Non-Aligned Movement Belgrade 2021 - 60th Anniversary

THE FUTURE

BELONGS TO ALL

2021

Countries of the Non-Aligned Movement Light blue denotes countries with observer status

Supported by:

Published by: alliance international media Print: Rotografika Issued October 2021

COMMENT

SERBIA

NIKOLA SELAKOVIĆ, MINISTER OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS

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The Non-Aligned Movement today comprises of 120 member states, representing the largest multilateral forum after the United Nations. It brings together two-thirds of UN member states, representing voices of about two billion of global population. The former Yugoslavia was one of the founding members of the Non-Aligned Movement, while Serbia today, as one of its successor states has an observer status in the Movement. Let me point out that the upcoming NAM event is not a political gathering, since Serbia’s intention, as an observer state, is to organize an event that is primarily commemorative in nature. Being the head of diplomacy of an observer state, it is not easy for me to evaluate the NAM’s political strengths and goals today. Having said that, the figures that I have already noted clearly demonstrate that the NAM has the potential to be among the strongest and most influential multilateral fora in the contemporary global political architecture. It continues to nurture its values and ideological foundations defined during the Cold War and the struggle against colonialism, primarily at the Conference in Bandung and the consequent Belgrade Conference in 1961. These enduring values testify to the fact that the NAM was not created as a short-term response of a group of countries to the bloc division of the world, rather that these are universal values that are as enduring as the principles enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations.

We are hoping to have the world’s largest multilateral gathering this year, after the UN General Assembly. Despite the COVID-19 pandemic that has affected the entire world, Belgrade will be a good host that will provide our non-aligned friends with an opportunity to exchange experiences and opinions on contemporary global political issues and strengthen bilateral ties. They will also have the chance to see the birth of a new Serbia, which is making its return to the economic and political map of Europe and the world with great style.

What is most special about this event is the fact that our Serbia – as the former Yugoslavia’s largest successor state – is standing on steady feet for the first time and is one of Europe’s fastest growing economies for the second consecutive year, with its state leadership leading a multi-vector foreign policy, alongside its strategic dedication to EU integration. Our capital city is once again becoming the epicentre of the region’s development and – as the birthplace of this great and important movement – is regaining its place among the world’s most important capitals.

I am certain that Belgrade will be the true capital of the world during the days of the conference and that it will bring together representatives of many friendly countries, countries with which we share common values, despite being separated by thousands of kilometres.

Belgrade became worldly thanks to the NAM that was created in the city and thanks to the people coming from all meridians for politics, trade or study. Today, Serbia is back on its feet and renewing economically and socially, while positioning itself politically in the new geopolitical environment. I am convinced, following a series of my bilateral visits to NAM member countries over the past few months, that the NAM gathering in Belgrade will provide a unique opportunity to renew or strengthen friendships and cooperation with many countries. I am therefore honoured that I, along with President Vučić, will be one of the hosts of this important commemorative meeting, while also looking forward to what it could result in for Serbia and Belgrade. It is significant to mention that a Business forum will be held on the margins of the gathering, as well as that the traditional international fair, “Partner 2021”, will also be organised in Belgrade at the same time and will enable guests to acquaint themselves with the achievements of the Serbian military industry.

60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

COMMENT

REPUBLIC OF AZERBAIJAN

JEYHUN BAYRAMOV, MINISTER OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS

We are this year celebrating the 60th anniversary of the establishment of Non-Aligned Movement, the world’s largest political institution after the UN General Assembly. Complex global challenges have further increased the relevance of our Movement over the decades, as advocating for peace, multilateralism and global solidarity lies at the core of the NAM. The historic “Bandung Principles”, which promote respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all countries and non-interference in the internal affairs of other countries, coincide fully with Azerbaijan’s own foreign policy priorities. It was this that prompted Azerbaijan to join the NAM family ten years ago, and we quickly gained great respect and confidence in the Movement. In 2016, we were entrusted with the NAM chairmanship for the 2019-2022 term.

Our chairmanship was extended for a year, according to a unanimous decision of all member states.

It was in October 2019 that Azerbaijan successfully held the 18th NAM Summit in Baku, where we took over the chairmanship.

