rates. 5.1 Condominiums are inheritable, making them a potential tool for generational wealth-building. 5.1 Condos are susceptable to value decrease due to economic downturns, HOA mismanagement, or neighborhood decline. 5.1 Community interaction is offered through some shared amenities, but requires individual initiative. 5.1 There is no community-driven governance. 5.1 Developers may purchase many units for short-term rentals, reducing availability and destabilizing the community. 5.2

EQUITY ACCUMULATION COMMUNITY SECURITY

Compared to single-family homes, condos appreciate value at a slower rate. 5.2 Prices can become unaffordable due to risk of speculative investment. 5.2 For middle- to upper-income groups who can afford condos, they protect against displacement when compared to renting. 5.2

Condominiums are a strong model for individual wealth-building, but affordability is highly dependent on market fluctuations with no built in protections, making them susceptible to displacement or speculative investment.

169

Condominium 1 Ownership Process 1. A developer purchases land.

2. The community creates a corporate entity, under which they purchases land and develop the property.

3. Members of the corporation select residents from a list of applicants. Residents buy a share of the corporation and become a member.

3

4. The resident owns the unit “studs-in”, while the developer owns the rest of the building and the land. 5.2 170

2

4

171

Dudley Street Neighborhood Initiative Boston, Massachusetts (1984-Present)

172

Combining Models This grassroots initiative in Boston’s Roxbury neighborhood used a CLT model combined with affordable condominiums to prevent displacement and keep homes within reach for low-income residents.

The integration of affordable condos within a land trust framework serves as a key precedent for making condominiums accessible in gentrifying cities. 5.3

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Analysis Summary Each of the four alternative home ownership models has its strengths and drawbacks.

The community land trust model is great for long-term housing security and reduced rates of foreclosure, especially compared to the condominium model.

CLT

LEC

SECURITY

COMMUNITY

COMMUNITY

SECURITY

EQUITY ACCUMULATION

EQUITY ACCUMULATION

Both limited equity cooperatives and cohousing models excel in community resilience and interdependent financial wellbeing, which might serve low- and middleincome communities well.

174

COHO

CONDO

COMMUNITY EQUITY ACCUMULATION EQUITY ACCUMULATION

COMMUNITY

SECURITY

SECURITY

175

176

PLANNING

Anushree Z.

Alap P.

177

178

Chapter Contents Planning

180

Types of Planning

181

TOD

186

Case Studies

191

Case of Raleigh

200

What Next

209

Definition

Layers and Goals

Transit Oriented Development

Curitiba & Seattle

Equitable TOD

15 Minute City

179

PLANNING A technical and political process that is focused on the development and design of land use and the built environment, including air, water, and the infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas, such as transportation, communications, distribution networks, and their accessibility.

Objective is to improve : • Quality of life of the inhabitants • Transport • Security • Access opportunities • Interaction with natural environment

180

PLANNING TYPES Land Use Planning

Transportation Planning

Organizing areas for residential, commercial, industrial, and recreational purposes.

Designing efficient road networks, public transit systems, pedestrian pathways, and bike lanes.

181

Environmental Planning

Zoning & Regulations

Promoting sustainability by addressing issues such as pollution, green spaces, and climate resilience

Establishing legal frameworks that control building heights, densities, and land use.

182

Urban Design

Infrastructure Planning

Creating visually appealing and functional public spaces, streetscapes, and city layouts.

Ensuring access to essential services like water, electricity, sewage, and internet connectivity.

183

Community Engagement

Goals • Enhancing livability and safety • Promoting economic development Involving residents and stakeholders in decisionmaking to create inclusive and responsive urban policies.

• Reducing traffic congestion • Preserving historic and cultural heritage • Encouraging sustainability and resilience • Addressing social equity and affordable housing 184

TRANSPORTATION PLANNING Transportation planning aims to create efficient, accessible, and sustainable mobility networks.

Public Transit Buses, subways, trams, and light rail systems

Active Transportation Walking and cycling infrastructure (bike lanes, pedestrian zones).

Road Networks

Highways, arterials, and local streets.

185

TRANSIT ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT It’s the creation of compact, walkable, pedestrianoriented, mixed-use communities centered around high-quality transit systems.

• This makes it possible to live a lower-stress life without complete dependence on a car for mobility and survival.​ • This type of living arrangement can reduce driving by up to 85%.

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TRANSIT ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT OPINIONS Proponents Higher

Quality of life with better places to live, work, and

play

More

Affordable Housing especially in far

connected areas

Greater

Reduced

Reduced

Mobility with ease of moving around

Traffic congestion, car accidents and injuries

Household spending on transportation Reduced incentive to sprawl, increase in

Opponents

Decreased Affordability for exisiting low

income residents.

Displacement of

Marginalised Communities

Social & Cultural Homogenization Increased

Pressure on Infrastructure due to higher density

Unequal Distribution of Benefits TOD might disproportionately favor certain segments of the population

Compact development

Economic competitiveness

Enhanced ability to maintain

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189

TOD - HOUSING

Density does not simply translate to taller buildings but more importantly a compact urban form that is essential to creating a vibrant community.

By focusing more developments around transit stations, higher density can shorten trip distances and save travel times for more people, thus increasing transit ridership and reducing dependence on the automobile.

Allow for relatively higher densities in mixed-use areas near BRT stations.

Require minimum building height and pedestrianfriendly street frontage for new developments around BRT stations to ensure a compact urban form and active uses.

Transition building height and bulk downward from the station to connect with adjacent, lower density districts and neighborhoods.

Consider design strategies to mitigate the visual impact of higher density such as breaking down new buildings into contextually scaled massing and creating pleasing streetscapes as a buffer

190

CASE STUDY: CURITIBA

Curitiba, Brazil, is globally recognized as a model city for Transit-Oriented Development (TOD), integrating urban planning with an efficient public transportation system to promote sustainable growth, reduced congestion, and enhanced quality of life. The city’s innovative Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system, introduced in the 1970s, is a key component of its TOD strategy, shaping land use, housing development, and economic activities around transit corridors.

