CHERI

Managing Gastrointestinal Parasites in Farmed White-tailed Deer Sydney L. Cottingham, Juan M. Campos-Krauer, DVM, PhD Cervidae Health Research Initiative, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA

Introduction

Gastrointestinal parasites are ubiquitous on pasture where white-tailed deer are maintained and pose constant infection pressure on farmed herds. Though most infections by gastrointestinal parasites are subclinical or produce only mild clinical disease in ruminant livestock hosts, a few species of parasitic roundworms are capable of causing marked disease and economically significant production loss (Waller 2006; Stromberg and Gasbarre 2006; Charlier et al. 2014; Verocai et al. 2020). One such species is Haemonchus contortus (barberpole worm, large stomach worm), an abomasal (real stomach) roundworm capable of causing disease and mortality in young or immunocompromised deer (Prestwood and Kellogg 1971; Davidson et al. 1980; Forrester 1992). The life cycle of H. contortus and other important nematode parasites of deer includes a free-living larval stage, and all infections with these species are acquired through the ingestion of infective larvae from pasture. Consequently, management of these parasites depends on reducing the number of eggs shed into the environment and reducing subsequent exposure of deer to infective larvae on pastures.

Seasonal Parasite Pressure

Survival of free-living larvae on pastures is determined by environmental factors, most importantly, temperature and moisture (Waller 2006; Besier et al. 2016). In warm temperate regions such as Florida, warm, wet spring and summer conditions are especially permissive to rapid hatch rates and survival of free-living H. contortus larvae on pasture (Besier et al. 2016). In moist environments, hatch rates increase with temperature. The optimal temperature range for H. contortus egg development and larval survival is 68-86˚F (Besier et al. 2016).

Figure 1: The life cycle of Haemonchus contortus, a gastrointestinal parasite known to cause disease in white-tailed deer (credit: S.L. Cottingham).

Diagnosing Infection

Microscopic fecal examination is the most common and economical technique for diagnosing gastrointestinal parasite infections in livestock, including deer. Gastrointestinal parasites shed eggs in host feces, and these eggs can be identified and counted under a microscope. Fawning and weaning are associated with increased parasitosis in does and young deer, and fecal egg counts should coincide with these events to inform parasite management actions. Parturition (birthing) is associated with an increase in fecal egg production and does should be dewormed within the month prior to fawning or within two weeks after fawning to reduce contamination of fawning pastures and infection of young fawns (Schoenian 2012). Later, fecal egg counts should be performed before weaning and should guide selective deworming of fawns. Selective deworming before separating does and fawns can reduce contamination of weaning pasture with parasites acquired by young animals in fawning pens. By identifying parasite species present and the intensity of egg shedding, fecal examination promotes targeted parasite management schema that reduce anthelmintic treatment frequency and lower costs incurred by the producer (Barger 1997). Contact your veterinarian or a veterinary diagnostic laboratory for sample collection and submission instructions for microscopic fecal examination and fecal egg counts.

Integrated Parasite Management

The goal of parasite management is to break the transmission cycle and reduce parasite burdens below the threshold of economic loss. A combination of anthelmintic (dewormer) drugs and non-chemical management actions may be used to control GI parasites in farmed deer herds. Broad-spectrum anthelmintics are widely available and are effective against both roundworms and flatworms (flukes, tapeworms). Modern broad-spectrum anthelmintics are grouped into five chemical categories: benzimidazoles, macrocylclic lactones, imidazothiazoles, spiroindoles, and amino-acetonitrile derivatives. Anthelmintics may be administered as an oral drench or feed top-dress, by injection, or as a topical application. Evaluating the efficacy of anthelmintic treatments is critical to achieving sustainable parasite control in your deer. Fecal egg counts from a sample of your herd should be evaluated before anthelmintic treatment and again 14 days after treatment to evaluate efficacy. Little information is available regarding the presence of anthelmintic resistant parasites in farmed white-tailed deer, but care should be taken to slow the emergence of resistant parasite genotypes through judicious anthelmintic use. Rather than treating all animals in the herd, treating only some animals has proven effective in slowing the development of resistance (Coles 2002). This method of selective deworming maintains a proportion of susceptible parasites in the “refugia” of untreated animals by removing the selection pressure of anthelmintic exposure. Additionally, anthelmintic drugs may be rotated periodically to slow the development of parasite resistance. Consult your herd veterinarian to develop an anthelmintic treatment plan suitable for the parasite challenges facing your deer.

