The Future of Judaism

Let us begin with a drawing. Here it is:

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It consists of seven Jews and one rabbit. Can you spot the rabbit? He is gure number 4, and is easy to identify. He has brown ears, and is much smaller than the other gures. He has whiskers. And a tail (even though you can’t see it). We

know he is a rabbit, because of identi able features. There is no question about it.

But if I were to ask you which of the seven gures is Jewish, you would be in a quandary. There is no easy answer. It is not an empirical question. It has nothing to do with anatomy. If you operated on, let’s say, the last gure, you wouldn’t nd anything inside of him that would prove he was a Jew. This is because Jewishness is a matter of de nition. The de nition is conventional, rather than empirical.

Now, you might assume that the Jewish community, having been in existence for nearly four thousand years, would agree who is a Jew. But Jews disagree— ercely disagree— amongst themselves. Such disagreements are characteristic of modern Judaism, and they present a problem—a deep perplexity—about Judaism in the future.

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Perhaps I should tell you a Jewish joke about the Jewish penchant for disagreement. Two Jews—Max Goldberg, and Harold Schwartz—were having a bitter dispute. They couldn’t agree, so they decided to go to the rabbi and let him decide. First Max presented his side of the argument.

The rabbi listened. He stroked his beard, and said: ‘You’re right.’ Then Harold presented his argument. He went on and on. When he nished, the rabbi stroked his beard and said: ‘You’re right.’ Incensed, Max said, ‘Look rabbi, we can’t both be right.’ The rabbi thought about it, and said: ‘You’re right.’

Now, many of you may be aware that introductions to Judaism often give the impression that Judaism is a monolithic religion. The history of the Jewish people is presented as the unfolding of a uni ed tradition. But this is entirely misleading. Judaism has undergone fundamental changes through the centuries. Think back to the Bible.

Initially the ancient Hebrews were (according to Genesis and Exodus) a small band of dedicated followers of God who were slaves in Egypt. Under their leader, Moses, they escaped from Egyptian bondage, wandered in the desert, received God’s revelation on Mt Sinai, and eventually conquered the land of the Canaanites.

In the Promised Land, they became a nation and established the Temple in Jerusalem where they worshipped under the leadership of a priesthood. There they ourished for over a millennium although they were conquered rst by the Assyrians, and then the Babylonians and nally the Romans. In 70 CE the Temple was destroyed, and Jews were dispersed into other lands where they worshipped in synagogues. The priesthood was replaced by the rabbis, who dominated Jewish life for two thousand years. Rabbinic Judaism is strikingly different from the Judaism of the Temple. And through the centuries a variety of religious groups (such as Karaites, Kabbalists, and Hasidim) emerged with different and con icting ideologies.

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My point is that until modern times, there have been deep divisions in the Jewish world. And in contemporary society

these divisions are even more striking. Today there is not one form of Judaism, but many with profoundly different ideologies. I want to tell you about these varied movements in contemporary society, and then focus on the bewildering religious problems this has caused. And nally I want to sketch out for you my vision of the Jewish future.

The rst thing to note about the modern Jewish world is that it is divided in two. There is the diaspora, that is the countries where Jews live outside of Israel. And then there is Israel itself, the ancient homeland of the Jews, and now the contemporary Jewish state. Through the centuries Jews longed to return to the Holy Land, yet they waited in anticipation for the Messiah who, they believed, would usher in the Messianic Age, resurrect the dead, and return all Jews (those living and those resurrected) to Zion. Every year at Passover Jews prayed for such an event. And they waited in anticipation for deliverance.

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But at the end of the 19th century, secular Zionists such as Theodor Herzl abandoned such longing, and instead argued that Jews needed a secure place of their own where they would be protected from antisemitism. Initially the Orthodox were profoundly disturbed by this development.

They believed that these secularists had transgressed in their determination to build a homeland. Instead, they argued, pious Jews must wait for messianic deliverance.

Reform Jews were largely opposed to the creation of a Jewish state. In their view, what is needed in the modern world is not a Jewish homeland, but assimilation. By

assimilating to the countries in which they lived, Jews would, they believed, be able to free themselves from prejudice and discrimination.