BRT System & Urban Planning: Curitiba’s trinary road system (a combination of dedicated busways, local roads, and express roads) Mixed-Use Development: The city promotes highrise buildings near transit stations Sustainability & Green Spaces: Prioritized green areas, flood management parks, and pedestrianfriendly streets, reinforcing an eco-friendly urban model.

191

Affordable Housing Access: TOD encourages diverse housing options, ensuring accessibility for different income groups near transit hubs.

Reduced Transportation Costs: By living near transit corridors, residents spend less on private vehicles and fuel, promoting economic savings.

Improved Urban Livability: The integration of housing, transit, and public spaces enhances community well-being, social interaction, and overall quality of life.

Increased Property Values: Proximity to transit stations has led to higher property values and real estate demand, benefiting urban development.

192

193

Public Transit Usage

Affordability

Sustainability

Before TOD, people usage

Of Annual income goes towards commute

Contributed by transportation towards global co2 emissions

After TOD, people usage

With TOD, annual income goes towards commute

With TOD, reduction in co2 emissions

194

CASE STUDY: SEATTLE

Seattle, Washington, is a rapidly growing city known for its commitment to sustainability, innovation, and urban development. Seattle has faced challenges related to urban sprawl, traffic congestion, and housing affordability. To address these issues, the city has increasingly embraced Transit-Oriented Development (TOD)—a planning approach that concentrates housing, jobs, and amenities around high-capacity transit corridors.

Seattle’s Housing Affordability and Livability Agenda (HALA) and Mandatory Housing Affordability (MHA) policy have further supported TOD by requiring affordable housing in new developments near transit hubs.

195

Growth Management Act (GMA) of 1990 • Manage urban sprawl by focusing growth in urban areas with existing infrastructure •Encouraging denser development along transit corridors.

•This provided a policy framework that supported TOD.

Urban Village Strategy 1994 •Focusing on guiding development toward neighborhoods near major transit corridors.

•The goal was to create compact, mixed-use communities.

•Reduce reliance on automobiles while promoting walking, biking, and public transit.

196

Housing development around Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) stops in Seattle has surged in recent years, driven by the expansion of Link Light Rail and zoning changes promoting higher-density living. Neighborhoods such as Capitol Hill, University District, Northgate, and Roosevelt have seen a boom in mixeduse developments, with mid-rise and highrise apartments replacing lower-density structures. The city’s Mandatory Housing Affordability (MHA) program has further encouraged the inclusion of affordable housing near transit hubs. These developments aim to reduce car dependency, increase walkability, and provide residents with easy access to jobs, retail, and public spaces, reinforcing Seattle’s vision of sustainable urban growth.

197

198

Transit and Affordable housing People ride buses to connect to opportunities, and because it is convenient and close to home.

Finding affordable housing, especially near transit hubs, is becoming increasingly difficult amid rising rents and home prices.

Sound Transit strives to be part of the housing solution by creating and supporting opportunities for transit-oriented development and affordable housing near the stations.

Combact against displacement Expanding transit into communities that have not previously had these connections and opportunities creates upwards pressure on rents and home prices. This contributes to patterns of displacement and gentrification.

ETOD helps in mitigating the same.

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CASE STUDY: RALEIGH

Transit Oriented Development There are four BRT corridors planned for Wake County.

New Bern Avenue Corridor: Downtown Raleigh to New Hope Road.

Western Corridor: Downtown Raleigh to Downtown Cary. Route options are still under consideration.

Southern Corridor: Downtown Raleigh to Garner.

Route options are still under consideration.

Northern Corridor: Downtown Raleigh to Crabtree Boulevard. Route options are still under consideration.

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201

EQUITABLE TOD

Growing Around Transit and Sustainability 46% do

88% agree

95% agree

93% agree

Live in a place where I can walk to destinations and fast, frequent transit exists

Would like to live where I can walk to destinations and fast, frequent transit exists

Raleigh allow new homes and jobs near BRT

To reduce carbon missions from transportation, even if that means more density and building height near BRT stations?

202

Allows multiplex as detached housing Limit on Max. Plot size No Minimum Parking

Proposed BRT Route Proposed BRT Station 1/4 Mile Buffer • Enhance Affordability and Minimize Displacement

TOD R Zone

• Preserve Existing Businesses

R-10

connecting people to jobs.

R-6

• Enhance sustainability by saving energy and improving air quality • Plan for housing affordability and local businesses

R-4 203

Street Section

After TOD

Before TOD

Single use Development

204

Street usage

Public Space Usage

205

RALEIGH UDO INCENTIVES Affordability Bonus • Density bonus - More floors on each parcel.

• More people live and work near BRT • More demand for using the transit service •Density bonus ensures transit while also enabling the City to meet its public policy objectives

Current Height

Affordability Bonus

Employment Bonus

3 Stories

5 Stories

4 Stories

5 Stories

8 Stories

6 Stories

12 Stories

18 Stories

15 Stories

206

Allows multiplex as detached housing Limit on Max. Plot size No Minimum Parking

Proposed BRT Route Proposed BRT Station 1/4 Mile Buffer TOD R Zone R-10 R-6 R-4 207

208

WHAT NEXT: A 15-MINUTE CITY

The 15-Minute City is an urban planning concept that envisions cities where residents can access all essential services—such as work, shopping, healthcare, education, and leisure—within a 15-minute walk or bike ride from their homes. The idea promotes sustainable, efficient, and humancentered urban design.

Key Principles • Proximity – Essential services and amenities are within a short distance.

• Diversity – Mixed-use neighborhoods integrate residential, commercial, and recreational spaces.

• Density – Well-planned urban density supports walkability and efficient land use.

• Mobility – Emphasis on walking, cycling, and public transport over cars.

• Sustainability – Reduced carbon footprint through green spaces and energy-efficient infrastructure.

Benefits • Improved Quality of Life – Less commuting time leads to more personal and family time.

• Environmental Sustainability – Reduced reliance on cars lowers carbon emissions.

