Constitution The Making and Meaning

SPECIAL SECTION • TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16, 2008

CONSTITUTION DAY SEPTEMBER 17, 1787-2008

THE MAKING AND MEANING

Constitution OF THE

OF THE

UNITED STATES A brief history from www.usconstitution.net, Library of Congress, National Archives and the Daily Herald staff

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PRELUDE TO A NATION

BREAKING WITH BRITAIN

THE AMAZING CONVENTION

CLEAR OUTLINE OF RIGHTS

A LIVING DOCUMENT

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Prelude to a Nation

Persecuted Puritans

∫ SEEDS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION were sown in 16th century Europe, a time of political, scientific and religious upheaval. Royalty was on the rise, Copernicus demonstrated the relationship of Earth to heavenly bodies, and Martin Luther broke with the Catholic church, launching the Reformation. John Calvin, more serious-minded than even Luther, launched a second wave of reform.

Calvinists in England wanted to purify the political corruptions of the Church of EngJohn Calvin land, which itself had broken with Rome under King Henry VIII. The sternly pious reformers, called Puritans, experienced persecution, sometimes from official sources. Archbishop William Laud said he would “harry them out of the land.”

John Locke

FREEDOM: LOCKE IS THE KEY

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Pilgrims land at Plymouth Rock.

New World Refuge ∫ NORTH AMERICA ATTRACTED English Puritans.

There they could prove the correctness of their doctrines and return to Europe in triumph.

“We shall be as a city upon a hill,” proclaimed their leader, John Winthrop. “The eyes of all people are upon us.” Many American ideals can be traced to Puritan values — their habits of thought, hard work, self-confidence and sense purpose and destiny.

In 1620, Puritans began arriving at what today is Plymouth, Mass., already English territory. Fourteen years earlier, King James I had chartered the Virginia Companies and claimed land for commercial exploitation. Jamestown on the Virginia coast was founded in 1607. Subsequent waves of immigrants, including French Calvinists, or Huguenots, settled from Florida to Canada. The colonial population swelled to 2.5 million by the time of the American Revolution.

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Detail from “An Accurate Map of North America from the Latest Discoveries,” circa 1750s.

American Economics: Independence Sneaks Up ∫ ENGLAND’S SUCCESS at colonization arose from its use of charter companies, such as the Virginia Companies of London and Plymouth. These were groups of stockholders (usually merchants and wealthy landowners) who sought wealth and, perhaps, also wanted to advance England’s national goals. While the private sector financed the companies, the King gave each project a charter, or grant, conferring economic rights and political authority.

Because profits weren’t quick, the English investors often turned over their charters to the settlers. The political implications, though not realized at the time, were enormous. The colonists were left to build their own lives, their own communities, their own economy — in effect, to start constructing the rudiments of a

new nation. By the mid-1700s, the New England colonies had developed a ship-building industry. Plantations in Maryland, Virginia and the Carolinas grew tobacco, rice and indigo, often with slave labor. The middle colonies of New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Delaware shipped general crops and furs. Except for slaves, the standard of living was generally higher than in England itself.

By 1770, the colonies were ready, economically and politically, for self-government. Disputes developed with England over taxation and other matters. Americans hoped for a modification of English taxes and regulations that would allow more self-government. Few thought the mounting quarrel would lead to all-out war and independence.

he rise of modern philosophy in the 1600s, known as the Age of Reason, led to the Enlightenment of the 1700s. English philosopher John Locke (1632–1704) was an empiricist whose ideas on the relationship of individuals to governments were well known to the American founders — including the concept of checks and balances. He argued that a government could only be legitimate if it received the consent of the governed through a social contract that protected the natural rights of life, liberty and property. If such consent was not given, Locke said, then citizens had a right of rebellion.

Locke’s ideas had a major impact on the development of political philosophy. His writings, along with those of Scottish philosopher David Hume, Frenchman Jean-Jacques Rousseau and others influenced the written works of Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and other Founders of the United States.

Rousseau (1712-1778) outlined the basis for a legitimate political order in 1762. His thesis, “The Social Contract,” became one of the most influential works of political philosophy in the Western tradition.

—From Subjects to Rebels

Those Intolerable Brits

A Paineful Pen

∫ AS ENGLISH SUBJECTS, the colonists inherited a tradition that no person was above the law, not even the king. But King George III had to pay for one of his European Wars, and in 1763 he and Parliament began to squeeze money out of the colonies through questionable means.

As the taxes rose, so did colonists’ ire, and sometimes protests turned violent. Six colonists were killed in the so-called Boston Massacre in 1770, when British soldiers fired into an antagonistic but unarmed mob.

The king tried to rein in the colonists with what became known as the “Intolerable Acts,” which required room and board for British soldiers, took away governing rights of the people of Massachusetts, blocked colonial courts from trying British officials and closed the port of Boston until damage from the Tea Party was repaid. Many colonists arrived at a solution: revolution.

Samuel Adams, a brewer, is perhaps best known for firing Samuel Adams up the mob for the Tea Party and leading an underground resistance. He also was a member of the Continental Congress and signed the Declaration of Independence.

∫ THOMAS PAINE was a firebrand, a scholar whose pamphlets — notably “Common Sense” — fanned the flames of revolution and inspired the Continental army.

Published in January of 1776, “Common Sense” called for independence and laid the colonies’ troubles at the feet of King George III. The 50-page pamphlet sold at least 120,000 copies.

Paine advocated small government, penning the words: “Society in every state is a blessing, but government, even in its best state, is but a necessary evil; in its worst state an intolerable one.”

John Adams put Paine’s impact eloquently: “Without the pen of Paine, the sword of Washington would have been wielded in vain.”

Library of Congress

At the Boston Tea Party, ‘Mohawks’ dumped the tea.

A Wild Party in Boston ∫ ON DEC. 16, 1773, the radical, super-secret Sons of Liberty, Boston residents organized

by Samuel Adams, dressed as Mohawks, boarded three British ships and dumped hundreds of crates of tea into the harbor.

