and St. Maximus the Confessor

5 Learning to love: Approaching the teaching of St. Cyprian and St. Maximus the Confessor

Nikolaos Zarotiadis

Postdoctoral researcher in the Theological School of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Postdoctoral researcher of the Medieval West in the School of History and Archaeology of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki

Corespondence:

e-mail: nzarotiadis@yahoo.com

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to present the teaching of two great Fathers of the Church, Saint Cyprian and Saint Maximus the Confessor, on the virtue of love for the neighbor and to identify common points in their writings. Cyprian and Maximus point out clearly that within true love for the neighbor, the love for Christ is more than present, because Christ Himself is the source of love.

Keywords:

Love, neighbor, St. Cyprian, Saint Maximus the Confessor, Church, prayer.

Citation:

Zarotiadis N. Learning to love: Approaching the teaching of St. Cyprian and St. Maximus the Confessor. Theology & Culture. 2022; 5: 95-111. Doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.36387.53281

Love for neighbor is God’s greatest gift to man (Farrel, 1991, p.179). When man truly loves God with all his heart, he then truly loves his neighbour. The Lord says: “You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind. This is the first and greatest rule. The second rule, similar to the first one, is to have love for your neighbor as for yourself” (Mt.22:37-40). In the Old Testament we read: “Don’t strive to become equal to the one who has done you wrong, or keep hard feelings against the children of your people, but have love for your neighbor as for yourself” (Lev.19.18). In another passage of the Gospel, Jesus teaches: “Have love for those who are against you, and make prayer for those who are cruel to you; So that you may be the sons of your Father in heaven” (Mt.5:44-45), and exhorts people to act lovingly to others using these words: “I give you a new law: Have love for one another; even as I had love for you, so are you to have love for one” (Jn.13:34).

Both Saint Cyprian and Saint Maximus the Confessor teach through their writings the virtue of love that culminates and is epitomized in the person of Jesus Christ. This paper attempts to analyze the great topic of love for neighbor based on the teachings of both Saints and eventually identify common points of reference.

1. The Bishop of Love

The era of the third post-Christian century was marked by all the typical signs of social, political and economic decline (Moreschini, 2009, p. 290). However, in Christian societies there was a prevailing belief that the only true life worthy mentioning was the life lived as a Christian, a life filled with the Spirit of God (Ioannidis, 2013, p. 12). Through God’s grace, Cyprian develops a new perspective on life by referring to the virtue of loving one’s neighbor (Zarotiadis, 2014, p. 28).

Cyprian’s word in all his works is full of love for his fellow man. He calls the Church a “brotherhood”1 and urges the faithful to love one another, just as Jesus Christ taught His disciples2. Brotherly love stems from the fact that we are all creatures of the same God. We have the same Father and He commands us to love one another. The Bishop of Carthage was merciful and showed great

1 Cyprian, Epistula 18.1.1: fraternitatis nostrae. 2 Cyprian, De zelo et livore 12.

compassion for the spiritual or physical problem of his fellowmen3. The greatest benefit to our neighbor comes from our prayer4. Cyprian, according to his Divine teaching, emphasises in a simple, but effective way the communal character of prayer and the immense strength it possesses. His words act as the driving force for the Christian to unify his prayer with the prayers of others in the Christian society, in his attempt to give the prayer a single and communal character at the same time. Its strength is presented through words, such as “uno” or “unum”, which characterise the type of collective effort that becomes one. In doing so, this common prayer has greater power5. At the same time, in addition to prayer, the purpose of every Christian should be to engage in acts of love. For example, in his treatise Ad Quirinum, Cyprian urges the faithful to give bread to the hungry, clothe the needy and shelter the homeless6. At that time, the people of Carthage were being afflicted and tested by a deadly plague7. In the meantime, the pirates of Numidia kidnapped and captured many Christians. Cyprian sent letters to the bishop of Numidia to pay a ransom for the captives8 .

In another treatise, De opere et eleemosynis, he shows how the faithful Christian can help his neighbor and serve the Word of the Lord correctly. The occasion for writing this treatise was the devastating plague that struck Carthage in 252 AD. The Bishop of Carthage, in sympathy for his suffering fellow citizens, preaches that alms and charity offer salvation and result in Lord’s mercy. Many wealthy people, affected by the magnitude of the disaster, try desperately to keep their riches, while a huge part of the population of Carthage starves and lives in miserable conditions. Alms and love for one’s fellow man are presented as the best avenue for the purifying of sins committed after baptism. It’s more than evident that the title of the treatise cannot be accidental, since the saint refers to “ἔλεος” (mercy) and “opera”, (the works), thus the charitable deeds that the faithful Christian must perform in order to assist his fellow man. Cyprian exercises his pastoral “paraenesis” as he attempts to convince his flock of the purifying power of love towards his fellow man. Specifically, already from