Figure 2. Eggs of GI parasites commonly observed in white-tailed deer fecal specimens. (A) Trichostrongyle-type egg (B) Strongyloides sp. egg (C) Eimeria sp. oocysts inside red circle (D) Moniezia sp. egg. Inside red circle (Photos provided by S. Cottingham, UF).

Non-chemical parasite management can complement anthelmintic treatment by reducing contamination of pastures by parasite eggs, thereby slowing reinfection of treated animals (Fox 2014). Decreasing stocking rates and removing fecal material from pastures reduces the number of eggs and larvae to which deer are exposed. Additionally, mowing pastures may reduce exposure of browsing deer to infective larvae (Vegora 1960). Rotational grazing methods for parasite control rely on an understanding of regional parasite epidemiology, and fall broadly into three categories: evasive, preventative, and diluting strategies (Barger 1997). Evasive strategies depend on moving the herd from a parasite egg-contaminated pasture to a “clean” pasture before the seasonal emergence of infective parasite larvae in the original pasture. Preventative strategies use anthelmintics to suppress fecal egg output until the level of infective larvae on the pasture has declined. Diluting strategies involve simultaneous grazing of deer alongside non-cervid livestock that are not susceptible to the same species of parasites. Concurrent grazing of multiple species with different parasite susceptibility can reduce the intensity of pasture contamination by deer parasites (Barger 1997).

Conclusion

Gastrointestinal parasites are a constant challenge to farmed white-tailed deer and effective, sustainable management is essential to maintaining herd health and preventing loss of production. Florida’s warm, humid climate promotes survival of parasites on pasture and infection pressure can be high during spring and summer months. Microscopic fecal examination is a critical tool used to guide anthelmintic treatment and to evaluate and maintain the efficacy of deworming regimens. The timing of fecal egg counts and anthelmintic treatment may vary according to herd demographics, and special care is needed when planning parasite management in pregnant does and young fawns. Non-chemical

management techniques provide a valuable complement to anthelmintic deworming and may decrease the number of deworming treatment necessary in your herd. Consult your veterinarian to develop a plan to provide safe, effective, and sustainable parasite management for your deer herd.

Ongoing Research

The UF IFAS Cervidae Health Research Initiative seeks to promote interdisciplinary science, education, and outreach that increase the health and production of captive cervids in a sustainable manner and promotes the health of native wildlife and the ecosystems in which they live.

Scan the QR code to participate in a brief online survey of parasite management and challenges facing Florida deer farmers. Your response is anonymous and will be used for research purposes and to guide extension outreach and education. Thank you for your support. For more information about the survey contact Sydney Cottingham, s.cottingham@ufl.edu.

References

Barger I. 1997. Control by management. Veterinary Parasitology 72:493–506. Besier RB, Kahn LP, Sargison ND, Van Wyk JA. 2016. Chapter Four - The Pathophysiology, Ecology and Epidemiology of Haemonchus contortus Infection in Small Ruminants. In: Advances in Parasitology, R. B. Gasser and G. V. SamsonHimmelstjerna, editors. Academic Press. pp. 95–143. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0065308X16300227. Accessed July 2020. Charlier J, van der Voort M, Kenyon F, Skuce P, Vercruysse J. 2014. Chasing helminths and their economic impact on farmed ruminants. Trends in Parasitology 30:361–367. Coles, GC. 2002. Sustainable use of anthelmintics in grazing animals. Veterinary Record 151:165-169.