Colonists felt they were being overtaxed — without representa-

tion in the British Parliament.

Why a tea party? The Tea Act allowed an English company to sell tea to the colonies at lower prices than colonial merchants.

England retaliated with a series of harsh laws — the Intolerable Acts — which pushed the colonies closer to revolution.

Thomas Paine

hese are times that try “T men’s souls. Tyranny, like

hell, is not easily conquered.”

JOLT OF GENIUS: THE AMAZING BENJAMIN FRANKLIN

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rinter, scientist, inventor, activist and diplomat, Benjamin Franklin was perhaps the most remarkable and respected man of his time.

A dynamo in public life well before the Revolution, Franklin published the hugely popular Pennsylvania Gazette as well as Poor Richard’s Almanac, in which he wrote many of his famous maxims.

He revamped the postal system,

launched the first public library, and started one of the country’s first fire departments.

It wasn’t long until he was drawn into the fight for independence. He sought early on to draw the colonies together, authoring the famous editorial cartoon of a divided snake with the caption “Join, or Die.” His popularity increased as a result of his efforts, while envoy to England before the war, to repeal

the Stamp Act. In Europe during the Revolutionary War, Franklin was an unequaled diplomat, drawing in support for America’s cause, especially with the French, without whom the war would likely have been lost.

He was elected to the Second Continental Congress and was an important calming, unifying voice when the Constitutional Convention threatened to break up. His signa-

ture is on the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution.

William Pierce, a member of the Continental Congress, described Franklin this way: “Dr. Franklin is well known to be the greatest philosopher of the present age; all the operation of nature he seems to understand — the very heavens obey him, and the Clouds yield up their Lightning to be imprisoned in his rod.”

Benjamin Franklin

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War & Independence

THE SHOT HEARD ’ROUND THE WORLD

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n April 1775, British forces and colonists skirmished in Lexington and Concord, sparking the Revolutionary War. Nobody knows who fired the first shot, but it changed the world.

More than a year later the Declaration of Independence was signed, and it was several more years after that to war’s end.

Despite having a new commander-in-chief, Gen. George Washington, the American militiamen were not well organized.

The young country didn’t have an army or navy. Volunteers were overconfident, and many lacked any military training.

The British army pushed the Americans out of the major cities during the brutal winters of the war. British troops were, however, unprepared for new tactics used by American rebels, who fought small skirmishes, retreated, and then turned to fight again.

Revolutionary War soldiers were citizen-soldiers — farmers who had families at home.

Washington complained that large numbers would leave the ranks before or after battle. It was often hard to know the true strength of his army.

It wasn’t until the British defeat at Saratoga, New York, in October 1777 that France believed America could win the war and began to supply aid.

As foreign support and military confidence grew, the tide of the war turned against the British. In 1781, British general Charles Cornwallis surrendered to Washington, ending the war.

In Europe, envoys Benjamin Franklin, John Jay and John Adams had already opened secret negotiations with the British.

They eventually reached agreement on a formal treaty that recognized the colonies’ independence — the Treaty of Paris, signed in 1783.

George Washington

WASHINGTON LEARNED FAST

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“Lexington,” engraved from a painting by Alonzo Chappell.

The Empire Strikes First; Minutemen Use Force ∫ DURING THE NIGHT of April 18, 1775, Paul Revere and William Dawes made their famous ride from Boston to Lexington to warn of an advancing British force that had been ordered to seize a cache of colonists’ weapons at Concord, Mass.

The morning of April 19, British

infantry companies arrived at Lexington Square to find a small group of colonial militia, or Minutemen. The colonists were ordered to disperse, and seeing the well-armed British troops they began to do so. But a shot rang out — no one knows who fired first — and the British opened

fire, killing eight colonists and wounding 10 others.

When the British reached Concord, however, they faced a well prepared force. This time, the colonists shot back, inflicting heavy casualties and harassing the British all the way back to Boston. The war had begun.

Cold Shoulders, and Winters

War Ends, Nation is Born

∫ WASHINGTON CONTINUALLY REQUESTED support — food, clothing, equipment, ammunition, medicine, pay for soldiers — but the Continental Congress had little means to act and often left the troops destitute.

During the winter of 1776-77 Washington was desperate for a victory to boost morale. He got one at Trenton, N.J., but little changed in the supply line. Then came a series of brutal winters, including 1777-78 at Valley Forge, which inflicted immense suffering and 2,000 deaths. As late as spring 1781 Washington was still desperate. Posterity, he wrote, would regard an American victory as “fiction” — the defeat of a professional army “by numbers infinitely less, composed of men oftentimes half starved, always in rags, without pay, and experiencing, at times, every species of distress which human nature is capable of undergoing.”

∫ IN AUGUST OF 1781, George Washington fooled the British army occupying New York into thinking he was settling into his Hudson River camps. Instead, he slipped south with the bulk of his army to catch a large enemy force off-guard on the Virginia coast, where it had gone to secure a harbor for the British fleet. Washington’s 17,600 Continentals and French troops under the youthful Marquis de Lafayette, reached Yorktown where a British escape was cut off by the arrival of the French navy.

British general Charles Cornwallis surrendered his 8,300 troops on Oct. 19, 1781. It was the last major military action of the Revolutionary War and pushed the British government to recognize American independece, provisionally at first, then formally in 1783.

Now a strong political system was needed.

eorge Washington, a veteran of the French and Indian War, had the confidence of Congress and was given command of the Continental army in June 1775.

The tall and charismatic leader suffered early defeats but learned quickly. The tables began to turn on Christmas Day 1776 when he crossed the Delaware River and took an enemy force by surprise at Trenton, N.J. Washington’s steadfastness during the war endeared him to the people. He saw his troops through harsh winters, successfully prodded Congress and generally held the shaky American raft together. With his later statesmanship, Washington was in a class of his own.

Many other commanders deserve credit for their roles in the Revolutionary War. Nathanael Greene, for example, rose from private to general and was a superior tactician in the South.