3 Cyprian, Epistula 17.1.1. 4 Cyprian, Epistula 60.5: … pro caritate mutua qua nobis invicem cohaeremus ut, … ieiuniis vigiliis orationibus cum omni plebe non desideramus. … perseveret apud Dominum nostra dilectio, pro fratribus et sororibus nostris apud misericordiam patris non cesset oratio. 5 Cyprian, De dominica oratione 8: publica est nobis et communis oratio, et quando oramus, non pro uno sed pro populo toto rogamus, quia totus populos unum sumus. 6 Cyprian, Ad Quirinum 1. 7 Cyprian, De mortalitate 16. 8 Cyprian Epistula 62.2.2: de barbarorum manibus exuatur et redimatur numaria quantitate.

the first chapters of his treatise, it becomes clear that the Saint’s teaching on charity and love is developed not autonomously, but is rather integrated into the Church’s soteriology (Studer, 1976, pp. 427-456). It derives from the Passion, Death and Resurrection of the Lord, who became flesh to subdue death and redeem men from sins. The Bishop of Carthage points out that man’s sins can be purified “medellis spiritalibus” (by spiritual remedies) such as almsgiving, charity, penance and fasting9. Alms and charity are gifts of the Lord that must be returned to the Lord. According to the saint, man ought to follow the word of Jesus Christ, as “eleemosynis et fide delicta purgantur”10. The saint in his sermon uses the second person plural, adding a catechetical tone to his discourse. In a simple, advisory style, he reveals practical advices that will lead the faithful Christian to the saving way of the Lord (Zarotiadis, 2019, p. 101).

According to the Saint, acts of love, alms and charity shouldn’t be demonstrated in front of people. The faithful shouldn’t proclaim charity the way hypocrites do in the synagogues (Mt.6:2). Good deeds should be received by all people and not only by Christians. The Bishop of Carthage focuses on the redemptive power of love. The crucifixion and resurrection of the Lord brought salvation to man. Nevertheless, man, due to his weakness, continues to sin after the saving baptism. However, the merciful God cares for the salvation of man’s soul and provides him with those means to achieve it. Thus, man becomes able to purge his sins by fasting, prayer, repentance, but also by almsgiving and acts of love for his neighbor11. The saint stresses that “eleemosynis et fide delicta purgantur”12. Love of neighbor appeases and pleases God. Prayer is most powerful when is accompanied by charity and love. In other words true prayer embodies charity and love. The faithful should demonstrate love for their fellow man, especially, at that difficult time for Carthage. Cyprian emphasizes the divine prizes (divina praemia) that await the faithful in the kingdom of God (regnum Dei). Christians should expect the reward for their good deeds in heaven and not in earthly goods.

The Bishop of Carthage teaches his flock to give bread to the sick and to house the poor homeless; to clothe the naked and not to refuse help to his fellow man13. Then the glory of God surrounds man (Is.58:7-9). The Saint’s exhortations to the virtues of love and charity do not stop here. Cyprian stresses

9 Cyprian, De opere et eleemosynis 3.4. 10 Cyprian, De opere et eleemosynis 2.2. 11 Cyprian, De opere et eleemosynis 1. 12 Cyprian, De opere et eleemosynis 2. 13 Cyprian, De opere et eleemosynis 4.17-18: Frange esurienti panem tuum et egenos sine tecto induc in domum suam. Si videris nudum, vesti et domesticos seminis tui non despicies.

that he who has not been merciful cannot be worthy of the Lord’s mercy14 . Merciful is he who thinks of the needy and the poor (Ps.40:2). The power of forgiveness and repentance is clearly manifested in his treatise De lapsis, where Cyprian presents and explains his position on the issue of the lapsed. He argues that we ought to support sinners by demonstrating consolation and love15. Cyprian refers to the word of Jesus that says explicitly that we should leave the ninety-nine sheep in the wilderness to find the one that was lost16 . And when we find it, we ought to return it home with the rest, as this is how joy is made in heaven for a sinner who repents rather than for ninety-nine righteous people who have no need of repentance. In the same way, the Saint is concerned for the souls of the lapsed, as the devil lurks with his ambushes. Love is superior to faith and hope (1 Cor.13:13). It is the highest of all virtues; it is the greatest gift that God bestows upon man. Even if a Christian distributes all his property in alms and gives his body to be burned, if he has no love, there is no benefit to him.

2. The Biblica exempla of love

The Bishop of Carthage defines Christ himself as the main exemplar of love for one’s neighbor. Christ was humbled so that we might be lifted up; He was wounded so that we might be healed; He was enslaved so that we might be set free; He endured death so that He might give us immortality17. The Lord in His coming healed the wounds Adam bore and healed the ancient poison of the serpent18. Christ is humble and full of love. He sees His disciples as brothers and sisters and doesn’t hesitate to wash their feet by commanding them to love one another19. The Saint, in order to be clearer and more explicit to his flock, uses in his treatise several Biblica Exempla. In particular, he refers to the prophet Daniel. Daniel was the one who lovingly urged King Nebuchadnezzar, when he was terrified by a terrible dream, to be merciful to the poor20 .