Our chairmanship envisages ensuring that the voices of all NAM member states can be heard in different international settings. It endeavours to strengthen the NAM’s visibility and influence in the system of international relations by expressing timely reactions to events related to members.

Unfortunately, our chairmanship has coincided with the pandemic, though we transformed the COVID-related challenges into cooperation opportu-

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nities by proposing several important initiatives of a global scale, such as organising the Summit of the NAM Contact Group in response to COVID-19 on 4th May 2020, establishing the database of basic medical and humanitarian needs of NAM member states, convening the UNGA Special Session on COVID-19 and initiating a UN Human Rights Council resolution on universal, equitable and affordable access to COVID-19 vaccines.

As a country that attaches particular importance to youth empowerment, Azerbaijan initiated the building of the NAM Youth institutionalised network.

The first-ever NAM Youth Summit took place on 23rd October 2019 in Baku, on the margins of the NAM Baku Summit, and we are keen to organise a larger scale Youth Summit in 2022.

Azerbaijan also initiated the establishment of the NAM Parliamentary Network, which will initially hold its meetings on the margins of annual meetings of the Inter-Parliamentary Union.

Azerbaijan believes that the commemorative Summit meeting in Belgrade will be an important milestone in promoting multilateralism and an international law-based world order, the underlying ideas of which are firmly anchored in the NAM’s Bandung Principles. In this regard, we look forward to the active participation of NAM member states, observers and guests in the work of the summit. And we once again wish to express our immense gratitude to the Republic of Serbia for its initiative to host this commemorative NAM meeting in the beautiful city of Belgrade and all the efforts exerted to ensure its success.

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THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT: ACHIEVING PEACE, DEVELOPMENT, ECONOMIC COOPERATION AND THE DEMOCRATISATION OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS…

Six Decades Of Struggling For Peace &

INDEPENDENCE IN THE WORLD The Non-Aligned Movement was founded and held its first conference in Belgrade (the Belgrade Conference) in 1961, under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana and Sukarno of Indonesia

As a condition of membership, the states of the Non-Aligned Movement cannot be part of a multilateral military alliance or have signed a bilateral military agreement with one of the “big powers” if such an agreement was “deliberately concluded in the context of Great Power conflicts.” However, the idea of nonalignment does not signify that a state ought to remain passive or even neutral in international politics. On the contrary, from the founding of the Non-Aligned Movement, its stated aim has been to give voice to developing countries and encourage their concerted action in world affairs.

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60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

Photos: Arhiv Jugoslavije

One of the challenges confronting the Non-Aligned Movement in the 21st century has been to reassess its identity and purpose in the post-Cold War era. The movement has continued to advocate for international cooperation, multilateralism and national self-determination, but it has also been increasingly vocal against the inequities of the world economic order.

The term ‘Non-Alignment’ was used for the first time in 1950 at the United Nations

by India and Yugoslavia, both of which refused to align themselves with either side in the Korean War. Drawing on the principles agreed at the Bandung Conference of 1955, the Non-Aligned Movement was founded as an organisation on Yugoslavia’s Brijuni islands in 1956 and was formalised with the signing of the Declaration of Brijuni on 19th July 1956.

The Declaration was signed by Yugoslavia’s president, Josip Broz Tito, India’s first prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Egypt’s second president, Gamal Abdel Nasser. One of the quotations within the Declaration is “Peace cannot be achieved with separation, but with the aspiration towards collective security in global terms and the expansion

The term ‘Non-Alignment’ was used for the first time in 1950, at the United Nations, by India and Yugoslavia, both of which refused to align themselves with either side in the Korean War

of freedom, as well as terminating the domination of one country over another”.

There were the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence to be used as a guide for Sino-Indian relations called Panchsheel (five restraints); these principles would later serve as the basis of the Non-Aligned Movement.

The five principles were: • Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty; • Mutual non-aggression; • Mutual non-interference in domestic affairs; • Equality and mutual benefit; • Peaceful co-existence.