• Economic Growth – Local businesses thrive due to proximity to customers.

• Health & Well-being – Encourages active lifestyles with more walking and cycling.

• Community Engagement – Stronger social connections through local interactions.

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210

ZONING REFORMS Carolyne Coyle I Riya Chaudhary

211

Chapter Contents What is Zoning?

215

Historical Timeline of Zoning

221

Where are we now?

233

What does Zoning reform look like?

241

214

WHAT IS ZONING?

215

216

Zoning is the act or process of partitioning a city, town, or borough into zones reserved for different purposes (such as residence or business) and is intended to promote an orderly pattern of development. Zoning ensures that the way land is used is compatible with the area. For example, proper zoning prevents an industrial building from being built in a neighborhood.

217

The need for Zoning

Imagine a Life on a land before 1900s Barlow Light - 12pt. The sun dipped below the horizon, casting a warm golden glow over the tranquil lake. The water shimmered like a thousand diamonds, reflecting the hues of orange and pink that painted the sky.

A gentle breeze rustled the leaves of the nearby trees, creating a soothing melody that echoed through the quiet evening.

A gentle breeze rustled the leaves of the nearby trees, creating a soothing melody that echoed through the quiet evening.

A gentle breeze rustled the leaves of the nearby trees, creating a soothing melody that echoed through the quiet evening.

218

Incompatible Use? Incompatible land uses, such as factories near homes, caused health, safety, and economic issues. This led to the need for zoning laws to separate residential, commercial, and industrial areas. Zoning helped improve urban planning, protect property values, and create healthier living environments.

Incompatible Building Types?

The confl ict between private residences and apartments as illustrated by the City of Philadelphia Zoning Commission (1921). The caption: “Fifteenth Street and Allegheny Avenue—apartment house built to street line, projecting 25 feet beyond other buildings, cutting off light and air and depreciating property values.”

Incompatible building types, like highrises next to small homes, caused overcrowding, safety concerns, and property devaluation. This led to zoning laws to regulate building heights, densities, and land use. Zoning helped create orderly development, preserve neighborhood character, and improve urban planning.

Land Regulation?

Different housing types on one parcel

Unregulated land use led to overcrowding, pollution, and conflicting developments that harmed public health and safety. This created the need for zoning laws to organize land use, control density, and separate different functions. Zoning helped ensure orderly growth, protect property values, and improve urban living conditions.

219

220

HISTORICAL TIMELINE OF ZONING

221

PRE 1880s

1890s -1910s

Early Land - Use Regulations

German Zoning Act

From ancient times there have been a variety of laws and regulations on land use.Some emphasize class or occupational differences, some regulated building materials, some tried to address health concerns, particularly post-industrial revolution.

Germany adopts a zoning act as a new form of “scientific municipal administration”. Saw the separation of residential, factory, and mixed land uses. Other European countries and the US adopt similar models in the early 1900s.

222

1920s - 1930s

Early USA Zoning Zoning was promoted as a system to ensure uniformity. Rules were to be applied the same for rich and poor areas. City planning/zoning boards expected to be objective + nonpartisan. Furthered the separation of residence + business.

Late 1950s

Cost Assessment US zoning veers towards a flat vs hierarchical system, making land-use classes exclusive. Growing reliance on cars leads to larger, more spread out districts. Classes of people end up “zoned out” of districts they cannot afford.

223

Buchanan v. Warley • 1917 Ruling: Supreme Court struck down racial zoning.

• Case: Louisville’s ban violated the 14th Amendment.

• Impact: Legal zoning ended, but segregation continued privately.

1910

1917

First Racial Zoning Ordinance 1910 Baltimore: First U.S. racial zoning ordinance.

Legal Segregation: Restricted where African Americans could live.

Nationwide Trend: Other cities adopted similar laws.

224

It’s a foggy morning in the late 19th century. Anna, an 11-yearold girl, steps out of her family’s small home. The street is narrow and bustling even at this hour.

She clutches her basket tightly, heading to the market to buy bread for her mother.

She walks along the narrow road, dodging a horse-drawn cart that clatters by, only to hear the honk ed outside a shop, causing a brief moment of chaos.

1930s 1910 Red Lining / Covenants • Redlining: Denied loans to minority communities.

• Impact: Led to disinvestment and environmental harm.

• Legacy: Reinforced segregation, affecting homeownership and health.

As Anna continues, she passes small shops and market stalls, where vendors shout to attract customers. The street is packed polluted air.

Amid the jumble of homes, factories, and shops, Anna feels overwhelmed. The lack of order unsafe. painted the sky.

225

1910s- First Racial Zoning Ordinance Nationwide Trend: In 1910, Baltimore became the first U.S. city to pass a racial zoning ordinance, legally restricting where African Americans could live. This ordinance set a precedent for institutionalized segregation, influencing other cities across the country to adopt similar laws throughout the 1910s. These zoning policies reinforced racial segregation in housing, shaping urban development and deepening racial inequalities for decades.

Buchanan v. Warley 1917 Ruling: In 1917, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Buchanan v. Warley that racial zoning laws were unconstitutional, striking down Louisville’s segregation ordinance as a violation of the 14th Amendment. While this decision ended legally enforced racial zoning, segregation persisted through private means such as racially restrictive covenants and discriminatory housing practices.

Red Lining / Covenants Impact: Redlining was a discriminatory practice that denied loans and financial services to minority communities, particularly African Americans, based on racially biased maps. This led to widespread disinvestment, deteriorating infrastructure, and environmental harm in these neighborhoods. The long-term effects reinforced segregation, limiting homeownership opportunities and contributing to economic and health disparities that persist today.

226

Boarded-up row houses in the Middle East neighborhood of Baltimore in December 2003. Alex Wong/Getty Images

Racial Zoning

A segregated general store in Belle Glade, Florida, circa 1941. Corbis/Getty Images

Racial zoning in the United States was a discriminatory practice that legally and systematically segregated communities based on race. It took many forms, including racial zoning ordinances, redlining, and exclusionary zoning. Early on, cities like Baltimore (1910) enacted racial zoning laws restricting where African Americans could live. After the Supreme Court struck down such laws in Buchanan v. Warley (1917), segregation persisted through redlining, which denied financial services to minority communities, and exclusionary zoning, which used economic barriers like minimum lot sizes to exclude lower-income, often non-white residents.