14 Cyprian, De opere et eleemosynis 5.8. 15 Cyprian, Epistula 55.19.1. 16 Cyprian, Epistula 55.14 (Lk. 15:4). 17 Cyprian, De opere et eleemosynis 1.7-10: Humiliavit se ut populum qui prius iacebat erigeret, vulneratus est ut vulnera nostra curare, servivit ut ad libertatem servientes extraherat, mori sustinuit ut inmortalitatem mortalibus exhiberet. 18 Cyprian, De opere et eleemosynis 1.16-17: Nam cum Dominus adveniens sanasset illa quae Adam portaverat vulnera et venena antiqua serpentis curasset. 19 Cyprian, De bono patientiae 6: Discipulis non ut servis dominica potestate praefuit sed benignus et mitis fraternal eos caritate dilexit, dignatus etiam pedes apostolorum lavare, ut dum circa servos talis est dominus, exemplo suo doceret qualis circa compares et aequales debeat esse conservus (Jn. 13:1-30) ˙ Cyprian, De zelo et livore 12. 20 Cyprian, De opere et eleemosynis 5.15 (Dan. 4:24).

Moreover, he presents Tabitha as another example of loving his fellow man21 . Tabitha is raised by the Apostle Peter in the name of Jesus Christ, as she had provided help to the overwhelmed widows (Acts 7:40). Zacchaeus is presented as another Biblicum Exemplum of love, who gives half of his property to the poor and enjoys divine mercy (Lk.19:8). Furthermore, in his treatise De bono patientiae, the Bishop preaches that we should forgive our neighbor, even if he has harmed or hurt us, giving prominence to Stephen the First Martyr, who was stoned to death and asked that his murderers be forgiven22. After all, he himself teaches in his treatise Ad Demetrianum that we shouldn’t hate our neighbor, nor seek revenge, but that we should respond to hatred with love23 . Christians must have confidence in the merciful God. Cyprian is absolute in this position; first comes love for the Lord. As a shepherd of souls, he uses the example of Job who suffered and endured so much for his love of the Lord. In such manner parents must entrust their children and their possessions to God24. He manifests that love for neighbor is the way to salvation. Cyprian reminds the flock of the example of the early Christians. They were imbued with a spirit of love, sold their houses and possessions to support the poor25. He advises us to seek peace and safety in the harbor of salvation, lifting our eyes to heaven26. Man has no need for expensive houses and gold when the Holy Spirit dwells in him. There is no need for him who feeds on heavenly food; his house fears no disaster27 .

3. Greed as the root of all evil

People, therefore, should not cling to earthly possessions, but take refuge in heavenly treasures (caelestes thesauros)28. Love for one’s fellow man and whatever is done in the name of Christ, is a boundless and endless condition. Those who want to get rich fall into the temptation of avidity, which is “radix omnium malorum”29, Cyprian exhorts the faithful not to have closed ears (praeclu-

21 Cyprian, De opere et eleemosynis 6.6. 22 Cyprian, De bono patientiae 16: Quod factum videmus in Stephano, qui cum a Iudaeis vi et lapidibus necaretur, non sibi vindictam sed interfectoribus veniam postulabat dicens: Domine, ne statuas illis hoc peccatum (Acts 7.60). 23 Cyprian, Ad Demetrianum 25: Et quia odisse non licet nobis et sic Deo plus placemus, dum nullam pro iniuria vicem reddimus (Mt 5.44). 24 Cyprian, De opere et eleemosynis 16. 25 Cyprian, De opere et eleemosynis 25. 26 Cyprian, Ad Donatum 14. 27 Cyprian, Ad Donatum 15. 28 Cyprian, De opere et eleemosynis 7.6-7: Nec terrenis possesionibus incubemus sed caelestes thesauros potius recondamus. 29 Cyprian, De opere et eleemosynis 10.13.

sae aures) and blind hearts (corda caecata) that do not hear and feel the pain and need of their neighbor30. He preaches that money and greed are obstacles to love, as many people become servants of money and exhibit indifference towards their neighbor31. Anyone who has riches and becomes indifferent to his brother in need cannot have God within him32. Alms and love of neighbor redeem the soul and do not let it sink into darkness33. Besides, whatever we give to the poor and needy we give to the Lord Himself, and the Lord is offended when the poor and needy aren’t protected34. Cyprian closes his treatise De opere et eleemosynis by urging us to give earthly garments to the Lord in order to receive heavenly ones; to provide food and drink in this world, that we may come to the same table with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob35 .

In conclusion, Cyprian describes the Church as a brotherhood in which one brother ought to love the other. This love must be based on the word of Jesus (Dumont, 1959, pp. 23-33). This brotherly love prompts the faithful Christian to pray for his neighbor. Prayers should concern all those in need, especially sinners, as brotherly love can lead to the right path for someone who has lost the way to salvation. Christians must accept the faults of others with love and patience, imitating the example of Christ. Prayer is strengthened when accompanied by alms and charity, as prayer alone cannot please the Lord. In this way, sins are purified and the way of salvation is opened. Christian love has redemptive power. Whoever loves his fellow man loves the Lord himself. The faithful Christian must wait for his reward in heaven; there, the reward is incorruptible and eternal.