Daniel Morgan’s untrained militia and 300 Continentals defeated a major British force at Cow Pens in North Carolina.

And Benedict Arnold, now remembered as a traitor for plotting to surrender West Point, was a hero first. He distinguished himself at Fort Ticonderoga in 1775 and is Benedict Arnold credited with winning the pivotal Battle of Saratoga in 1777, which stopped the British advance from the north.

‘A DECENT RESPECT TO THE OPINIONS OF MANKIND’

Complaints Against the King

AN IMMORTAL DECLARATION “... Whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or abolish it...” – Thomas Jefferson

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n June 1776, as Thomas Jefferson composed a draft of the Declaration of Independence, the largest invasion force in British military history was headed for New York Harbor.

The Declaration announced to the world the separation of the 13 colonies from Great Britain and the establishment of the United States of America. It explained the causes of this radical move with a long list of charges against the king. It asserted a universal truth about human rights in

words that have inspired the downtrodden through subsequent centuries.

Jefferson was not aiming at originality. The Declaration articulates the highest ideals of the Revolution — beliefs in liberty, equality and the right

Who Wrote the Declaration? ∫ Proposal to Congress from Virginia, written by Richard Henry Lee and lifted verbatim

by Thomas Jefferson: “That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.”

to self-determination. Americans embraced a view of the world in which a person’s position was determined not by birth, rank or title but by talent, ability and enterprise.

It was a widely held view, circulated in newspapers,

pamphlets, sermons and schoolbooks; but it was Jefferson, the 33-year-old planter from Virginia, who cobbled the words together.

On July 4, 1776, Congress completed its editing of the document that reduced the text by 25 percent (“mutilations” is what Jefferson called the process) and formally adopted the Declaration.

John Hancock, the President of Congress, was the first to sign; his signature is larger than any other on the page and directly centered below the text.

Some of the “repeated injuries and usurpations” as found in the Declaration of Independence.

∫ He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. ∫ He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. ∫ He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance. ∫ He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil power. ∫ For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world: ∫ For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent: ∫ For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury: ∫ For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences

King George III

∫ He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. ∫ He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.

It was drafted by Thomas Jefferson and amended by Congress, but some important language originated with others.

∫ Virginia Declaration of Rights, written by George Mason: “That all men are by nature equally free and independent, and have certain inherent rights, of which, when they enter into a state of society, they cannot, by any compact, deprive or divest their posterity; namely, the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety.”

Declaration of Independence: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.” ∫ Other influences: Jefferson drew on ideas proposed by English philosopher John Locke and French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

Thomas Jefferson

Richard Henry Lee

George Mason

John Locke

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∫ Congress, by a two-thirds vote of both houses may propose amendments to the states. ∫ Two-thirds of the state legislatures may petition Congress for a constitutional convention, where amendments may be proposed. This method has never been used. It worries some because it is so openended that it could lead to wholesale changes.

VI. Supremacy ∫ Debts under the Confederation remain valid. ∫ Constitution is the supreme law of the land, and binding on judges in the states despite local law. ∫ All government officers are bound to the Constitution by oath or affirmation. But no religious test may be required as a qualification for office.

VII. Ratification ∫ Constitution takes effect upon ratification by nine states — two-thirds of the 13 existing in 1787.

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The president nominates federal judges. Judges may rule on the legality of presidential actions, treaties, etc. Chief Justice presides in impeachment trial of president.

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Congress passes laws that must be carried out by the Executive Branch; it may also override presidential vetoes. Senate must consent to presidential appointments. Congress has power to remove president or judge. Vice-president doubles as president of Senate.

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Judges interpret meanings of Constitution and laws. They may strike laws that violate the Constitution. Judges apply existing law, but legislators may write new laws or clarify old ones to push courts in a desired direction. Legislators may initiate amendments that bind judges.

“It was not, like the fabled Goddess of Wisdom, the offspring of a single brain. It ought to be regarded as the work of many heads and many hands.” — James Madison, 1834

*Among the four who refused to sign the final Consitituon.

∫ TWO THINGS still needed doing after delegates to the Constitutional Convention finished their work:

James Madison

Benjamin Franklin

Edmund Randolph*

Alexander Hamilton

Charles Pinckney

Elbridge Gerry*

Gouverneur Morris

Robert Morris

William Livingston

Roger Sherman

The new Constitution had no bill of rights, a set of specific protections for individual liberties.

To the Federalists who promoted the new national structure, this seemed unnecessary since the federal government was limited in its powers and could not interfere with the retained rights of the people or states.

Besides, most states had their own bills of rights.

But feelings were strong in many quarters, and assurances that amendments would be added later helped ease the way for ratification.

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A bill of rights

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James Wilson

Before the Constitution could become the law of the land, it would have to withstand public scrutiny and be accepted by nine states as prescribed in Article VII. Ratification was far from automatic. The Constitution had many opponents.

A monumental national dialogue ensued, and in 10 months the plan was approved. First to ratify was Delaware, on Dec. 7, 1787, by a vote of 30-0. Virginia and New York were 10th and 11th to ratify, both on close votes in June and July 1788. While the required nine states had already been

secured, these two large, wealthy states were needed to make the plan work. The last hold-out, Rhode Island, ratified on May 29, 1790.

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George Washington

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Signed, But Not Sealed

Ratification

Faces of Noteworthy Delegates

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Amendments to the Constitution may be made in one of two ways, both of which require ratification by three-fourths of the states:

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V. Amendments

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∫ General requirements: The president must be at least 35 years old and a natural-born citizen of the United States, not a naturalized immigrant. ∫ Terms of office: The president and vice-president each serve for four years. ∫ Mode of election: Presidents are elected not by the people at large but by the states through a system of

∫ Sweep of power: The judicial power “shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution ...” Jurisdiction includes disputes in which the United States is a party; disputes between two or more states; and between citizens of different states. The Supreme Court may hear appeals from lower courts, but does not have original jurisdiction in most cases. ∫ Treason defined, punishment limited: Treason means levying War against the United States, or giving aid and comfort to enemies. Congress is prohibited from blocking property inheritance rights to a traitor’s family, as was done in the case of Tories,

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And so a deal was struck.