227

Racial Zoning

Scenario 1 - No Division I All Races

Scenario 2 - Racial Division

The map illustrates a neighborhood where people of all races and genders live together peacefully, promoting fair and inclusive urban planning.

The map shows a neighborhood where people are separated by race or occupation, reinforcing discriminatory practices in urban planning.

228

Scenario 3 - Durhum map A map showing neighborhoods and major geographical features of Central Durham, showing, African-American neighborhoods of the mid-20th-century in hatching. A version of this map originally appeared in Whittemore (2017) I Research Gate I

229

Red - Lining - Durham map Economic Disadvantage Redlining denied Black and minority communities access to home loans and investments. Labeled as “high risk,” these neighborhoods were excluded from financial services. This prevented homeownership, blocking generational wealth-building opportunities. Redlined areas faced underfunded schools, poor infrastructure, and fewer jobs.

Literal description of people based on race and color description.

Credit: Mapping Inequality

Health Disparities Redlining forced minority communities into areas with poor housing and limited healthcare access. These neighborhoods lacked hospitals, doctors, and essential health services, increasing chronic diseases like asthma, diabetes, and heart disease.

Limited Access to Green Spaces

Civil Rights movement

Redlining led to the displacement of minority communities by restricting homeownership and economic growth.

As property values stagnated, many residents were forced to move due to rising rents and lack of investment.

230

Durham Red Lining Map I Mapping Inequality I 231

232

WHERE ARE WE NOW?

233

Raleigh Zoning Code Basics

RALEIGH ZONING MAP Residential Districts Residential-1 (R-1) Residential-2 (R-2) Residential-4 (R-4) Residential-6 (R-6) Residential-10 (R-10)

LAND CATEGORIES

88%

12%

ZONED LAND

Mixed Use Districts

UNZONED

Residential Mixed Use (RX-) Office Park (OP-) Office Mixed Use (OX-)

ZONING CATEGORIES

67%

PRIMARILY RESIDENTIAL

22%

Neighborhood Mixed Use (NX-)

MIXED RESIDENTIAL

6%

NONRESIDENTIAL

Commercial Mixed Use (CX-) Downtown Mixed Use (DX-) Industrial Mixed Use (IX-)

Special Districts Conservation Management (CM)

Raleigh’s Unified Development Ordinance establishes the city’s zoning districts and their associated restrictions. The districts fall within three primary categories: Residential Districts, Mixed Use Districts, and Special Districts. The majority of Raleigh’s land is zoned for primarily residential use.

Agricultural Production (AP) Heavy Industrial (IH) Manufactured Housing (MH) Campus (CMP) Planned Development (PD) Legacy Zoning Districts

234

235

Raleigh Zoning Code Basics

FORM-BASED CODE Raleigh’s zoning code is an example of form-based code.

These codes, in addition to designating land use via zoning districts, establishes additional restrictions relating to the physical qualities of the built environment.

Elements such as building height, lot and building area, building and parking setbacks, building transparency, and more are determined via these restrictions.

CONDITIONAL USE DISTRICTS Any zoning district can have a Conditional Use district applied to it if deemed reasonable by Raleigh’s City Council and Planning Commission. Conditional Use districts are applied to zoning districts to impose further restrictions on development.

These conditions are often a tool used to negotiate the details of rezoning cases and development between the owner, public, and city.

DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS The development type of a parcel is another layer of zoning determining permissible building types and design standards.

236

Allowed Housing Types by District (Residential)

DETACHED HOUSE

ATTACHED HOUSE

TOWNHOUSE

APARTMENT

TINY HOUSE

Conventional Dev. Option Compact Dev. Option Conservation Dev. Option Cottage Court Pattern Frequent Transit Area Flag Lot Pattern R-1

R-2

R-4

R-6

R-10

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Raleigh and Affordable Housing

Of the near-600 pages in Raleigh’s Unified Development Ordinance, only 6 (1%) mention housing affordability.

“Affordable Housing - Housing that is affordable to and occupied by families with an annual household income of no greater than 60% of area median income, adjusted for household size, according to the then-current income limits established by the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development in accordance with Section 3 of the U.S. Housing Act of 1937, as amended (42 U.S.C. 1437 et seq.) or any successor legislation. An affordable rental housing development has a minimum of 10% affordable rental housing units and has a compliance period of at least 30 years.”

- Raleigh UDO

HOUSEHOLD SIZE

AREA MEDIAN INCOME

80% AMI

60% AMI

40% AMI

20% AMI

10% AMI

1 PERSON

$85,700

$68,560

$51,420

$34,280

$17,140

$8,570

2 PEOPLE

$97,900

$78,320

$58,740

$39,160

$19,580

$9,790

3 PEOPLE

$110,000

$88,080

$66,060

$44,040

$22,020

$11,000

4 PEOPLE

$122,300

$97,840

$73,380

$48,920

$24,460

$12,230

5 PEOPLE

$132,100

$105,680

$79,260

$52,840

$26,420

$13,210

6 PEOPLE

$141,900

$113,520

$85,140

$56,760

$28,380

$14,190

7 PEOPLE

$151,700

$121,360

$91,020

$60,680

$30,340

$15,170

8 PEOPLE

$161,500

$145,350

$96,900

$64,600

$32,300

$16,150

“Low Income”

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RALEIGH’S AFFORDABLE HOUSING GOAL COVID-19

5700

NUMBER OF AFFORDABLE UNITS

5000

4000

3848 UNITS (68% OF 10YEAR GOAL)

3000

2000

1000

‘15-’16

‘16-’17

‘17-’18

‘18-’19

‘19-’20

‘20-’21

‘21-’22

‘22-’23

‘23-’24

‘24-’25

In 2016, the City of Raleigh established a goal of creating and preserving 5700 units of affordable housing over the next 10 years.