However, what is Maximus’ teaching on love? Without a doubt, love is Christ himself (1 Jn. 4:8). St Maximus wrote his treatise The Four Centuries on Charity pointing out the vital place of love in man’s effort to approach God and unite with Him (Arabatzis, 2014, p.178). In this treatise the whole of Christian life is summarized and contained (Sherwood, 1955, p. 91). For the Saint, the incarnation of the Lord is the supreme manifestation of love for man (Blowers, 2016, p. 257).

30 Cyprian, De opere et eleemosynis 12.15. 31 Cyprian, De opere et eleemosynis 13. 32 Cyprian, De opere et eleemosynis 16.9-10. 33 Cyprian, De opere et eleemosynis 20.19. 34 Cyprian, De opere et eleemosynis 23.46-48. 35 Cyprian, De opere et eleemosynis 24. 5-8: Demus Christo vestimenta terrena indumenta caelestia recepturi. Demus cibum et potum saecularum cum Abraham et Isaac et Iacob ad convinium caeleste venture.

Saint Maximus defines love (ἀγάπη) as the good disposition of the soul (ψυχή), which prefers above and beyond everything the participation and knowledge of God (γνῶσις Θεοῦ)36. In particular, he gives the highest importance to the virtue of love, since without love; faith (πίστις) doesn’t accomplish a complete work37. It is through love that true faith manifests itself. Love is the source of all virtues (Törönen, 2007, p.169). Love in Christ leads to the salvation of the soul and this is obtained through good works. Having a simple faith alone isn’t enough when isn’t accompanied by the love for Christ38. The Saint focuses on the redemptive power of love, as it elevates the man spiritually and leads his soul to God away from passions39. For this reason love is presented by Maximus as having wings (ἀγάπης πτερῶν)40 .

Love for God is the first and foremost concern of the faithful Christian in his daily spiritual struggle41. Love is the main criterion through which all the actions of men are evaluated. Love for God and love for the world are not two different loves (Balthasar, 1988, p. 340). Without doubt, choosing to love God automatically implies despising earthly and worldly motives (Mt. 6:24). After all, things material, earthly and corruptible are not compatible with God’s will. This relationship and often man’s dependence on earthly things is an obstacle to sincerely loving the Lord. Therefore, spiritual progress is impossible when man thinks of earthly things and clings to them (Ioannidis, 2019, p. 85). The saint emphasizes that love is genuine when the prayerful mind is free from

36 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 1.1: Ἀγάπη μέν ἐστιν, διάθεσις ψυχῆς ἀγαθή, καθ᾿ ἥν οὐδέν τῶν ὄντων, τῆς τοῦ Θεοῦ γνώσεως προτιμᾷ. 37 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 1.31: Ὥσπερ μνήμη πυρός οὐ θερμαίνει τό σῶμα, οὕτω πίστις ἄνευ ἀγάπης, οὐκ ἐνεργεῖ εἰς τήν ψυχήν τόν τῆς γνώσεως φωτισμόν. 38 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate, 1.39: Καί σύ μή εἴπῃς, ὅτι Ἡ ψιλή πίστις εἰς τόν Κύριον ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦν Χριστόν δύναταί με σῶσαι. Ἀμήχανον γάρ τοῦτο, ἐάν μή καί τήν ἀγάπην εἰς αὐτόν διά τῶν ἔργων κτήσῃ. Τό δέ ψιλῶς πιστεύειν· Καί τά δαιμόνια πιστεύουσι καί φρίσσουσι. 39 Maximus’ teaching on the ascetic struggle against the passions is treated in detail in Völker, W. (1965) Maximus Confessor als Meister des geistlichen Lebens, Wiesbaden, pp.174–200. 40 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate, 2.26: Τῆς δέ θεολογικῆς χάριτος, τοτηνικαῦτα καταξιοῦται, ὁπηνίκα τά προειρημένα πάντα διά τῶν τῆς ἀγάπης πτερῶν διαπεράσας, καί ἐν Θεῷ γενόμενος, τόν περί αὐτοῦ λόγον διά τοῦ πνεύματος, ὡς ἀνθρωπίνῳ νῷ δυνατόν, διασκοπήσει. 41 Papanikolaou refers to a “progress in the love of God”, see Papanikolaou, A. (2013) “Learning How to Love: St. Maximus on Virtue” in Knowing the Purpose of Creation Through the Resurrection: Proceedings of the Symposium on St. Maximus the Confessor, (ed.) Bishop Maxim Vasiljević, Belgrade, p.242.

material goods and worldly concerns42. It is obvious, for the saint, that the condition of exercising undistracted prayer is a definite indicator of true love for the Lord.