In time, however, Zionism came to dominate Jewish life. In the shadow of the Holocaust, the Jewish community turned to Israel as their hope and refuge. Today across the religious spectrum, Jews are united in their support for Israel even if they are critical of current Israeli policies. This is a profound change in Jewish life. Currently there are millions of Jews living in Israel and in the diaspora, for whom Israel has come to play a fundamental role in shaping Jewish perceptions. Recently the Jewish community has come to perceive criticism of Israel as a manifestation of antisemitism.

Let me turn now to the divisions that exist in the Jewish community. As you will see, they are fundamental. First, there are the Orthodox. Orthodox Judaism is divided into three main groupings. First, there are what are referred to as Modern Orthodox Jews. These Jews seek to remain faithful to the tradition, yet they are anxious to integrate into contemporary society.

But alongside Modern Orthodoxy are the Haredim. This group is composed of two wings: (1) Strictly (or Ultra) Orthodox Jews and (2) the Hasidim. Strictly Orthodox Jews determinedly reject modern secular culture and regard themselves as the most religiously authentic Jews. The emergence of this group is due to a reaction to societal

changes including emancipation, acculturation, secularisation and religious reform. Alongside the Strictly Orthodox, are the Hasidim. This movement was founded in the 18th century by the Baal Shem Tov (Israel ben Eliezer). It is a pietistic, mystical movement embracing Lurianic Kabbalah. Today there are a variety of Hasidic dynasties spread throughout the world.

Observant Orthodox Jews believe they are the true upholders of the Jewish faith, and they subscribe to the central religious tents of Judaism, and are determined to keep Jewish law. There is no central Jewish creed (as there is in Christianity), but the traditional prayerbook contains a list of central beliefs that were rst laid down in the 12th century by Moses Maimonides in his commentary on the Mishnah. They are thirteen in number: Belief in the existence of God. Belief in God’s unity.

Belief in God’s incorporeality.

Belief in God’s eternity.

Belief that God alone is to be worshipped.

Belief in prophecy.

Belief in Moses as the greatest of the prophets.

Belief that the Torah was given by God to Moses.

Belief that the Torah is immutable.

Belief that God knows the thoughts and deeds of men.

Belief that God rewards and punishes.

Belief in the advent of the Messiah.

Belief in the resurrection of the dead.

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The eighth belief—that God gave the Torah to Moses on Mt Sinai (Torah Mi Sinai)—serves as the basis for Jewish practice. According to tradition, Moses received the Torah (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy) on Mt Sinai. There are 613 commandments in the Torah, and Jews are obliged to keep them all because they are from the Almighty. This is referred to as the Written Torah.

Jews also believe that Moses received not just the Written Law, but an explanation of the meaning of the law. Hence, the interpretation of the divine commandments was also revealed, and tradition teaches that this was passed on through the generations. This is the Oral Torah. It too is viewed as divinely revealed. Rabbinic scholars debated the meaning of the law and their views are recorded in the Mishnah (compiled by Judah Ha-Nasi) in the 2nd century CE, and later in 6th century CE in the Talmud. Eventually the law was recorded by Joseph Karo in the 16th century in the Code of Jewish Law (Shulhan Arukh).

Orthodox Jews believe that all this law—Written and Oral— is divinely revealed and must be followed. Jews sin if they knowingly violate the law, and they forfeit their right to enter into Heaven (Gan Eden) if they do not keep the commandments.

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That is the rst type of Judaism that exists in modern society. But this is only the starting point. In the early 19th century, Reformers were determined to modernise the faith.

This was largely a result of Jewish emancipation and the

impact of the Enlightenment. First in Germany and later in other countries including the United States and Great Britain, Reform Judaism advocated a programme of reform.

The synagogue liturgy was changed; traditional Jewish practices were abandoned; theology was modi ed. No longer did these Reformers feel the need to observe the corpus of Jewish law. Instead, they were determined to set aside laws which they regarded as outmoded and anachronistic. Not surprisingly the Orthodox were horri ed by such reforms. Venomously they castigated their fellow Jews whom they regarded as dangerous heretics.

Alongside Reform Judaism, a parallel progressive movement developed as an outgrowth. The founder of Conservative Judaism was Zacharias Frankel. In 1845 he left the Reform rabbinical conference in Frankfurt because he believed that his fellow reformers were too radical.