A significant milestone in the development of the Non-Aligned Movement was the 1955 Bandung Conference, a conference of Asian and African states hosted by Indonesia, which provided a significant contribution to promoting this movement. Six years after Bandung, an initiative of Yugoslav President Tito led to the first Conference of Heads of State or Government of Non-Aligned Countries, which was held in September 1961 in Belgrade. The term non-aligned movement

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appears first in the fifth conference in 1976, where participating countries are denoted as members of the Movement.

The Movement of Non-Aligned Countries was founded on a wider geographical basis at the First Summit Conference of Belgrade, which was held from 1st to 6th September 1961. The Conference was attended by 25 countries: Afghanistan, Algeria, Yemen, Myanmar, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, Congo, Cuba, Cyprus, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Lebanon, Mali, Morocco, Nepal, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia and Yugoslavia.

The membership criteria formulated during the Preparatory Conference to the Belgrade Summit (Cairo, 1961) show that the Movement was not conceived to play a passive role in international affairs, but rather to formulate its own positions in an independent manner that would reflect the interests of its members.

Thus, the primary objectives of the NAM countries focused on the support of self-determination, national independence and the sovereignty and territorial integrity of states; opposition to apartheid; non-ad-

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herence to multilateral military pacts and the independence of non-aligned countries from great power or bloc influences and rivalries; the struggle against imperialism in all its forms and manifestations; the struggle against colonialism, neo-colonialism, racism, foreign occupation and domination; disarmament; non-interference in the internal affairs of states and peaceful coexistence among all nations; rejection of the use or the threat of force in international relations; the strengthening of the United Nations;

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The Non-Aligned Movement was founded on a broader geographical basis at the First Summit Conference of Belgrade, which was held from 1st to 6th September 1961.

The Conference was attended by the leaders of 25 countries

the democratisation of international relations; socioeconomic development and the restructuring of the international economic system; as well as international cooperation on an equal footing.

Since its inception, the Non-Aligned Movement has waged a ceaseless battle to ensure that peoples who are being oppressed by foreign occupation and domination can exercise their inalienable right to self-determination and independence.

During the 1970s and ‘80s, NAM Countries played a key role in the struggle to establish a new international economic order that allowed all the world’s peoples to make use of their own wealth and natural resources, as well as providing a broad platform for a fundamental change to international economic relations and the economic emancipation of the countries of the Global South.

During the 60 years of its existence, the Non-Aligned Movement has gathered a growing number of states and liberation movements, which - despite their ideological, political, economic, social and cultural diversity - have accepted its founding principles and primary objectives, and shown their readiness to realise them. Historically, NAM countries have shown their ability to overcome their differences and find common ground for action that leads to mutual cooperation and the upholding of their shared values.

The ten principles of Bandung: • Respect of fundamental human rights and of the objectives and principles of the Charter of the United Nations;

60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

• Respect of the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all nations; • Recognition of equality among all races and equality among all nations, both large and small; • Non-intervention or non-interference in the internal affairs of another country; • Respect for the right of every nation to defend itself, either individually or collectively, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations; • Non-use of collective defence pacts to benefit the specific interests of any of the great powers; • Non-use of pressure by any country against other countries; • Refraining from carrying out or threatening to carry out aggression, or from using force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any country; • Peaceful resolving of all international con-

Since its inception, the NAM has waged a ceaseless battle to ensure that peoples being oppressed by foreign occupation and domination can exercise their inalienable right to self-determination and independence

flicts, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations; • Promotion of mutual interests and cooperation; • Respect for justice and international obligations.

EVOLUTION The creation and strengthening of the socialist bloc after the WWII defeat of fascism, the collapse of colonial empires, the emergence of a bipolar world and the formation of two military blocs (NATO and the Warsaw Pact) brought about a new international context that created the necessity for multilateral coordination fora between the countries of the Global South.

In this context, underdeveloped countries, mostly in Asia and Africa, felt the need to combine efforts for the common defence of their interests, the strengthening of their independence and sovereignty, and the cultural and economic revival or salvation of their peoples, and also to express a strong commitment to peace by declaring themselves “non-aligned” from either of the two nascent military blocs.

This First Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement was convened by the leaders of India, Indonesia, Egypt, Syria and Yugoslavia.