The love of material goods and earthly pleasures can lead to the deception of idolatry and self - love43. In fact, the Gospel passage “for, where your treasure is, there your heart will also be” (Mt. 6:21) points out that the ability of man to love is misdirected to earthly things instead of God. Consequently, when we’re concerned about material possessions it’s an undeniable sign that we’re focused on ourselves and not on God. At this point Maximus makes clear that the love of God can’t coexist with the love of material goods. When man loves God he’ll eventually do what is “pleasing” to God44. When, after many efforts and persistent struggle, the love of God rises in the soul of man through which passions are expelled, and then comes the contempt not only of sensible things, but also of temporal life itself45. Then he enjoys “dispassion” (ἀπάθεια), a condition of stillness and peace (Berthold, 2015, p. 401). The soul becomes immovable to all evil46. The saint describes apatheia as a reality in which a man remains unscathed by morbid conditions. Through the knowledge of the divine teachings and the observance of the commandments he attains the light of spiritual knowledge (φωτισμόν τῆς γνώσεως)47. In the context of this state there is no possibility of social or racial discrimination, since the person in apatheia sees Christ himself in every person. He, therefore, who enters into the divine reality prefers the knowledge of God to that of His creatures.

For St Maximus, the knowledge of God is intertwined with the concept of love and full adherence to the divine will. When man is captivated by divine

42 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 2.1: Ὁ γνησίως τόν Θεόν ἀγαπῶν, οὗτος καί ἀπερισπάστως πάντως προσεύχεται· καί ὁ ἀπερισπάστως πάντως προσευχόμενος, οὗτος καί γνησίως τόν Θεόν ἀγαπᾷ. Οὐκ εὔχεται δέ ἀπερισπάστως, ὅ τινι ἐπιγείων ἔχων τόν νοῦν προσηλωμένον· οὐκ ἄρα ἀγαπᾷ τόν Θεόν, ὅ τινι τῶν ἐπιγείων ἔχων τόν νοῦν δεδεμένον. 43 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate: 2.51: Ὅταν ἴδῃς τόν νοῦν σου τοῖς ὑλικοῖς ἡδέως ἐνασχολούμενον, καί τοῖς τούτων νοήμασιν ἐμφιλοχωροῦντα, γίνωσκε σεαυτόν ταῦτα μᾶλλον ἤ τόν Θεόν ἀγαπῶντα. Ὅπου γάρα ἐστιν ὁ θησαυρός σου, φησίν ὁ Κύριος, ἐκεῖ καί ἡ καρδία ἔσται. 44 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 3.10: Ὅν τις ἀγαπᾷ, τοῦτον πάντως καί σπεύδει θεραπεύειν. Εἰ οὖν τόν Θεόν τις ἀγαπᾷ, πάντως καί τά ἀρεστά αὐτῷ σπεύδει ποιεῖν· 45 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 3.50: Ἐάν τόν Θεόν γνησίως ἀγαπήσωμεν, δι᾿ αὐτῆς τῆς ἀγάπης τά πάθη ἀποβάλλομεν. Ἡ δέ εἰς αὐτόν ἀγάπη ἐστί, τό προτιμᾷν αὐτόν τοῦ κόσμου, καί τήν ψυχήν τῆς σαρκός· 46 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 1.36: Ἀπάθειά ἐστιν εἰρηνική κατάστασις ψυχῆς, καθ᾿ ἥν δυσκίνητος γίνεται ψυχή πρός κακίαν. 47 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 1.77.

love, he enters the state of divine knowledge, experiencing God’s infinity. Love for God is proved to be superior and sweeter than any pain and sorrow of this world, as is demonstrated in the saints of our Church who suffered so much for it48. Maximus emphasizes on those elements that come with the experience of love for God: “He who loves God lives the angelic life on earth, fasting and keeping vigils, praying and singing psalms and always thinking good of every man”49 .

God moved towards man through the incarnation of the Word, it is now left for the man to move towards God in order to be united with Him (Θέωσις). The Saint notes, “When in the intensity of its love for God the intellect goes out of itself, then it has no sense of itself or of any created thing”50. Then it feels pleasure not for the present goods, but for those that belong to God. Of course, love of God presupposes love for neighbor.

5. Love for the neighbor

Love for the neighbor is placed among the most substantial things in a man’s spiritual life. We do acknowledge from the writings of St Maximus that the love for neighbour, is a spiritual state acquired with ascetical struggle and true Christian life. Only by human abilities, it’s almost impossible for someone to love all people selflessly and equally and according to the Saint this struggle has many stages in order for anyone to achieve perfect love as spiritual perfection. Specifically, since love of the Lord is sincere and unwavering, so must be love for neighbor. In defining perfect love, Maximus notes that it is universal and directed to all people without exception51. For him who experiences perfect love (τέλεια ἀγάπη), there is no difference between his own or another’s, or between Christian and unbeliever, slave and free, males and females52. In this case the natural differences between human beings in the earthly life by no means are they viewed and experienced as criteria of superiority and dis-