Davidson WR, McGHEE MB, Nettles VF, Chappell LC. 1980. HAEMONCHOSIS IN WHITE-TAILED DEER IN THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 16:499–508. Forrester DJ. 1992. Parasites and diseases of wild mammals in Florida. University Press of Florida, Gainesville, FL. https://ufdc.ufl.edu/AA00025659/00001. Accessed July 2020. Fox MT. 2014. Overview of Gastrointestinal Parasites of Ruminants. In: Merck Veterinary Manual. https://www.merckvetmanual.com/digestive-system/gastrointestinal-parasites-of-ruminants/overview-ofgastrointestinal-parasites-of-ruminants?query=gastrointestinal%20parasites%20ruminants. Accessed July 2020. Prestwood AK, Kellogg FE. 1971. NATURALLY OCCURRING HAEMONCHOSIS IN A WHITE-TAILED DEER. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 7:133–134. Schoenian, S. 2012. The periparturient egg rise. American Consortium for Small Ruminant Parasite Control. https://www.wormx.info/pper.Accessed July 2020.

Stromberg BE, Gasbarre LC. 2006. Gastrointestinal Nematode Control Programs with an Emphasis on Cattle. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice 22:543–565. Vegora HH. 1960. The effect of forage height on the development of cattle nematode larvae. Journal of Parasitology 46:39–40. Verocai GG, Chaudhry UN, Lejeune M. 2020. Diagnostic Methods for Detecting Internal Parasites of Livestock. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice 36:125–143. Waller PJ. 2006. Sustainable nematode parasite control strategies for ruminant livestock by grazing management and biological control. Animal Feed Science and Technology 126:277–289.

Featured Farm Story

RUSS MORRISON 1712 Parnell Road, Zolfo Springs 786-586-3045

1. HOW DID YOU LEARN ABOUT DEER FARMING? Most of our learning comes through BDRL and High Expectations. All of the deer on our property have been purchased through these two known South Florida breeders. We also attended some lectures through the University of Florida. And a fair share comes through just learning hands through the process, trial and error.

2. WHY DID YOU DECIDE TO START A DEER FARM? There were two instances that lead us to getting into farming. One was staying at a Nyala breeding farm in South Africa and having the antelope roam through camp at all times, even sleeping on the front porch. This opened us up to the close encounters and beauty of breeding animals just about “un-caged”. The second experience was staying at Animal Kingdom Lodge in Disney with all the different animals living outside the window during the stay. These two events lead us into researching the process and licensing it would take to get us in a direction. We then set out to visit high fence hunt preserves and deer farms to see how we could design our dream facility. At this point in 2013 we still had not found a piece of property that fit our dream farm/preserve but God had us on the right path. In the beginning of 2014 we identified the property but there was obstacles in closing a deal that eventually lead us to a closing in November of 2014.

?? ? Continued-Featured Farm Story ??

3. HOW LONG HAVE YOU BEEN DEER FARMING? Three years

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5. DO YOU AI OR LIVE BREED? IF YOU AI, DO YOU USE VAGINAL OR LAP PROCEDURE? We only live breed, still in a rookie routine. put a price on. Watching my daughters learn about the complete life cycle and how the animal world works makes it all worth it. Knowing the next generation we are teaching respects the outdoors is the answer for us.

9. HOW HAS THE ASSOCIATION HELPED YOU AND YOUR FARM? The association has given us contacts and avenues when we get in a jam. Its nice knowing others in the industry to call that might have already experienced what you are going through.

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8. WHAT IS THE MOST ENJOYABLE PART OF RAISING DEER? Watching the animals up close. Having a deer eat from your hand or licking the salty sweat off your head is an amazing relationship for true outdoors person. Bringing up guest and watching big bucks at 10 yards is tough to

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