60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

It was on 26th April 1961 that the presidents of the United Arab Republic of Egypt (Nasser) and Yugoslavia (Tito) addressed the Heads of State and Government of 21 “non-Aligned” countries and suggested that a Conference be held – taking recent world events and the rise of international tensions into account – in order to promote an improvement of international relations, resistance to policies of force and the constructive resolving of conflicts and other issues of concern in the world.

The Movement played an important role in the support of nations that were then struggling for independence in the Third World and showed great solidarity with the most just aspirations of humanity.

It contributed indisputably to victory in the struggle for national independence and decolonisation, thus gaining considerable diplomatic prestige.

As one Summit after another was held over the 1960s and ‘70s, “non-alignment” turned into the “Movement of Non-Aligned Countries”, which included nearly all Asian and African countries, and which was becoming a forum of coordination to struggle for the respect of the developing world’s economic and political rights. After gaining independence,

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the conferences began expressing growing concern over economic and social issues, as well as over strictly political matters.

By the end of the 1980s, the Movement was facing the great challenge brought about by the collapse of the socialist bloc. The end of the clash between the two antagonistic blocs that was the reason for its existence, name and essence was seen by some as the beginning of the end for the NAM. The NAM could not spare itself from difficulties in acting effectively within an adverse international political situation that was marked by hegemonic positions and unipolarity, as well as by internal difficulties and conflicts, given the heterogeneity of its membership and, thus, its diverse interests.

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Nevertheless, and despite such setbacks, the principles and objectives of non-alignment retain their full validity and force at the present international juncture. The primary condition that led to the emergence of the Movement of Non-Aligned Countries, that is, non-alignment from antagonistic blocs, did not lose its validity with the end of the

Cold War. The demise of one of the blocs did not do away with the world’s pressing problems. On the contrary, renewed strategic interests bent on domination have grown stronger and even acquired new and more dangerous dimensions for underdeveloped countries.

During the 14th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement, held in Havana, Cuba, in September 2006, the Heads of States and Governments of the member countries reaffirmed their commitment to the ideals, principles and purposes upon which the movement was founded and with the principles and purposes enshrined in the United Nations Charter.

The NAM heads of States and Governments stated their firm belief that the absence of two conflicting blocs in no way reduces the need to strengthen the movement as a mechanism for the political coordination of developing countries. In this regard, they acknowledged that it remains an imperative to strengthen and revitalise the movement. In order to do so, they agreed to strengthen concrete action, unity and solidarity between all members, based on respect for diversity, factors essential for reaffirming the identity and capacity of the movement to influence international relations.

They also stressed the need to actively promote a leadership role for the movement in the coordination of efforts among member states aimed at tackling global threats.

Inspired by the principles and purposes that were brought to the Non-Aligned Movement

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by the Bandung principles and during the First NAM Summit in Belgrade in 1961, the Heads of States and Governments of NAM member countries used their 14th Summit in Havana to adopt the following purposes and principles of the Movement at the present international juncture: • To promote and reinforce multilateralism and, in this regard, strengthen the central role that the United Nations must play; • To serve as a forum of political coordination of developing countries to promote and defend their common interests in the system of international relations; • To promote unity, solidarity and cooperation between developing countries based on shared values and priorities agreed upon by consensus; • To defend international peace and security and settle all international disputes through peaceful means, in accordance with the principles and the purposes of the UN Charter and International Law; • To encourage relations of friendship and cooperation between all nations based on the principles of international law, particularly those enshrined in the UN Charter; • To promote and encourage sustainable

During the 60 years of its existence to date, the NAM has gathered a growing number of States and liberation movements which, despite their ideological, political, economic, social and cultural diversity, have accepted its founding principles

development through international cooperation and, to that end, to jointly coordinate the implementation of political strategies that strengthen and ensure the full participation of all countries, both rich and poor, in international economic relations, under equal conditions and opportunities, but with differentiated responsibilities; • To encourage the respect, enjoyment and protection of all human rights and fundamental freedoms for all, on the basis of the principles of universality, objectivity, impartiality and non-selectivity, avoiding the politicisation of human rights issues, thus ensuring that all human rights of individuals and peoples, including the right to develop, are promoted and protected in a balanced manner; • To promote peaceful coexistence between nations, regardless of their political, social or economic systems; • To condemn all manifestations of unilateralism and attempts to exercise hegemonic domination in international relations;