48 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 2.58: Ἡ εἰς Θεόν ἀγάπη, πάσης ἡδονῆς παρερχομένης, καί παντός πόνου καί λύπης πείθει καταφρονεῖν τόν μέτοχον αὐτῆς. Καί πειθέτωσάν σε οἱ ἅγιοι πάντες, τοσαῦτα πεπονθότες διά Χριστόν. 49 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 1.42: Ὁ ἀγαπῶν τόν Θεόν, ἀγγελικόν βίον ἐπί γῆς ζῇ, νηστεύων καί ἀγρυπνῶν, ψάλλων καί προσευχόμενος, καί περί παντός ἀνθρώπους ἀεί καλά λογιζόμενος. 50 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 1.10. 51 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 4.95: Πάντα μέν ἄνθρωπον, ἐκ ψυχῆς ἀγαπητέον· 52 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 2.30: Ὁ τέλειος ἐν ἀγάπῃ, καί εἰς ἄκρον ἀπαθείας ἐλθών, οὐκ ἐπίσταται διαφοράν ἰδίου καί ἀλλοτρίου, ἤ ἰδίας καί ἀλλοτρίας, ἤ πιστοῦ καί ἀπίστου, ἤ δούλου καί ἐλευθέρου, ἤ ὅλως ἄρσενος καί θηλείας·

Maximus, as a well-known and influential monk, adds that for the one who truly loves there is no inequality and imbalances in exercising love. Only then he is able to enjoy perfect love53. This is what the Lord also defines by saying, “Whose desire is that all men may have salvation and come to the knowledge of what is true” (1 Tim. 2:4). Therefore, true love cannot be different from the love of Christ, Who “through sun gives light to the evil and to the good, and he sends rain on the upright man and on the sinner (Mt. 5:45)”. Those, moreover, who do not sincerely love their neighbor cannot be called “friends of Christ” but “friends of world”54. So for St Maximus man’s inability to love his neighbor is directly associated with his addiction to earthly things and the worldly life. For Maximus, perfect love isn’t limited to the duration of man’s earthly life, but is always increasing and continues to be manifested in the Kingdom of Heaven55. Maximus of course believes that love of God, as the first and greatest commandment, precedes love of neighbor. In this way love for God means that you definitely love your neighbour. However, the proof of love for God is the proof of true love for neighbor56. Besides, the Lord Himself ordained that love for neighbor should be like love for God (Mt. 22:36-39).

6. God is love

St Maximus links blessedness with love, as “blessed is he who can love all men equally”57. Man must be freed from hatred and be led to loving the Lord and his neighbor. “He who has no love has no knowledge of God, because God is love” (1 Jn. 4:8). It’s obvious that for St Maximus love of God is an existential experience of the revealed God that gives to His creature His endless love so that man may be captured by it and channel it to all humanity. Since God is love and devil is hatred and deception, the spiritual struggle of any Chris-

53 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 2.10: Ἐάν τινάς μέν μισῇς, τινάς δέ οὐδέ ἀγαπᾷς οὐδέ μισῇς· ἑτέρους δέ ἀγαπᾷς, ἀλλά συμμέτρως· ἄλλους δέ σφόδρα ἀγαπᾷς· ἐκ ταύτης τῆς ἀνισότητος, γνῶθι ὅτι μακράν εἶ τῆς τελείας ἀγάπης, ἥτις ὑποτίθεται πάντα ἄνθρωπον ἐξ ἴσου ἀγαπῆσαι. 54 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 4.98. 55 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 3.100: ἡ δέ ἀγάπη, εἰς ἀπείρους αἰῶνας τῷ ὑπεραπείρῳ ὑπερηνωμένη, καί ἀεί ὑπεραύξουσα διαμένει. Καί διά τοῦτο, Μείζων πάντων ἡ ἀγάπη. Cf. Gregory of Nyssa, De anima et resurrectione PG 46.96B and John Climacus, Gradus XXX. De vincula trium virtutum (Fidei nempe, spei et charititatis) PG 88.1157D. 56 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 1.23: Ὁ τόν Θεόν ἀγαπῶν, καί τόν πλησίον πάντως ἀγαπᾷ. Basil of Caesarea claims that love for neighbour perfects the love for God, cf. Sermo Asceticus PG 31.885B 57 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de charitate 1.17.

tian should center on love towards the neighbor. In loving Christ, we sacrifice our personal will and apply His commandments; in loving our neighbor, we sacrifice our selfishness. Therefore, loving Christ means imitating Him and becoming “Theomimitos” (θεομίμητος).

7. The elements of love

Saint Maximus refers to the three elements that perfect love consists of. These are alms, forbearance and patience. Christ, for example, was always conferring blessings on people: He was long-suffering when they were ungrateful and blasphemed Him, and when they beat Him and put Him to death. He endured it, imputing no evil at all to anyone58. The combination of love, continence, and alms expedite the purifying of the soul59. Love for neighbor is considered essential for man, as it creates a wall of protection against all evil60 . Besides, if we have all the gifts of the Spirit but do not have love, we are no further forward. Of course, envy (φθόνος) and resentment (μνησικακία) are the greatest obstacles to developing perfect love. Man must forget evil and become charitable, so that he can eliminate passions from his soul. Perfect love dictates that we should benefit those who hate us61 .