Although he believed that Judaism must undergo modernisation, he was determined to retain various features of the faith that his fellow reformers sought to modify.

Eventually Conservative Judaism emerged as a separate movement, progressive but more conservative in character.

Again, Orthodox Judaism fundamentally rejects Conservative Judaism, regarding it too as a heresy.

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Moving along the spectrum, Reconstructionist Judaism emerged in the early half of the 20th century out of the thinking of Mordecai Kaplan who taught at the Conservative movement’s rabbinical seminary in New York.

According to Kaplan, it is a mistake for Jews to believe in a

supernatural Deity who created the universe, chose the Jews and revealed himself to Moses on Mt Sinai. Nonetheless, Kaplan was determined to keep Jewish practices because they constitute the fabric of Jewish civilisation.

Reconstructionist Judaism is distinctly different from Orthodox, Reform and Conservative Judaism. Though traditional in its approach to Jewish practice, it is nontheistic in character.

Yet, there is an even more dramatic form of contemporary Judaism which similarly rejects a belief in a creator God. Like Reconstructionist Judaism, Humanistic Judaism offers a non-theistic interpretation of the Jewish faith. Originating in the 1960s in the United States under the leadership of Rabbi Sherwin Wine, the movement rejects the belief in God while retaining various features of the tradition. Embracing humanistic ideals, the faithful value human reason and the reality of the world which reason discloses.

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For completeness I should also tell you about Messianic Judaism—a movement which is rmly rejected by all other branches of contemporary Judaism. At the core of Messianic Jewish theology is the belief that Jesus (whom Messianic Jews refer to as Yeshua) is the long-awaited Messiah.

Messianic believers contend that they are not Christinas— rather they are determined to live Jewish lives in ful lment of God’s will. In this quest Messianic Jews have reinterpreted the major Jewish festivals including the Sabbath, Passover, Shavuot and Sukkot as well as festivals of joy and life-cycle events.

These then are the major branches of Judaism in the modern world. They exist in the diaspora and to some degree in Israel (where Orthodoxy is the mainstream movement).

However, it would be a mistake to assume that all Jews belong to one or other of these various denominations.

Rather, there are literally millions of Jews living in Israel and in other countries who have no formal af liation to Judaism.

They regard themselves as Jews—and in many cases observe various features of the tradition—but do not belong to any particular synagogue. Some of these unaf liated Jews are believers; many have no religious views. Nonetheless, they view themselves as part of the Jewish world.

Given the deep divisions between these various movements along with the existence of millions of non-observant Jews, it is not surprising that there is deep-seated disagreement among Jews about how Jews should should live. Strictly Orthodox Jews bitterly denounce all the non-Orthodox movements. In their eyes, Reform Conservative, Reconstructionist and Humanistic Judaism are inauthentic.

By contrast Orthodox Judaism in its various forms is the only true interpretation of the Jewish heritage. Conversely, non-Orthodox Jews view Strictly Orthodox Judaism as anachronistic and outmoded.

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Clashes between the Orthodox and the non-Orthodox are often vehement. Let me return to the example I mentioned at the outset about the rabbit and the Jews. You will remember that I said there is vehement disagreement about

Jewish identity. You might think that the answer to the question ‘Who is a Jew?’ is simple. But it isn’t. Jews have been around for thousands of years, but there is currently considerable uncertainty about how to determine if someone is Jewish.

The Hebrew Bible doesn’t lay down a single de nition of Jewishness. But in ancient times it was assumed that if a person has a Jewish father, then that person is Jewish. As time passed, the rabbis rede ned Jewishness as dependant on maternal descent. A person is Jewish if his or her mother is Jewish. And so on down the maternal line. However, it has always been possible to join the Jewish people through conversion. Orthodox Judaism lays down strict rules about conversion and refuses to accept converts who have converted to Judaism from other Jewish movements. These non-Orthodox movements, however, accept Orthodox converts as Jews.