The supply chain disruption, rise in construction costs, and funding gaps caused by the COVID-19 pandemic have slowed production of affordable housing both in Raleigh and nationwide.

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240

WHAT DOES ZONING REFORM LOOK LIKE?

241

HOW CAN WE HELP ADDRESS THE AFFORDABLE HOUSING SHORTAGE WITH ZONING REFORM?

PRIORITIZE DENSITY / UPZONING RE-LEGALIZE MISSING MIDDLE HOUSING ALLOW ACCESSORY DWELLING UNITS ELIMINATE SINGLE-FAMILY ONLY ZONING ELIMINATE PARKING MINIMUMS ZONE FOR ADAPTIVE REUSE

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Prioritizing Density / Upzoning A massive contributing factor to the cost of housing is the density of the urban fabric itself. Lower density development inherently contributes to higher property costs, as there are fewer people who end up paying for the value of larger pieces of land.

Zoning reform that increases density (also known as “upzoning”) allows for greater numbers of residents to live on smaller parcels of land, relieving that cost burdern. Additionally, denser development is more easily designed to support mixed-uses and multi-modal transportation. This means that individuals living in denser areas have less need for car ownership, which can save thousands of dollars annually.

Upzoning enables developers to construct more units of housing at once on smaller pieces of land, making the resulting constructions more affordable at the outset. When large amounts of housing can be constructed relatively quickly, the supply of housing grows, thereby reducing demand and prices.

Re-Legalizing Missing Middle Housing Missing Middle zoning reform sees the re-legalization of housing types (duplexes, triplexes, fourplexes, townhomes, etc.) that were previously outlawed by restrictive zoning code. These housing types contribute to higher density in existing neighborhoods.

Diversifying housing types allows for a more diverse housing economy with otpions available for individuals and families at different stages of life and levels of income.

CASE STUDY: In 2019, Oregon’s State Legislature passed House Bill 2001. The bill permits missing middle housing types in residential areas in all medium and largesized cities across Oregon. It emphasizes the ability for individual choice when building new residences, and the advocacy for the bill highlighted the historical precedence of these housing types in Oregon.

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Allowing Accessory Dwelling Units Accessory Dwelling Units are secondary residential units located on the same lot as an existing primary unit. Zoning reform seeks to allow these units by right. Allowing the construction of ADUs is simple and effective at increasing housing supply on existing residential land, and ADUs typically rent for less than standard 1-bedroom apartments.

CASE STUDY: Portland has steadily made ADU construction easier. The city’s 1996 ADU legislation saw limited success, with less than 50 permits issued per year, as the allowable sizes and owner occupancy requirements were quite restrictive.

In 2010, the city enacted ADU size and occupancy reforms, leading to a steep increase in ADU construction (hundreds permitted annually). The 2020 Residential Infill Project (RIP1 + RIP2) reforms allow 2 ADUs per lot, removed off-street parking requirements, and increased maximum ADU sizes.

Eliminating Single-Family-Only Zoning Zoning in the United States has uniquely catered towards the single-family detached home, protecting it from other uses and housing types. Reform seeks to de-prioritize single-family and open up potential for multi-family housing types. Single family detached homes are consistently more expensive and spread-out than other housing types. Allowing other types into these districts increases housing supply and density.

CASE STUDY: Minneapolis adopted its 2040 plan in 2020, establishing new policies to guide the city towards a more equitable, complete, diverse, clean and sustainable state. The plan included the elimination of single-family exclusive zoning, the first jurisdiction in the nation to do so.

The lowest-intensity residential districts in the city now allow up to 3 units rather than one. The impact of this specific reform was limited, however, because the code restricted duplexes and triplexes to the same size limits as single-family detached homes.

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Eliminating Parking Minimums Parking minimums are reqirements for a specific number of parking spaces based on the size and type of a building. Reforms seek to eliminate these entirely. Because each parking space included in a project adds thousands of dollars, particularly for above/below ground parking, parking minimums essentially raise the price of development by default. Residential parking can also increase rental prices by hundreds of dollars per month.

CASE STUDY: Buffalo, New York introduced the first citywide parking minimums reform. The city eliminated minimum parking requirements in 2017. In the following years, it was found that 14 new mixed-use projects incorporated 53% fewer parking spaces than would have been required prior. These reforms also made adaptive reuse more feasible, as parking minimums can be a barrier to repurposing existing buildings. Similarly, eliminating parking minimums made development near public transit more feasible, and supported the existing light rail service.

Zoning for Adaptive Reuse Adaptive reuse is the practice of converting old or out-of-use buildings to serve new functions. This can bolster housing supply without a brand new development. Adaptive reuse repurposes existing, vacant buildings to increase housing supply, though the effectiveness varies by previous building use and building size.

CASE STUDY: Los Angeles established an Adaptive Reuse Ordinance in 1999, enabling the creation of 12,000 housing units in downtown alone. This ordinance was expanded in 2023 as a part of LA’s Citywide Housing Incentive program, and attempts to help address the post-pandemic 26% office vacancy rate.

The 2023 revision clarifies procedure, creating greater consistency with the rest of the city’s zoning code and general plan, and creates new incentives for adaptive reuse. This update works in conjunction with missing middle reforms, opportunity corridors, and process streamlining.

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The Impact of Zoning Reform

Othering & Belonging Institute 246

Percentage change in homes, 2017-21 and median rent estimates, 2017-2023 35% 30%

31%

25% 23%

20% 15%

5%

8%

7%

7%

1%

0%

Minneapolis MN

New Rochelle NY

2%

3%

4%

Portland OR

Tysons VA

Increase in homes, 2017-21

U.S. Overall

Rent growth, 2017-23

Number of Zoning Reform Attempts 2007-2023 40 30

Research has demonstrated that single-family and restrictive zoning contributes to neighborhood segregation. The Mercatus Center at George Mason University found that Greater Boston’s multifamily zoning reforms increased the share of Black and Hispanic households by 9% from the singlefamily baseline of 18%. Similarly, multifamily zoning reform in the Twin Cities metro area was correlated with a 21% increase in non-white population share.