8. Reasons of love

Men love one another, commendably or reprehensibly, for the following five reasons; either for the sake of God, as the virtuous man loves everyone and as the man not yet virtuous loves the virtuous: either by nature, as parents love their children and children their parents or because of self-esteem, as he who is praised loves the man who praises him; or because of avarice, as with one who loves a rich man for what he can get out of him; or because of self-indulgence, as with the man who serves his belly and his genitals. The first of these is commendable, the second is of an intermediate kind, and the rest are dominated by passion62. In other words, the first one manifests Christian love, as it is done for the sake of God, who is the source of love. The second one is permissible, since it’s permissible for parents to love their children and vice versa, although this love isn’t superior to the first one. Besides, Christ teaches “He who has more love for his father or mother than for me is not good

58 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 4.55. 59 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 4.72. 60 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 1.54 (1 Cor. 13.2). 61 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 2.49. 62 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 2.9.

enough for me; he who has more love for son or daughter than for me is not good enough for me” (Mt. 10.37). The other three causes of love are rejected by Maximus.

9. Love leads to the salvation of the soul

In conclusion, love for material goods keeps man away from salvation and leads him to a constant agony of acquiring them in exchange for any material or mental reward, even one that may lead to the loss of his soul. Man must choose love over things. Moreover, love and self-control keep the intellect (νοῦν) dispassionate in the face both of things and of the conceptual images we form of them63. The intellect of a man who enjoys the love of God does not fight against things or against conceptual images of them. It battles against the passions which are linked with these images64. Αs Christ loved all men, good and sinful, without distinction, so the faithful Christian must try not to lapse from the purpose of love, which is God Himself65. For any Christian, the great contribution of love to the spiritual struggle is that it helps him to despise material goods and love the eternal ones. This contempt for material things frees man from passions especially when his prayer is accompanied by continence, patience, longsuffering and mercy. Ιn this manner, the intellect joined to God through prayer and love becomes wise, good, compassionate and merciful; in short, it includes within itself almost all the divine qualities. But when the intellect withdraws from God and attaches itself to material things, either it becomes self-indulgent like some domestic animal, or like a wild beast it fights with men for the sake of these things. Conclusively, when man follows the way of love and prayer, the way of the Lord or the way of salvation, he rejects passions and experiences life in Christ. But if he moves away from love and temperance, then passions, physical and mental, are revived, and the soul is driven to sin.

63 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 3.39. 64 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 3.40. 65 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 4.90.

Conclusions: The incarnation of Christ as the supreme expression of love

We conclude that both teachings of Cyprian and Maximus on loving one’s neighbor focus on the Lord’s commandment “Have love for your neighbor as for yourself” (Mt 22:37). For both Saints, the best example of love is Christ, who became flesh to redeem man from death. The Lord suffered, endured and showed love even to his persecutors. He preaches “Have love one for another; even as I have had love for you, so are you to have love one for another” (Jn. 13:34). Without doubt, incarnation is the revelation of divine love and it offers us the example of divine love. The imitation of the incarnational love of God is ultimately what love is all about. Love for God presupposes sincere love for our neighbor. The Saints point out explicitly that we’re unable to love God if we do not love our neighbor. This kind of love, the true love, embodies within it virtues such as humility, fortitude, charity and patience – all epitomized and manifested by the Lord.

For both saints, Cyprian and Maximus, greed, hate, avarice and resentment are obstacles to sincere and selfless love. The word of Cyprian and Maximus are full of love for one’s fellow man. Cyprian, as a bishop of love, in simple motivational and counseling speech, exhorts the faithful to soften their hearts and embrace their fellow human beings suffering from pestilence, poverty and the persecutors of Christianity66. Brotherly love, after all, stems from the fact that we are all creatures of God himself. We have the same Father, and He commands us to love one another. Maximus reveals the concept of perfect love which presupposes knowledge of God. Perfect love redeems man from the bondage of earthly life and leads him to union with God. The mind (νοῦς) must be directed towards God. Then it rejects earthly things and experiences God’s love67. If we want to know God and participate in Him, we have to heal our sinful mind which has deviated from God and start directing it towards Him. In other words, this means overcoming our passions that are the embodiment of sin. Let us not forget that our Lord loved us more than himself68. So, Maximus teaches that love is the goal and the source of every good69 .