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In recent years matters have become more confusing by the relatively recent decision of the Reform movement (and later by Reconstructionist Jews) to accept as Jewish individuals whose fathers are Jewish but whose mothers are non-Jews. Within Reform Judaism matrilineal or patrilineal descent (accompanied by timely religious acts such as worship in a synagogue or education in a religious school) is viewed as suf cient criteria for being Jewish: if one’s father or mother is Jewish, then you are Jewish as long as you have identi ed in some way with the tradition. The Orthodox, however, will not accept as Jews those whose

father is Jewish but whose mother is not. In such cases, the person is regarded as a non-Jew. There is thus no universal agreement within the Jewish world about the de nition of who is a Jew. Orthodox critics determinedly reject all non-Orthodox forms of Judaism, and they are anxious to point out that there is baf ing confusion within non-Orthodoxy concerning which aspects of the tradition should be kept and which discarded.

And, I have to confess, they are right to be dismayed. Even though I am a Reform rabbi, I am also frequently bewildered by the decisions of my fellow rabbis. Let me give you a few examples: A rabbi friend of mine is now the retired senior rabbi of a leading congregation in Washington. Like other Reform rabbis, he has set aside the vast majority of laws in the Code of Jewish Law. Yet, he has principles. This is one of them:

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He (like Reform rabbis generally) is a believer in gay rights.

He thinks it is perfectly permissible to marry two lesbians, or two homosexuals. He is happy to celebrate their union as long as they are both Jewish. But if one of them is not Jewish, he will not of ciate. Nor will he of ciate at marriages of heterosexual couples if one of them is not Jewish. Intermarriage is, he believes, contrary to the tradition. But so—according to traditional Judaism— is homosexuality. It really makes no sense. There is no logic to his position.

Again, the same rabbi (like all Reform rabbis) violates Sabbath law as interpreted in rabbinic sources. He shops on the Sabbath; he drives his car; he speaks on the telephone; he watches television; he reads the newspaper. Yet, he is adamant that it would be wrong to marry a Jewish couple on the Sabbath. He insists on waiting until sunset for the ceremony to take place. Such arbitrary distinctions have no coherent justi cation.

Let me give you a personal example of such baf ing confusion. My mother was Chairman of the ritual committee at the Reform synagogue where I grew up. At home she refused to serve pork. But we had bacon. I said to her, ‘Look, Mom, this makes no sense. You are Chairman of the Ritual Committee. But surely you know what bacon is.

She said, ‘Well, it doesn’t look like pork.’

Outside of Orthodox circles, there is complete confusion and uncertainty about which aspects of the Jewish heritage should be retained in the modern world. I have been stressing the wide diversity of belief in practice that exists in the Jewish community in Israel and the diaspora. You might think this poses serious dilemmas for the future of Jewry and the Jewish heritage. In my view, however, this lack of uniformity is in fact a great strength. In contemporary society, Jews are free to make decisions for themselves about how to live a Jewish life.

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I am hopeful about a Jewish future because of such freedom.

Perhaps I can best explain this by using an analogy of a

supermarket. Think about your experience when you go shopping in the food department of a supermarket. It is relatively quiet. Shoppers push their trolleys down the aisle and select the items they want to take home. Some ll their trolleys with a vast quantity of food. Others chose only a few items. Then they queue at the till. Silently they wait their turn. No one looks into the person’s trolly who is ahead of them and says: ‘Look here, you really are making a bad choice. All those cartons of ice cream, and those cakes, and the bags of biscuits will do you no good. They will just make you fat!’ We are all too civilised to say anything like that.

Imagine the Jewish tradition as a gigantic supermarket with aisles lled with various aspects of the tradition. Some Jewish shoppers ll their trolleys full of Jewish items: prayer books, books of liturgy, Hanukkah menorahs, prayer shawls, etc. Others leave with only a few items. Ideally no one should criticise others for their choices. Some will leave as observant Jews. Others will be far less pious. It is all a matter of personal, subjective choice. Despite the occasionally interference of the rabbinical establishment, this is in fact how most Jews currently live. And it appears that this is how they will live in the future. Such freedom of choice seems to me to be ideal. It is certainly a different Jewish mode of existence from the Judaism of the ghetto.

But it is, I believe, far more healthy.

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I want to turn now from considering the diversity of contemporary Jewish life and the future of Judaism, to the

future of Israel. I mentioned at the outset that Jews across the religious spectrum have been profoundly affected by the establishment of a Jewish state. For many the creation of Israel is of paramount signi cance. Yet, as we all know, from its inception Israel has been bitterly attacked by the Arab world. And today, others—non-Arabs— are vehemently opposed to Israeli policy toward the Palestinians. Given such hostility, what does the future hold for Israel?