NATIONWIDE TRENDS

20 10 0

The Pew Charitable Trusts have produced research demonstrating that jurisdictions that have relaxed zoning restrictions and allowed multi-family housing also see slower rent growth and a greater increase in home production.

REMOVING EXCLUSIONARY BARRIERS

12%

10%

SLOWING RENT GROWTH

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

Approved

2018

2019

2020

2021

In Processs

2022

2023

The Othering & Belonging Institue at UC Berkeley is maintaining a Zoning Reform Tracker, following municipal zoning reform efforts across the United States. This data illustrates the sharp increase in approvals of zoning reforms nationwide.

Denied 247

Raleigh & Zoning Reform MISSING MIDDLE REFORM

ADU REFORM

PARKING MINIMUM REFORM

Raleigh has passed two text changes to the Unified Development Ordinance that re-legalized missing middle housing types and relaxed building and lot size requirements.

In 2020, the City of Raleigh adopted a text change to the Unified Development ordinance that allows accessory dwelling units (ADUs) to be constructed on lots with existing detached or attached houses.

In 2022, Raleigh revised its required parking regulations. The adopted text change removed all parking minimums, and introduced parking maximums and required bicycle parking.

TC-5-20 (Missing Middle Housing) enacted the following reforms: •

Expanded the allowable building types.

•

Adjusted minimum yard, lot, and site areas.

•

Removed unit per acre density restrictions in most residential zoning districts.

TC-20-21 (Missing Middle 2.0) further expanded upon the reforms of the first text change: •

Expanded the allowable building types.

•

Adjusted minimum lot and site dimensional standards across residential districts.

•

Allowed higher density development near high-frequency transit.

TC-16-19 eliminated the prior system for accessory dwelling, the Accessory Dwelling Unit Overlay District (-ADUOD) and established ADUs instead as a housing pattern that is allowable by right in all residential zoning districts.

In Frequent Transit Areas, two ADUs are permitted.

Additionally, Raleigh has instituted a Fast Track program to increase the accessibility of the ADU construction process. This program presents a gallery of ADU designs (pre-reviewed for Building Code Compliance) by various architects and contractors that homeowners can select from. Once selected, homeowners will prepare site plan and permitting documents with the assistance of the ADU designer. This reduces the time and cost associated with the ADU construction process.

These amendments to the UDO support other recent efforts to support urban density, transit, and multi-modal transportation. In addition to reducing construction costs, eliminating parking minimums can contribute to a reduction in carbon emissions and air pollutants.

TC-11-21 (Parking Minimums, Maximums, and Mitigations) specifically: •

Removed parking requirements in zoning categories / locations where mandatory parking was still required.

•

Established maximum amounts of parking for some uses.

•

Expanded mitigation requirements for projects that choose to exceed the maximum.

•

Required long-term (secure and covered) bicycle spaces in multiunit living developments.

248

249

APPENDIX

251

Delivery Methods: admin. (2023, July 25). Understanding Mobile Homes, Modular Homes, and Manufactured Homes: What Sets Them Apart. Manufactured Housing Consultants. https:// mobilehomeslaredo.com/understanding-mobile-modular-and-manufactured-homes/ Brock Commons Tallwood House | Education (Post-secondary) Wood Design + Construction | naturally:wood. (2024, December 13). Naturally:wood. https://www.naturallywood. com/projects/brock-commons-tallwood-house/ Davies, C. (2005). The prefabricated home. Reaktion Books.

Dille, P. (2022, June 9). Supportive Housing - A Turnkey Solution - Guerdon Modular Buildings. Guerdon Modular Buildings. https://www.guerdonmodularbuildings.com/ supportive-housing-a-turnkey-solution/ Homepage | David Baker Architects. (2025). Dbarchitect.com. https://www.dbarchitect.com/ Key Findings and Best Practices for Successful Modular Projects PERMANENT MODULAR CONSTRUCTION REPORT. (n.d.). https://mbimodularbuildinginstitute.growthzoneapp. com Lana. (2024, January 10). The Pros and Cons of a Panelized House. Fine Homebuilding. https://www.finehomebuilding.com/2024/01/10/the-pros-and-cons-of-a-panelized house Lewin, R. (2021, October 16). Panelized Vs Modular Prefabricated Homes: Costs and Benefits - Green-R-Panel | Fast, Easy & Economical Pre-Fabricated Framing Home-Building Kits. Green-R-Panel | Fast, Easy & Economical Pre-Fabricated Framing Home-Building Kits. https://greenrpanel.com/panelized-vs-modular-prefabricated/ Modular Building Institute. (2023). What is Modular Construction? Modular Building Institute. https://www.modular.org/what-is-modular-construction/origin. (2025, January 7).

Collective Carpentry - Collective Carpentry - Prefab Building Systems. Collective Carpentry - Prefab Building Systems. https://collectivecarpentry.com/ Panelized Building Systems - NAHB. (n.d.). Www.nahb.org. https://www.nahb.org/other/consumer-resources/types-of-home-construction/panelized-building-systems Systemization is how we deliver the benefits of DfMA at scale. (2025). Bryden Wood. https://www.brydenwood.com/us/integrated-disciplines/systemization/s194602/ The Levittowns of the United States. (n.d.). WorldAtlas. https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-levittowns-of-the-united-states.html The (Surprisingly Long) History of Modular Construction. (2021, July 12). Modular Building Institute. https://www.modular.org/2021/07/12/the-surprisingly-long-history-of- modular-construction/ Verma, S. (2023, January 2). What is Modular Architecture & Its 10 Examples around the World. Novatr.com. https://www.novatr.com/blog/modular-architecture Video. (2022, September 27). Automated modular house building. KUKA AG. https://www.kuka.com/en-ch/industries/automated-modular-house-building Why Build a Modular Home or Addition - Advantages of Modular Housing and Construction. (2025). Modularhomebook.com. https://www.modularhomebook.com/book/ chapter01.html