It may have made the difference between having a Constitution and not having one.

While both sides agreed to the compromise for purposes of representation, the issue of slavery itself not left alone for the rest of the convention.

The moral debate continued to rage.

Direct appeals for abolition were defeated, and it became clear as the Convention progressed that the two sides would need to reach another compromise.

The North agreed that the government would keep its hands off slavery for 20 years — until Jan. 1, 1808.

The South agreed that imported slaves would be taxable during that time.

The ghosts of the Framers have been chastised often for not stopping slavery in its tracks at the Convention. But faced with the real possibility of fracturing the union, they made the compromises that kept the young country together, leaving the matter for future generations. The solution would emerge from the bloodiest war in U.S. history.

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“The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years ... together with the Vice-President chosen for the same Term ...”

Each branch of government can slow down, or “check,” the actions of the others. Some powers are shared.

∫ THE REVOLUTION’S IDEALS of liberty and equality existed side by side with the realities of slavery. The brutal practice had become vital to the economy, especially in the South, and slaves made up 20 percent of the population.

Two furious debates swirled around the issue: how slaves were to be counted, and whether slavery should exist at all in the new nation.

Regarding representation, the Southern states wanted their slaves counted as whole persons because that would give them more representatives in Congress.

It was the Northern states’ greatest fear, since the South could increase its political clout by simply importing more slaves.

Roger Sherman first suggested the count include free men only, but this was quickly dismissed by the South.

James Wilson, knowing that the South was needed to create a strong Union, suggested that the Convention adopt the same standard as in the Articles of Confederation: Each slave would be counted as three-fifths of a person.

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II. Executive branch

“The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. ...”

∫ Interstate relations: States must honor official acts of other states. Full faith and credit given to a state’s acts, records and judicial proceedings. ∫ Extradition: States are required to hand over criminals wanted in other states. ∫ New states: Rules for geographical boundaries and entry to union are prescribed. ∫ Federal guarantees: The national government promises to protect each state against invasion or domestic violence if a governor asks for help. It also guarantees a republican form of government.

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∫ Age requirements: Representatives must be at least 25 years of age; senators must be at least 30. ∫ Representation: States elect a number of representatives based on their state’s population, so big states have more votes than small states in the House. In the Senate, however, states are represented equally, with two senators each. Slaves count as three-fifths of a person for purposes of figuring representation in the House. ∫ Terms of office: Representatives serve for twoyear terms; senators serve six years. ∫ Special duties: The vice-president of the United States sits as president of the Senate but may not vote except in case of a tie. ∫ Legislative sessions: Congress is required to meet at least once a year with a minimum number of members present. Members may be expelled.

Proceedings must be recorded. Neither house can

III. Judicial branch

Checks and Balances

IV. The states

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“All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. ...”

sympathizers with the British crown, after the War for Independence.

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I. Legislative branch

designated electors who represent the will of each state as determined by its voters. The number of electors is the total numer of that state’s senators and reprentatives. Originally, the person with the most votes became president; second-most became vice-president. This has changed. The two now run for office together. ∫ Powers of president: The president, a civilian, is commander-in-chief of the military. He can pardon criminals and make treaties with other nations with the consent of two-thirds of the Senate. He nominates federal judges, ambassadors and others with the “advice and consent” (approval) of the Senate. ∫ State of the Union: The president must give an annual report to Congress. ∫ Impeachment of government officers: Any civil officer may be removed from office by impeachment and conviction for “treason, bribery or other high crimes and misdemeanors.” ∫ Overall mission: The president ensures that the laws of the United States are carried out. The president has a cabinet — a group of executive department heads — to assist him. Today’s cabinet includes heads of the departments of Jutice, State, Defense, Interior, Health and Human Services, Commerce, Education and others.

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∫ The courts — The judiciary was a topic of little debate.

Most agreed that judges would be appointed and have life terms. Judges were not positioned as interpreters of the Constitution until 1803.

KEY PROVISIONS OF THE CONSTITUTION (as amended):

adjourn without the permission of the other. ∫ Rules of lawmaking. Any bill for raising money (such as taxes) must start out in the House, which was thought to be closest to the people. All bills must pass both houses of Congress with the same wording. A bill that passes both houses is sent to the president, whose signature makes it law. The president can sign or reject (veto) it. In the case of a veto, the bill is sent back to Congress where it must get more votes than before. If both houses pass it by a two-thirds majority, the bill becomes law despite the President’s veto. This is known as a veto override. ∫ Powers of Congress. List includes the power to establish and maintain an army and navy, to establish post offices, to create courts, to regulate commerce between the states, to declare war and to raise money. An “elastic clause” is included that allows Congress to pass any law necessary for the carrying out of its powers. ∫ Limitations on Congress. Right of habeas corpus cannot be suspended except in dire emergency.

Laws may not be written to punish past acts. No law can give preference to one state over another. Money may only be taken from the treasury via duly passed law. No title of nobility, such as King, Prince or Marquis, may be established. ∫ Miscellaneous prohibitions on states: States may not make their own money, declare war, maintain a navy, make treaties or tax other states. ∫ Slave trade: Congress may not pass restrictive legislation until 1808.

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∫ Representation — The main debate centered here: How could small states maintain a fair balance of power against populous states, and how could a big state avoid being railroaded? Should slaves count?

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∫ Mode of election — How should leaders be chosen, by direct popular vote, by the legislatures, governors or some other scheme? Should there be more than one executive?

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∫ Shape of legislature — How many legislative houses should there be? How would members be chosen? Would they answer to the people?

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∫ Weak or strong executive?

With the power of a king still fresh on their minds, delegates were cautious about creating a potential new tyrant? Would he have veto power?