There are, I think, four possible scenarios, the rst two involve massive ethnic cleansing:

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1. A Palestinian State: From the beginning of the Zionist movement, the indigenous Arab population was intent on driving out the Jewish inhabitants and curtailing any plans for a Jewish state in their midst. From the outset, the Arabs mounted an armed struggle, and this later materialised into a series of wars. The aim was to liberate Palestine from what were perceived as Jewish colonialists. Today Hamas continues to press for such a solution, and of cially rejects the idea of a Jewish state.

From its inception, it has opposed any form of peace agreement which involves the continued existence of Israel.

2. A Jewish State. Throughout the history of Israel, there has never been a quest to drive all Palestinian Arabs from Israel. Instead Arab inhabitants have been absorbed into the state and are regarded as citizens. Due to the Arab-Israeli con ict, these citizens are subject to a number of restrictions. Yet, almost without exception

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there has been no attempt to drive all Arabs and any other non-Jews from the Jewish state. However, if there were an annexation of the West Bank and Gaza, then there could be a mirror image of the rst scenario with an exclusively Jewish population.

3. A United Palestine-Israel: Some early Zionists endorsed such a scheme, but this was a small minority. This is the third form of a One-State solution. There is very little enthusiasm today for such an idea in Jewish circles for fear that Israel would be overwhelmed by Palestinian refugees and others. For most Jews, such an idea is completely unacceptable since it would undermine the notion of a Jewish state which was the original intention of the early Jewish settlers. Given the potential in ux of Palestinians and the attendant logistic problems of absorption, such a situation would be anathema to most Jews in Israel and the diaspora.

4. Two States. Despite critics who maintain that the concept of a Two-State solution is dead, this seems the most viable option today. In my view—and that of many others—a Palestinian state is now a matter of the utmost importance. Jewish survival depends on nding a way to satisfy the longings of the Palestinians for a state of their own. To achieve this goal fundamental, painful compromises must be made by Jews—as well as Palestinians—in an effort to nd a way forward. Urgent negotiations are needed to deal with the various dif cult issues facing both peoples.

In making such a case, I want to go back to a speech given at the beginning of President Obama’s presidency in Cairo on 4 June 2009. For decades, he stated, there has been a stalemate. Two peoples exist with legitimate aspirations, each with a painful history that makes compromise elusive.

It is easy to point ngers, he stated: for Palestinians to point to the displacement brought by Israel’s founding, and for Israelis to point to the constant hostility and attacks through its history from within its borders as well as beyond. But if we see this con ict form only one side or the other, then we will be blind to the truth: the only resolution is for the aspirations of both sides to be met through two states.

In conclusion: modern Judaism is radically different today from previous centuries. Judaism was never a monolithic tradition. From biblical times to the early modern period, there existed a wide range of interpretations of the faith.

Through its long history different groups emerged with distinct patterns of belief. The Temple was replaced by the synagogue. The rabbinate took the place of the priesthood.

Karaites rejected the rabbinical establishment. Kabbalists were drawn to a mystical vision. Hasidim championed a life of pietism.

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Yet, despite such diversity, the modern period has witnessed the fragmentation of Jewry into radically distinct groups ranging from the most pious to non-theists. Alongside such division, millions of unaf liated Jews in the diaspora and Israel have only a loose connection to the traditions of their ancestors. And today the Jewish world is divided between

those who live in the Holy Land, and multitudes who live in other continues. There is no uniformity of either belief and practice. We are a disfunctional family scattered around the globe who disagree over the most fundamental issues.

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Yet, I am hopeful of the Jewish future. We no longer live under the yoke of the tradition. The rabbinate has lost its hold on Jewish life. All Jews are free to choose for themselves which aspects of the Jewish heritage they wish to follow. We are the inheritors of a a rich, vibrant tradition which each of us can mould to our spiritual tastes. This is a cause for celebration. But there is a shadow on the horizon.

Israel is surrounded by enemies. A solution to the IsraelPalestinian con ict is urgent. At all costs we must avoid a nuclear holocaust of our people in the 21st century.