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• To coordinate actions and strategies in order to jointly confront threats to international peace and security, including threats of the use of force and acts of aggression, colonialism and foreign occupation, and other breaches of peace caused by any country or group of countries; • To promote the strengthening and democratisation of the UN, giving the General Assembly the role granted to it in accordance with the functions and powers outlined in the UN Charter and to promote the comprehensive reform of the United Nations Security Council so that it may fulfil the role granted to it by the Charter, in a transparent and equitable manner, as the body primarily responsible for maintaining international peace and security; • To continue pursuing universal and non-discriminatory nuclear disarmament, as well as general and complete disarmament under strict and effective international control and, in this context, to work towards the objective of arriving at an agreement on a phased

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programme for the complete elimination of nuclear weapons within a specified time frame to eliminate nuclear weapons, prohibit their development, production, acquisition, testing, stockpiling, transfer, use or threat of use, and to provide for their destruction; • To oppose and condemn the categorising of countries as good or evil based on unilateral and unjustified criteria, and the adoption of doctrines of pre-emptive attack, including attack by nuclear weapons, which is inconsistent with international law, in particular the interna-

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The Movement played an important role in supporting nations that were then struggling for independence in the Third World and showed great solidarity with the most just aspirations of humanity

tional, legally-binding instruments concerning nuclear disarmament, and to further condemn and oppose unilateral military actions, or the use or threat of force against the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of NonAligned countries; • To encourage States to conclude agreements freely arrived at, among the States of the regions concerned, to establish new Nuclear Weapons-Free Zones in regions where they do not exist, in accordance with the provisions of the Final Document of the First Special Session of the General Assembly devoted to disarmament (SSOD.1) and the principles adopted by the 1999 UN Disarmament Commission, including the establishment of a Nuclear Weapons Free Zone in the Middle East.

The establishment of Nuclear Weapons-Free Zones is a positive step and important measure towards strengthening global nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation; • To promote international cooperation in the peaceful use of nuclear energy and facilitate access to nuclear technology, equipment and material required for peaceful purposes by developing countries; • To promote concrete initiatives of SouthSouth cooperation and strengthen the role of the NAM, in coordination with G.77, in the re-launching of North-South cooperation, ensuring the fulfilment of the right to the development of our peoples through the enhancement of international solidarity; • To respond to the challenges and take advantage of the opportunities arising from globalisation and interdependence with creativity and a sense of identity, in order to ensure benefits for all countries, particularly those hardest hit by underdevelopment and poverty, with a view to gradually reducing the abysmal gap between developed and developing countries; • To enhance the role that civil society, including NGOs, can play at the regional and

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international levels to promote the purposes, principles and objectives of the Movement.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF THE MOVEMENT: • Respect for the principles enshrined in the UN Charter and International Law; • Respect for the sovereignty, sovereign equality and territorial integrity of all States; • Recognition of the equality of all races, religions, cultures and nations, both big and small; • Promotion of a dialogue among peoples, civilisations, cultures and religions, based on the respect for religions, their symbols and values, the promotion and consolidation of tolerance and freedom of belief; • Respect for, and the promotion of, all human rights and fundamental freedoms for all, including the effective implementation of the right of peoples to peace and development; • Respect for the equality of rights of States,

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including the inalienable right of each State to freely determine its political, social, economic and cultural system, without any kind of interference from any other State; • Reaffirmation of the validity and relevance of the NAM’s principled positions concerning the right to self-determination of peoples under

foreign occupation and colonial or foreign domination; • Non-interference in the internal affairs of States. No State or group of States has the right to intervene, either directly or indirectly, whatever the motive, in the internal affairs of any other State; • Rejection of the unconstitutional changing of governments; • Rejection of attempts at regime change; • Condemnation of the use of mercenaries in all situations, especially in conflict situations; • Refraining from exerting pressure or coercion on other countries, including resorting to aggression or other acts involving the use of direct or indirect force, and the application and/or promotion of any coercive unilateral measure that is contrary to international law or is in any way incompatible with it, for the purpose of coercing any other State to subordinate its sovereign rights, or to gain any benefit whatsoever; • Total rejection of aggression as a dangerous and serious breach of international law that entails international accountability for the aggressor; • Respect for the inherent right of individual or collective self-defence, in accordance with the UN Charter; • Condemnation of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and systematic and