∫ OVERVIEW: The War for Independence had been won, but economic depression, social unrest, interstate rivalries and foreign intrigue appeared to be unraveling the fragile confederation. In 1787, Congress called for a special convention in Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation. On Sept. 17, after four months of secret meetings, the delegates emerged with an entirely new plan of government.

In seven sections, or articles, they proposed a strong central government made up of three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. Each would be kept from acquiring too much power by a sophisticated set of checks and balances.

The delegates compromised on slavery, leaving its final resolution to future generations. The plan wasn’t perfect, but it could be revised over time. It was put before the nation, and by May of 1790 all 13 states had ratified it.

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∫ Balance of power — Nearly all delegates recognized that the Confederation needed to be strengthened. But they worried that a central government with too much power might destroy local government.

The Stain of Slavery

(PREAMBLE TO THE CONSTITUTION)

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It isn’t easy to design a country from scratch. Just try it sometime. You may find yourself discussing issues similar to these that were brought up at the Constitutional Convention.

e the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

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Points of Debate

George Washington addressing the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, 1787. Detail of painting by Junius Brutus Searns, 1856. (Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond. Online: www.vmfa.state.va.us/)

ent rs sid ato Pre Sen by ed ed ct int ele po by AL Ap ved ICI pro Ap UD

∫ JAMES MADISON of Virginia has been called the Father of the Constitution.

He arrived in Philadelphia two weeks early to plan. The delegates were coming to fix the Articles of Confederation, but Madison had larger ambitions. His intent was to scrap the whole thing and start over, recasting the nation in an entirely different form — a full-blown national republic, as opposed to a weak confederation of states. In a republic, the people delegate their power to representatives. Madison’s vision included separate branches of national government with crosschecking authority on each other, so that no one part could take too much control — yet strong enough to curb the states. His notes of the debates in Philadelphia are a national treasure.

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Looking back, this conflict between large and small states seems odd. Conflicts between states are now generally regional and have little to do with size. But at the Convention, size (or anticipated size) was important.

Roger Sherman of Connecticut, a respected man who spoke more than any other except Madison during the Convention, suggested that Congress be composed of two houses, one with representation based on state population and the other with equal votes for all states.

The plan, rejected at first, was eventually agreed upon.

It was followed by uncomfortable debates on whether and how to count slaves in the representation formula.

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more than just discuss commerce, but his hopes were dashed when he arrived. Only five of the 13 states sent any delegates at all: Delaware, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania and Virginia. And of those, only three — Delaware, New Jersey and Virginia — had enough delegates to speak for their states.

Congress approved a proposal to hold another, more sweeping, conference 1787.

The wheels were now in motion, though few had any inkling of the momentous changes that were about to come.

ost of the details of the Constitution could certainly be worked out and were minor when compared to the really big issue facing the Convention — representation and whether or not slaves would be included in a state’s population for purposes of calculating seats in Congress.

The small states would never agree to a purely proportional form of representation. They felt they would be bullied by the larger states.

The Delaware delegation had even been instructed to leave the Convention if it could not secure equal votes.

On the other hand, large states felt that equal suffrage was unfair. Why should little tails wag the big dogs?

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he United States had some fundamental problems in the late 1780s.

The virtually powerless federal government under the Articles of Confederation, made for a nation in which stability and security were constantly at risk.

So it was in September 1786 that a conference was called in Annapolis, Md., to discuss the condition of commerce in the fledgling nation.

The conference was called

by Virginia, at the urging of one of its great minds, James Madison.

Madison had designs to do

Madison’s Brilliant Gambit

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often hobbled by lack of money because it had no power to tax, and states didn’t always pay their fair share. With no enforcement power, nothing could be done. Nor could the government effectively stop British and Spanish encroachments on U.S. territory.

Then there was Shay’s Rebellion in 1786, a small army of farmers angered by crushing debt and taxes, that terrorized Massachusetts. The government had little power to put down the revolt.

One of the most difficult problems was that the natonal government could not regulate commerce between states, which led to bitter disputes, particularly as an economic depression settled in after the war.

Amendments required the unanimous agreement of every state, and several attempts were held up by a single vote.

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First Constitution Was a Weak One

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THE NEAR-FATAL ARGUMENT

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GREAT COMPROMISE

THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION — SUMMER OF 1787

FLAT-TIRE GOVERNMENT

THEY CALLED A MEETING, BUT FEW SHOWED UP

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Making and Debating the Constitution

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A SPECIAL SECTION OF THE DAILY HERALD

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hrowing off the British monarchy on July 4, 1776, left the United States with no central government. It had to design and install one. With the distractions of the war, the process took five years. But in 1781 America’s first constitution came into being — the Articles of Confederation. At a time when Americans had a deep-seated fear of a central authority and loyalty to the state in which they lived (often referred to as their “country”).

Ultimately, the Articles proved inadequate to resolving important issues that faced the early states.They had trouble acting in concert on matters of common interest. The national government was

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THE MAKING AND MEANING OF THE CONSTITUTION

WHY A CHANGE WAS NEEDED

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Ratification & Revision RATIFICATION HANGS IN THE BALANCE

Three Faces of Publius

THE FEDERALIST PAPERS

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he Constitutional Convention threw Congress a curve ball by proposing a new form of government rather than a simple revision of the Articles of Confederation. James Madison and others worked furiously to answer objections raised by opponents in Congress and the states.

As the Constitution was printed and distributed to the public, ordinary people weighed in. John Adams called it “the greatest single effort of national deliberation that the world has ever seen.”

Two parties emerged. Supporters of the Constitution quickly and cleverly named

themselves Federalists, which irritated opponents for whom “federal” meant a federation of sovereign states, not a powerful national government. Opponents blandly named themselves Anti-Federalists.

Two large states were crucial — Virginia and New York. By the summer of 1788, the required nine states had ratified, but the Federalists knew that these two large, wealthy states were needed for the plan to succeed.