The Saints focus on the universal character of Christian love. Cyprian advises the faithful to pray even for heretics, so that their thought may be en-

66 Cyprian, De mortalitate 7. 67 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 3.67. 68 Maximus the Confessor, Ad Thallasium PG 90.725C. 69 Maximus the Confessor, Epistula ad Joannem cubicularium de caritate, PG 91.396B.

lightened and they may seek the path of love and not of hatred70. His word is full of exhortations and advice to believers, heretics, virgins, idolaters, lapsed, believers, etc. Envy and evil comes from the absence of love. It is love that leads to concord and unity, elements more than necessary for the continuity and unity of the Church (Hermelo, 1996, p. 228). The faithful, therefore, must lovingly and patiently accept the faults of others imitating the example of Christ (Marin, 1963, p. 73). Christian love has a redemptive power. Thus, it must be based on the word and life of Christ, pure and selfless (Dumont, 1958, p. 30). Likewise, Maximus focuses on the universal character of love. Indeed, he teaches that we should love those who hate us, because they are instruments of God’s providence and will lead us to Him. These obstacles will teach us obedience, keep us humble, and help us to become detached from earthly things.71 Both Saints adopt as an example of love the Protomartyr Stephen, who prays in love and asks forgiveness for his murderers72. What St Maximus describes in a rather deep and spiritual manner about acquiring perfect love from God, using a philosophical terminology, is actually identified with St Cyprian’s teaching of practical love that is demonstrated with love towards the neighbour. Both saints speak of the same love that is firstly acquired from God as gift, as He is the source of love, then is experienced within someone’s inner self, and finally is manifested indiscriminately to every human being.

In conclusion, for both Saints, faith in the Lord alone isn’t enough, as demons also believe in the power of God and are afraid73. An ideological faith based only on intellectual motives is useless. Man must prove his love for the Lord by works. The love offering must not only be material, but also spiritual. Works of love are acts of charity, patience, almsgiving, and prayer for our neighbor. Alms heal the soul, fasting softens desire, and prayer purifies the mind74. In brief, he who possesses love possesses God Himself, for “God is love”75 .

70 Cyprian, Epistula 60.5. 71 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 1.62. 72 Cyprian, De bono patientiae 16 & Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 1.37. 73 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 1.39. 74 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 1.79. 75 Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate 4.100 (1 Jn 4:8).

Primary Sources

Cyprian, Opera I, Ad Quirinium, Ad Fortunatum, De lapsis, De ecclesiae catholicae unitate, (eds.) Weber, R. & Bévenot, M., 1972 [CCSL 3]. Cyprian, Opera II, Ad Donatum, De mortalitate, Ad Demetrianum, De opera et eleemosynis, De zelo et livore, De dominica oratione, De bono patientiae, (eds.) Simonetti, M. & Moreschini, C., 1976 [CCSL 3A]. Cyprian, Epistulae, (ed.) Diercks, G.F., 1994 [CCSL 3B]. Cyprian, Epistulae, (ed.) Diercks, G.F., 1996 [CCSL 3C]. Maximus the Confessor, Capita de caritate PG. 90.959-1052.

Secondary Sources

Arabatzis, Chr. (2014) Issues of Ecclesiastical Literature and Patristic Hermeneutics, [in Greek], Thessaloniki. Balthasar, H., U. (1988) The Universe according to Maximus the Confessor, San Francisco.

Berthold, G. (2015) “Christian Life and Praxis” in The Oxford Handbook of Maximus the Confessor, (eds) Allen P. & Bronwen, N., Oxford, pp: 397-413. Blowers, P.M. (2016) Maximus the Confessor. Jesus Christ and the Transfiguration of the World, Oxford. Dumont, Ch. (1958) “Lectio Divina: La lecture de la Parôle de Dieu d’après saint Cyprien,” Bible et Vie Chrétienne 22: 23-33. Farrel, R. (1991) Saint Cyprian’s Ideas on “Love thy Neighbour”, Navara. Hermelo, M.R. (1966) Transigencia y Unidad en San Cipriano in Dialogo Ecuménico, Salamanca. Ioannidis, F. (2013) Cyprian of Carthage, De lapsis [in Greek], Thessaloniki. Ioannidis, G. (2019) Human Nature and Will: Study on Saint Maximus the Confessor and Symeon the new Theologian, [in Greek] Dissertation at Aristotle University, Thessaloniki. Marin, A.,R. (1963) Teología de la caridad, Madrid. Moreschini, Cl. (2009) Scrittori Cristiani dell’ Africa Romana, Cipriano vescovo di Cartagine, Roma.

Papanikolaou, A. (2013) “Learning How to Love: St. Maximus on Virtue” in Knowing the Purpose of Creation Through the Resurrection: Proceedings of the Symposium on St. Maximus the Confessor, (ed.) Bishop Maxim Vasiljević, Belgrade. Sherwood, P. (1955) St. Maximus the Confessor: The Ascetic Life, The Four Centuries on Charity New York. Studer, B. (1976) “Die Soteriologie Cyprians von Carthago”, Augustinianum 16: 427-456.

Törönen, M. (2007) Union and Distinction in the Thought of St Maximus the Confessor, Oxford. Völker, W. (1965) Maximus Confessor als Meister des geistlichen Lebens, Wiesbaden.

Zarotiadis, N. (2014) Cyprian of Carthage, On Works and Alms, On the Unity of the Church, On the Dress of Virgins [in Greek], Thessaloniki. Zarotiadis, N. (2019) Cyprian of Carthage, A Study of his Thought [in Greek], Thessaloniki.