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gross violations of human rights, in accordance with the UN Charter and international law; • Rejection of, and opposition to, terrorism in all its forms and manifestations, committed by whomever, wherever and for whatever purposes, as it constitutes one of the most serious threats to international peace and security. In this context, terrorism should not be equated with the legitimate struggle of peoples under colonial or foreign domination and occupation for self-determination and national liberation; • Promotion of the peaceful settlement of disputes and abjuring, under any circumstances, from taking part in coalitions, agreements or any other kind of unilateral coercive initiative in violation of the principles of international law and the UN Charter; • Defence and consolidation of democra-

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The Movement has succeeded in creating a strong front on the international level, representing countries of the Third World in international organisations, headed by the United Nations cy, reaffirming that democracy is a universal value based on the freely expressed will of people to determine their own political, economic, social and cultural systems, as well

as their full participation in all aspects of life; • Promotion and defence of multilateralism and multilateral organisations as appropriate frameworks to resolve – through dialogue and cooperation – the problems affecting humankind; • Support for efforts by countries suffering internal conflicts to achieve peace, justice, equality and development; • The duty of each State to comply, fully and in good faith, with the international treaties to which it is a party, as well as to honour commitments made in the framework of international organisations and to live in peace with other States; • Defence and promotion of shared interests, justice and cooperation, regardless of the differences existing in the political, economic and social systems of the States, on the basis of mutual respect and equality of rights; • Solidarity as a fundamental component of relations among nations under all circumstances; • Respect for the political, economic, social and cultural diversity of countries and peoples.

The NAM has succeeded in creating a strong front on the international level, representing countries of the Third World in international organisations, headed by the United Nations.

Current Challenges facing the NAM include the necessity to protect the principles of international law, eliminating weapons of mass destruction, combating terrorism, defending human rights, working towards making the United Nations more effective in meeting the needs of all its member states in order to preserve international peace, security and stability, as well as realising justice in the international economic system.

On the other hand, the NAM’s long-standing goals are yet to be achieved. Peace, development, economic cooperation and the

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democratisation of international relations, to mention just a few, are old goals of the non-aligned countries.

The Non-Aligned Movement, faced with goals that are yet to be achieved and many new challenges that are arising, is called upon to maintain a prominent and leading role in current international relations, in defence of the interests and priorities of its member states and with the aim of achieving peace and security for mankind.

SERBIA AND THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT “I consider that we will do a great service to the world if we clearly and decisively point out the path that leads to peace in the world, to freedom, equality and peaceful cooperation among all peoples” (excerpt from the introductory speech of Josip Broz Tito at the NAM’s 1961 Belgrade conference).

In the decades that followed, Yugoslavia continued to be among the leading promoters of the ideas and fundamental principles of non-alignment policy, while working simultaneously to deepen cooperation with all developing countries in a number of areas.

After the collapse of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and subsequent events, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia applied for observer status in the Non-Aligned Movement, which was accepted at the November 2001 NAM ministerial meeting in New York.

The Republic of Serbia regularly participates in summits and ministerial meetings of the Non-Aligned Movement, while it was itself the organiser of the Ministerial Meeting of Non-Aligned Countries dedicated to the 50th anniversary of the First Conference of Heads of State and Government of non-aligned countries, which was held in Belgrade on 5th and 6th September 2011.

Serbia is committed and consistent in implementing the basic principles of multilateralism that are based on the UN Charter and international law: preserving peace and security, respecting the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all states, as well as strengthening cooperation in the process of finding common responses to all contemporary global challenges. The role of the Non-Aligned Movement in these processes remains

of great importance and it is necessary to work on the country continuing to play an active and constructive role in realising the vital interests of the largest number of countries and peoples in an effort to achieve permanent peace and prosperity.