New York was home to Alexander Hamilton and John Jay, who would become the first chief justice of the Supreme Court. Hamilton had the idea to explain

the Constitution in the popular press, and he recruited Madison and Jay to help. In a series of 85 anonymous essays published in New York newspapers in 1787 and 1788 under the pen name “Publius,” the three men brilliantly detailed the ideas behind the proposed new government. In July 1788 New York’s state convention ratified 30-27. Virginia ratified a month earlier.

Later collected and published as “The Federalist,” the essays of Hamilton, Madison and Jay have been cited frequently by the Supreme Court as an authoritative contemporary interpretation of the meaning of the Constitution.

Alexander Hamilton

John Jay

James Madison

∫ ANONYMOUS PUBLICATION of essays, signed only as “PUBLIUS,” has led to some dispute over who wrote what. Some of “The Federalist” essays published today credit “Madison or Hamilton,” for example. A fair estimate by scholars is that Hamilton wrote 52 essays, James Madison wrote 28, and John Jay wrote five.

SECURING THE CONSTITUTION

THE BILL OF RIGHTS “A bill of rights is what the people are entitled to against every government on earth, and what no just government should refuse, or rest on inference.” — Thomas Jefferson

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reedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, the right to a fair and speedy trial — some of Americans’ most treasured freedoms — were not initially part of the U.S. Constitution.

At the Constitutional Convention, the proposal to include a bill of rights was considered and defeated. Virginia delegate George Mason, author of the Virginia Declaration of Rights, left the convention bitterly disappointed and became a vocal opponent.

The omission sparked the most heated debates in the state ratifying process. AntiFederalists feared that a strong central government George Mason would be especially dangerous without an explicit list of rights. To them, approval of the Constitution without one was unthinkable.

In a letter to James Madison in 1788, Thomas Jefferson wrote: “I do not like ... the omission of a bill of rights providing clearly and without the aid of sophisms for freedom of religion, freedom of the press, protection against standing armies, restriction against monopolies, the eternal and unremitting force of the habeas corpus laws, and trials by jury in all matters of the fact triable by the laws of the land and not by the law of Nations. ... Let me add that a bill of rights is what the people are entitled to against every government on earth, general or particular, and what no just government should refuse, or rest on inference.”

Ultimately, this view prevailed.

A number of crucial states, such as New York and Massachusetts, made it clear that they wanted a bill of rights to be added.

Individuals and state conventions made many suggestions for a bill of rights. Their proposals were ultimately merged by James Madison, and 10 were incorporated into the Constitution on Dec. 15, 1791.

Nullification Crisis: A Near Crash ∫ AFTER THE CONSTITUTION was ratified, some people continued to challenge federal power. John C. Calhoun of South Carolina preached that states could ignore — or nullify — any federal laws they thought unfair. When South Carolina threatened secession over the tariff acts of 1828 and 1832 (said to favor northern industries over southern farmers), Congress authorized force. Sen. Henry Clay helped broker a compromise bill that slowly lowered tariffs over the next decade, ending the nullification crisis. States’ rights would come up again, and lead to civil war.

What It Says

What It Means

∫ Amendment I: Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.

In plain language, the First Amendment draws a line in the sand prohibiting interference with conscience and protest.

∫ Amendment II: A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.

Disputed. Many say it protects gun ownership, as the bill of rights was written for the individual.

∫ Amendment III: No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

Private citizens cannot be forced to use their property to support the military. Possibly obsolete.

∫ Amendment IV: The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

Police must have a warrant — an order signed by a judge — to search your home, car or other private place. A right of privacy is implied.

∫ Amendment V: No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.

Only a special jury of citizens can call you to stand trial for a major crime. You can’t be forced to admit any wrongdoing; the state must prove its own case. The government must follow established legal procedures. If it takes your property for public use, it must pay a fair price.

∫ Amendment VI: In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense.

If accused of a crime, you have a right to a lawyer, regardless of your ability to pay. You also have a right to be tried by a jury, not a single judge. You are entitled to hear witnesses in court, and to get witnesses in your favor.

∫ Amendment VII: In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

In a civil case, where you have been damaged in some way but no crime occurred, you can have a jury hear the facts. No higher court can take new testimony.

∫ Amendment VIII: Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

Fees to get out of jail, and all punishments must be reasonable.

∫ Amendment IX: The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.

The Constitution protects certain rights, but it recognizes that it has not touched on all of them.

∫ Amendment X: The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.

The government may only do what the Constitution says. It may not exercise powers not stated.

John Marshall

JUDICIAL REVIEW

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homas Jefferson was elected in 1800 on a wave of public sentiment against the Federalist Party, which had passed the Alien and Sedition Acts prohibiting criticism of the government.

But outgoing Federalist president John Adams made a number of last-minute appointments of judges. The new administration tried to block them by refusing to deliver formal written commissions to the appointees.

William Marbury sued Secretary of State James Madison to force him to deliver his commission as a justice of the peace.

The new chief justice, John Marshall, understood that if the court ordered the administration to comply, it would be ignored. This would weaken judicial authority. On the other hand, if the court refused to order the commissions delivered, it would appear fearful.

Either outcome would be bad for the rule of law.

Marshall’s decision in Marbury v. Madison (1803) has been hailed as a judicial tour de force. In essence, he declared that Madison should have delivered Marbury’s commission. But he also held that a section of law authorizing the Supreme Court to enter such orders was unconstitutional, and so the court had no authority to enforce the commissions. The ruling chastised the new administration while agreeing with it. Jefferson, who opposed a strong Supreme Court, called Marshall “the crafty chief judge.”

The critical importance of the Marbury case is that it established the principle of judicial review, the authority of judges to declare acts of Congress and the president unconstitutional. By extension, the court became the Constitution’s final interpreter.

CIVIL WAR: THE PRICE OF PROCRASTINATION

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he 75th anniversary of the signing of the Constitution, Sept. 17, 1862, was the bloodiest day in U.S. history. There were an estimated 23,100 Union and Confederate casualties at Antietam, Md., in a savage battle a year and a half into the Civil War. It was one day in a war that raged for four years and cost 623,000 lives.