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Sustainable Practices: • • • • • • •

• • • • • • • • •

LEED - https://www.usgbc.org/credits?Version=%22v4.1%22&Rati ng+System=%22Residential+-+Multifamily%22 Green Building Illustrated - D K Ching Architecture 2030 US Green Building Council Center for Sustainable Systems - University of Michigan GIASMA - Sun Path Data Optimization of Window‐to‐Wall Ratio for Buildings Located in Different Climates: An IDA‐Indoor Climate and Energy Simulation Study Whole Building Design Guide Midjourney Cable Mills https://www.faainc.com/project/cable-mills-residences https://gbdmagazine.com/cable-mills-apartments/ Adaptive Reuse https://ict.co/blog/adaptive-reuse-revolution-transformingcommercial-spaces-into-multifamily-solutions/ https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/2023/12/05/economicspolitics-office-to-residential-conversions/71664498007/ https://dottid.com/blog/2022/1/feature-story-adaptivereuse#:~:text=A%20Deloitte%20report%20showed%20 that,issues%20we’re%20now%20facing

Case Study : David baker architects https://www.dbarchitect.com/ blogs/cec-next-epic-challenge Sustainable stratergies : 2030 world https://2030palette.org/palette/ Water Efficiency :- https://www.epa.gov/watersense/watersenseproducts Thermal storage image : https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/ engineering/thermal-storage-wall Ventilation Images : https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/kiran-dasnatural-ventilation-010815/53473798#10 ,07 sketches , https://www. arch2o.com/passive-cooling-systems/#google_vignette Cool Roof : https://nzeb.in/knowledge-centre/passive-design/coolroofs/ Vegetation Plant: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Shadingof-a-building-by-different-type-of-trees-Source-Zeba-etal-2017-225_fig5_363759835 https://www.researchgate.net/figure/ Landscape-strategies-for-passive-solar-heating-and-day-lightingcontrol-16_fig3_283349212 Climate maps : https://www.noaa.gov/jetstream/global/climate-zones , https://www.weather.gov/rah/2022krdu Hannover principle : Google , Open Ai

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Housing Typologies: 01.

02.

03.

04.

05.

06.

07.

AH + SC: RPA: AARP: Michael Watkins: Daniel Parolek: Raleigh Open Data: Minneapolis 2024:

https://outreach.design.ncsu.edu/ah+sc/missing-middle-housing-for-raleigh/ https://rpa.org/work/reports/how-six-cities-are-creating-missing-middle-housing https://www.aarp.org/livable-communities/housing/info-2019/adus-come-in-many-shapes-and-styles.html https://www.michaelwatkinsarchitect.com/heritage-village-cottage-court https://missingmiddlehousing.com/ https://data-ral.opendata.arcgis.com/ https://minneapolis2040.com/

Ownership Models: History + Context: 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10

Shelterforce. (2024, April 23). Q: Does shared-equity homeownership build assets? https://shelterforce.org/2012/10/10/answer_170_seh_builds_assets/ History of Mitchell-Lama. Cooperators United for Mitchell-Lama. (n.d.). https://cu4ml.org/all-about-the-mitchell-lama-housing-program/ history-of-mitchell-lama New Communities formed in Southwest Georgia. SNCC Digital Gateway. (2021, September 24). https://snccdigital.org/events/ new-communities-formed-in-southwest-georgia/ Bernie Sanders establishes Burlington Community Land Trust for first-time home buyers. The Sanders Institute. (2022, December 7). https://sandersinstitute.org/event/bernie-sanders-establishes-burlington-community-land-trust-for-first-time-home-buyers Offering community and connection in the age of separation. Earth Island Journal. (n.d.). https://www.earthisland.org/journal/index.php/articles/entry/ offering-community-and-connection-in-the-age-of-separation/ Live. Ecovillage at Ithaca. (2025). https://ecovillageithaca.org/live/ Weissert, W. (2023, March 15). How the 2008 Financial Crisis Fuels Today’s populist politics. PBS. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/ how-the-2008-financial-crisis-fuels-todays-populist-politics Chen, M. (2015, October 2). Can community land trusts solve Baltimore’s homelessness problem? The Nation. https://www.thenation.com/article/ archive/can-community-land-trusts-solve-baltimores-homelessness-problem/ Local Housing Solutions. (2022, September 24). Limited Equity Cooperatives. Local Housing Solutions. https://localhousingsolutions.org/ housing-policy-library/limited-equity-cooperatives/ Governor of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. (1956, August). Constitution of the commonwealth of puerto rico. https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/ pue126720E.pdf Davis, J. E. (2014). Origins and evolution of the Community Land Trust in the United States. https://cltroots.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2022/06/ Origins-Evolution-CLT.pdf

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1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20

Special, W. R. (1974b, September 28). Condominium trend cuts rental market. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/1974/09/28/archives/ condominium-trend-cuts-rental-market.html History & awards - champlain housing trust. Champlain Housing Trust - Affordable Housing For All. (2024, June 12). https://www.getahome.org/history-awards/ Tenant opportunity to purchase act. Housing Justice for All. (2024, March 29). https://housingjusticeforall.org/our-platform/ tenant-opportunity-to-purchase-act/ Martin, C. E. (2016, September 20). Modern housing with village virtues. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/20/opinion/ modern-housing-with-village-virtues.html Ecovillage at Ithaca. (n.d.). https://ecovillageithaca.org/ https://www.coadvisorygroup.com/blog/condominium-associations-and-the-aftermath-of-the-global-financial-crisis/ Video on charm city land trusts. Charm City Land Trusts. (n.d.). https://charmcitylandtrusts.org/ Steele, B. (2024, October 29). North Carolina’s housing shortage. ncIMPACT Initiative. https://ncimpact.sog.unc.edu/2024/04/ north-carolinas-housing-shortage/ Bergin, M. (2025, February 6). Wake County faces massive housing shortage, report finds. WRAL.com. https://www.wral.com/story/ wake-county-faces-massive-housing-shortage-report-finds/ 2024 Raleigh-Durham Foreclosure Overview. Foreclosure Listings. (2024, September 16). https://www.foreclosurelistings.com/news/ foreclosure-market/2024-raleigh-durham-foreclosure-overview

Community and Land Trusts: 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7

What is a Community Land Trust?. International Center for Community Land Trusts. (2024, December 28). https://www.cltweb.org/resources/ what-is-a-community-land-trust/ Housing Solutions Lab at NYU Furman Center. (2023). Community Land Trusts in Welcoming Cities: Building Inclusive Housing Models for Immigrants.