The national population in 1860 was only 27 million. By comparison, a proportional number of deaths today would be 6 million.

At stake in the Civil War was the survival of the United States of America as a single nation. Eleven Southern states, invoking the spirit of 1776, se-

ceded from the Union in 1861 to form the Confederate States of America.

They even borrowed words from the Declaration of Independence to justify their action.

In truth, it was the unfinished business of 1787 — slavery — that had come home to roost. Much of the South depended on free black labor, and slavery was extending westward.

The old nullification arguments were raised again. John C. Calhoun and others had argued that the Constitution was a loose compact, and if states could join, they could also withdraw.

Abraham Lincoln settled that question, and slavery, on the battlefield.

Confederate dead after the battle of Antietam.

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A Living Document

DESIGNED TO CHANGE

Amendments to the Constitution ∫ IT’S NOT EASY TO ENACT AN AMENDMENT to the Constitution. The founders wanted it that way so that the Constitution would be less subject to political winds.

Amendments are most often started in Congress, where both houses must approve by two-thirds majorities. Then the amendment is sent to the states for consideration. Threefourths of them must approve before the amendment becomes part of the Constitution.

Many amendments are proposed every year. Most never get out of congressional committees.

Following are summaries of all the amendments enacted to date:

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— 1795. STATE DISPUTES. When the Supreme Court took jurisdiction in a lawsuit against a state by a citizen of another state, it provoked angry and swift action to amend Article III of the Constitution. Citizens

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objected to a state’s being subjected to lawsuits in federal courts.

Since then, the 11th Amendment has been applied inconsistently, though it continues to be important in holding state officers to constitutional standards.

— 1933. PROHIBITION REPEALED. Prohibition of alcohol is the only amendment (18th) to be repealed. The 21st Amendment was passed because it was felt that prohibition had failed.

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— 1951. PRESIDENTIAL TERM LIMIT. George Washington’s self-imposed twoterm limit as president became a tradition that was followed voluntarily until the 1940s when Franklin D. Roosevelt went for a third and fourth term. This amendment limits presidents to two four-year terms.

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— 1804. PRESIDENT/VICEPRESIDENT. This amendment changed the way the president and vice-president are determined.

In 1800, Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr tied in electoral college votes, thus throwing presi— 1961. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Before dential selection to the House of this, citizens of the District of Columbia Representatives, despite the fact had the responsibilities of citizens but no repthat the electors had intended Jefresentation in Congress. Now they would be ferson to be president and Burr to allowed to vote in national elections and were Illegal liquor is dumped into a New York sewer. be vice-president. This amendment given three electoral votes. separates the votes by electors for president and vice-president, — 1964. NO POLL TAX. respectively. This was modified in 1933 by the Though stopping some20th Amendment.

— 1913. ELECTION OF one from voting because of his SENATORS. Changes or her race was prohibited by — 1865. SLAVERY ENDS. After the bloody mode of filling the Senate from the 15th Amendment, many Civil War, this amendment ended all appointment by state legislaSouthern states found ways slavery in the United States. tures to direct vote of the people around the rule, such as chargin a given state. This eliminated ing a poll tax to prevent low— 1868. EQUAL PROTECTION. Put in place many disputes in which seats income citizens from voting. to choke off state action to limit the were left vacant for extended This amendment outlawed poll rights of the recently freed slaves, it requires periods. taxes. “equal protection” under the law. It also eliminates the three-fifths of a person standard ad— 1919. PROHIBITION. — 1967. VICE-PRESIDENT. opted in 1789 for counting population toward Under the argument that On the heels of President seats in Congress, and establishes the right of prohibition would reduce crime John F. Kennedy’s assassinaMulling the paperwork citizenship by soil (that is, if you were born and improve health, this amend- required for income tax. tion and Lyndon Johnson’s rise in the United States, you are automatically a ment banned the manufacture, to the presidency, this amendcitizen). Finally, it immunizes the United States sale or transportation of inment allows a new president to against any debts incurred to aid the Confeder- toxicating liquors in the United States. It was choose his own vice president, with approval acy, and business or personal losses resulting repealed by the 21st Amendment in 1933, with of Congress. from the elimination of slavery.

Utah providing the winning vote.

— 1971. VOTING AGE. Lowered the — 1870. VOTING RIGHTS FOR ALL. This — 1920. WOMEN’S VOTE. Women’s right voting age to 18 from 21. During the was the last of the post-Civil War civil to vote is acknowledged. Led by the Vietnam war, many questioned the fairness of rights amendments, it guarantees the right to likes of Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady sending young soldiers to war but not allowvote regardless of race or color, or whether a Stanton, women across the country had spent ing them to vote. person had once been a slave. a century fighting for suffrage.

— 1992. CONGRESSIONAL PAY. Origi— 1913. INCOME TAX. Allows federal — 1933. LAME-DUCKS. This amendment nally proposed in 1789, this amendgovernment to collect taxes on indireduced the time that “lame duck” legisment wasn’t ratified for another 203 years. It vidual income. Before this amendment, it was lators, those who fail to win re-election but rerequires that pay raises cannot go into effect only allowed to levy taxes on each state based main in office until the end of the current term, until the next election, allowing the voters to on population. would have to pass laws. weigh in.

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A suffragist makes her point with a crowd of males at a 1914 demonstration.

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PopQuiz Test Your Knowledge 1. Which future U.S. President submitted a plan to change the Articles of Confederation, which led to creating the U.S. Constitution?

A. George Washington B. Thomas Jefferson C. James Madison D. Abraham Lincoln 2. In the summer of 1787, 55 delegates gathered in Philadelphia for what purpose?

A. Write the Declaration of Independence B. Amend the Articles of Confederation C. Write the Pledge of Allegiance D. Abolish state laws 3. On what date did the Constitutional Convention sign the Constitution?

A. Sept. 17, 1787 B. Oct. 17, 1800 C. July 4, 1776 D. Jan. 1, 1790 4. Which state was the first to ratify the Constitution?