ArcGIS dashboards. https://www.arcgis.com/apps/dashboards/8b7cb0efe16b412e8cc80feb9be60a27 Axel-Lute, M. (2025, January 16). Understanding community land trusts. Shelterforce. https://shelterforce.org/2021/07/12/ understanding-community-land-trusts/ Childers, L. (2024, March 14). Durham’s Community Land Trust allows generations of families to continue living in their hometown. Shelterforce. https://shelterforce.org/2021/07/27/durhams-community-land-trust-allows- generations-of-families-to-continue-living-in-their-hometown/ Burlington Associates in Community Development. (2006). Key features of the “Classic” community land trust. https://www.hcdnnj.org/assets/ documents/key features of classic clt.pdf National League of Cities. (2021). Community land trusts: A guide for local governments. https://www.nlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/ Community-Land-Trusts_A-Guide-for-Local-Governments_Report-1.pdf Ehlenz, Meaghan. (2018). Making Home More Affordable: Community Land Trusts Adopting Cooperative Ownership Models to Expand Affordable Housing.

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Limited Equity Coops: 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5

Lawton, Julie D. Limited Equity Cooperatives: The Non-Economic Value of Homeownership.

Sazama, Gerald W. Lessons from the History of Affordable Housing Cooperatives in the United States: A Case Study in Affordable Housing Policy.

Local Housing Solutions. (2022, September 24). Limited Equity Cooperatives. Local Housing Solutions. https://localhousingsolutions.org/ housing-policy-library/limited-equity-cooperatives/ Cottages of idlewild. Raleigh Area Land Trust. https://www.ralt.org/cottages-of-idlewild Herrick, S., Alperstein, M., Hui, S., & Weinberg, D. (2024, December 18). Here Today, Here To Stay. https://coopersquare.org/

Cohousing: 4.1 4.2 4.3

Lawton, Julie D. Limited Equity Cooperatives: The Non-Economic Value of Homeownership.

Foundation for International Community. (2024, August 9). https://www.cohousing.org/directory/muir-commons-2/ Cohousing Association of the United States. (n.d.). https://www.cohousing.org/create-cohousing/create-it/

Condominiums: 5.1 5.2 5.3

Community Associations Institute. (n.d.). https://www.caionline.org/ Condominiums. National Association of REALTORS®. (2017, August 8). https://www.nar.realtor/condominiums DSNI. https://www.dsni.org/

Planning: Curitiba Case Study: https://www.thegpsc.org/sites/gpsc/files/todknowdoc/iclei_cs_190_curitiba_urban-leds_0_0.pdf Curitiba: A City of Transformation: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/curitiba-brazil-city-transformation-bus-transit-maithreyi-nair/ Curitiba’s EcoMobility Alliance: https://sustainablemobility.iclei.org/ecomobility-alliance/curitiba-brazil/ Raleigh Equitable Transit Development: https://raleighnc.gov/equitable-transit-development Raleigh Affordable Housing & Inclusionary Zoning: https://raleighnc.gov/housing/affordable-housing-bond-inclusionary-zoning-program Urban Planning Overview: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_planning Raleigh iMAPS: https://maps.raleighnc.gov/imaps/ Raleigh BRT Map: https://raleighnc.gov/sites/default/files/2022-03/BRTMapSmall.jpg Sound Transit: https://www.soundtransit.org/system-expansion/creating-vibrant-stations/transit-oriented-development Integrated Housing and Transportation Planning: https://www.planning.dot.gov/planning/topic_housing.aspx 256

Zoning Reforms: National Zoning Atlas - https://www.zoningatlas.org/atlas Overview of Zoning in NC - https://www.sog.unc.edu/sites/default/files/full_text_books/ss23.pdf Raleigh UDO - https://user-2081353526.cld.bz/UnifiedDevelopmentOrdinance Maps - https://livingatlas.arcgis.com/policy/issues/#category=Social%20Equity%20and%20Health:Affordable%20Housing&start=1 Residential segregation storymap - https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/2b4631586ab44265aaf59e9cdae68542 Housing segregation in the triangle area IndyWeek-https://indyweek.com/news/northcarolina/triangle-housing-segregation/ Discriminatory housing policy Habitat For Humanity -https://www.habitatwake.org/racially-restrictive-covenants Raleigh-Durham African American cultural landscapes - https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.tclf.org/places/view-city-and-regional-guides/raleighdurham/raleigh-durhams-african-american-cultural&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1741210323359987&usg=AOvVaw2kPe1QtzvELtQ1mx9KUSrJ Minneapolis 2040 plan - https://minneapolis2040.com/ Los Angeles Adaptive Reuse Projects ARO FACT SHEET - https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.ladbs.org/services/core-services/plan-check-permit/ plan-check-permit-special-assistance/adaptive-reuse-projects&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1741210456391594&usg=AOvVaw00x8YFTJVG4lLXGWm34qi6 “Regulatory Barriers”, or restrictive zoning: A Brief History of Zoning in America—and Why We Need a More Flexible Approach | Manhattan Institute - https:// www.google.com/url?q=https://www.planning.org/planning/2023/winter/what-is-zoning-reform-and-why-do-we-need-it/&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1741210476 258582&usg=AOvVaw3TBRkO9616iXUWXdEj8FDm Zoned in USA :https://drive.google.com/file/d/1LowY5Q1mzwnUC8bI50-S8OT0XCRtj8H9/view

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