A. Virginia B. Delaware C. Florida D. California 5. The new Congress first conducted business under the Constitution on April 6, 1789. What also happened on that day?

A. Capitol opened in D.C. B. Thomas Jefferson was elected President C. White House opened D. George Washington was elected President 6. What is the name for the beginning of the Constitution?

A. Preamble B. The Bill of Rights C. Introduction D. Article 3

7. Which party in 1787 and 1788 feared a strong national government?

A. Federalist B. Anti-Federalist C. Whig D. Democrat 8. The ______ are called the Bill of Rights A. First Ten Amendments to the Constitution B. Last Ten Amendments to the Constitution C. The first paragraph of the Constitution D. The main ideas in the Declaration of Independence 9. How many states must ratify an amendment to the Constitution?

A. One half B. Two thirds C. Three fourths D. All of them 10. The Constitution divides the government into three branches. Which one of these is not a branch?

A. Legislative B. Executive C. Judicial D. Commercial 11. What was the pen name used by the authors of The Federalist?

A. Anonymous B. Publius C. Proteus D. Brutus 12. Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness are guaranteed by the Constitution: A. True B. False Sources: Whitehouse.gov, Daily Herald ANSWERS: 1. C; 2. B; 3. A; 4. B; 5.

D; 6. A; 7. B; 8. A; 9. C; 10. D; 11.

B; 12. B.

Current Events: Constitution Alive and Well Each year, many disputes arise that involve constitutional principles, and the courts are often called to enter judgments. The Supreme Court is the highest authority — the court of last resort. If the government applied a law unfairly in a particular case, for example, the injured party may ask for relief. Constitutional principles are also seen in the routine operations of government, such as a presidential veto or signing of a bill into law. Here are a few recent examples:

∫ June 23, 2005 — Government can take private property for commercial development.

In a 5-4 decision, the Supreme Court sided with New London, Conn., in seizing private homes and land. The city plans to develop a commercial shopping complex. Many were horrified, and numerous states moved quickly to limit the power of municipal governments. ∫ Sept. 26, 2005 — New chief justice of the Supreme Court is confirmed.

In a 78-22 vote, the Senate gave its “advice and consent” as required by the Constitution, to the appointment of John G. Roberts as the 17th chief justice of the Supreme Court. ∫ May 22 — Police may enter a home without a warrant to stop a fight.

The Fourth Amendment does not apply when police have an "objective reasonable basis" for believing that someone is in physical danger, the Supreme Court ruled. ∫ June 27 — Flag amendment barely short of two-thirds.

Utah Sen. Orrin Hatch has pushed for an amendment that would prohibit the expression of political opinions through the burning of an American flag. It would have been the first time an amendment directly challenged one of the Bill of Rights. A majority of senators voted for the amendment, but the vote fell one short of the two-thirds majority required by the Constitution.

DOUG MILLS/Associated Press

Six weeks after terrorist attacks in Sept. 2001, President Bush signed the antiterrorism bill into law. The law expanded police authority to search people’s homes and business records to catch terrorists.

∫ July 19 — President Bush veto.

President Bush used his veto pen for the first time in his presidency, rejecting a bill that would have permitted couples who had banked embryos for fertilization treatments to donate unused biological materials to researchers to create new lines of stem cells for genetic research.

T E A C H E R ’ S

R E S O U R C E

∫ Aug. 17 — NSA wiretapping program ruled unconstitutional.

In a blow to the Bush Administration’s anti-terrorist program, a federal district court judge ruled that a National Security Agency surveillance program is unconstitutional because one end of NSA’s wiretapping is in the U.S. The case is being appealed.

G U I D E

∫ www.usconstitution.net — A comprehensive Constitution site. Includes activities and lessons for various ages. ∫ http://bensguide.gpo.gov, www.gpoaccess.gov — U.S. Government Printing Office. Ben’s Guide includes grade-specific lessons. GPO site has historical documents, analysis, pictures. Site links to major government search engine, FirstGov.gov. ∫ www.ushistory.org — Independence Hall Association supports mission to educate the public about early U.S. history. ∫ www.archives.gov — Huge collection of National Archives, with large amounts of public-domain material, images, maps. ∫ www.constitution.org — The Constitution Society is a private non-profit organization dedicated to research and public education. ∫ www.historyguide.org — A guide for high school and undergraduate history students. ∫ www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/avalon.htm — A large compilation of documents compiled by the Yale University Avalon Project. ∫ edsitement.neh.gov/lesson_index.asp — Excellent site includes lesson plans for all grade levels. ∫ www.annenbergclassroom.org — Interactive online learning for all grade levels. ∫ www.archives.gov/education/lessons/constitution-day/index.html — National Archives site designed for Constitution Day. ∫ www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/charters.html — Excellent interactive site from National Archives ∫ www.loc.gov/rr/print/pphome.html — Search prints and photographs from the Library of Congress. ∫ www.loc.gov/index.html — Library of Congress collection. Subsections on American history. Prints, maps, audio, film. ∫ wikipedia.org — The largest reference site on the Internet. Free content written collaboratively. Users should confirm data.

CREDITS: The Daily Herald thanks all who generously allowed us to draw from their work to produ which provided core material; and to Frank W. Fox, author of “The American Founding,” who all sources in t

Graphic design: Lauren Hastings. Editors: Randy Wright and Joe Pyrah, Daily Herald.

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“Let the American youth never forget that they possess a noble inheritance, bought by the toils and blood of their to do better and to appreciate the great freedoms ancestors; and capable, if wisely improved and faithfully guarded, that enjoy as Americans” of transmitting towe their posterity all the blessings of life, the peaceful enjoyment of liberty, property, hal wing, member, chairman’s leadership council, america’s freedom foundation religion and independence.” founder, wing enterprises “Studying the actions of patriots inspires us

Justice Joseph Story, United States Supreme Court T H I S S P E C I A L E D U C AT I O N A L S U P P L E M E N T I S P ROV I D E D A S A P U B L I C S E RV I C E B Y:

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