The Republic of Serbia, as one of the successor states of the former Yugoslavia, endeavours to preserve and further strengthen relations and cooperation with all NAM member states, which represents one of our country’s foreign policy priorities. This kind of cooperation with NAM members is not in contradiction to the European perspective of the Republic of Serbia, but is actually complementary. The Republic of Serbia will remain committed to the revival and further deepening of all forms of cooperation with NAM member states and will also continue monitoring global political and economic issues from the perspective of this group of countries.

Belgrade, as a kind of “birthplace” of the Non-Aligned Movement, where its first Summit was held back in 1961, carries special historical symbolism as a city in which the newly established Bandung principles were confirmed, thus “laying the foundations” on which the Non-Aligned Movement continues to rest to this day.

This gathering provides an important opportunity for the Non-Aligned Movement to review its historical contribution, reaffirm its commitment to the fundamental principles of the UN Charter and its support for a global order based on multilateralism, as well as to set new goals for the future.

The Republic of Serbia is proud that, as the host of this gathering, it has the great honour and pleasure of welcoming its traditional friends from all corners of the world.

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COMMENT

BY DRAGAN BISENIĆ

New Age of Active,

PEACEFUL COEXISTENCE The very fact that the Non-Aligned Movement has managed to survive two quite contradictory environments – the one for which it was formed, and the one that represents its formal negation – is impressive enough. Like other multilateral treaties and organisations, the NAM is facing uncertainties and seeking a new identity. As are the likes of NATO, the European Union (EEC), Council of Europe and CSCE (OSCE). However, the NAM has – with the exception of the United Nations – remained the largest international movement, with as many as 120 member countries

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As it did six decades ago, Belgrade is again hosting a gathering of non-aligned states, this time thanks to the understanding and support of all members and current Chair, Azerbaijan. The 9th Summit of Non-Aligned Countries was held in Belgrade back in 1989, while the city later also hosted the 50th anniversary of the Movement’s founding, just a decade ago, in 2011. Although Serbia is not a formal NAM member state, traces of non-alignment remain strong in Serbia, not only as historical memory or intellectual heritage, but as practical foreign policy. Indeed, Serbia’s foreign policy doctrine is closest to the principles of active peaceful coexistence, which are among the Movement’s basic principles. This means that states can and must cooperate no matter how different they may be in terms of internal organisation, ideology or material wealth.

In today’s language, such a world is a multipolar picture that emerges regardless of the desire to centralise international relations and the world order. This is the time for a new age of active, peaceful coexistence.

This in no way contradicts Serbia’s ambitions to join the EU. The European Union in Brussels and the Non-Aligned Movement in Belgrade were based on the same philosophical idea. The NAM is a peace project in precisely the same way as the EU. Serbia is, therefore, determined to contribute to peace building and its values in all organisations that strive for peace, whether regional or global.

The principles of active, peaceful coexistence were codified in Belgrade and enabled the NAM to become a global phenomenon, to promote relations based on mutual respect and appreciation, while respecting territorial integrity and sover-

eignty, non-interference in the internal affairs of other states and the renouncing of the use of force to resolve disputes.

Such an active, peaceful coexistence was transformed into a non-aligned drive and the first, original form of international globalisation. The end of the Cold War was a victory for the principles advocated by non-aligned states, because they had been the ones most consistently and persistently demanding a world free of bloc divisions.

Unfortunately, the world we inherited from the Cold War was neither peaceful nor conflict-free. Instead of a confrontation between two superpowers, it was the turn of numerous “crushed conflicts” that made the world even more precarious and perilous. Although the decades following the Cold War were filled with the search for a new identity and courses of action, these decades show that the world still needs the Non-Aligned Movement.

NAM member countries have a new opportunity, at this commemorative gathering, to present themselves as a significant and constructive force in resolving international conflict issues, but also other international issues and those of their own development. Considering that they constitute a significant majority of the world’s countries, NAM countries should take their share of responsibility for overcoming international confrontations, instability and pandemics that pose a threat to all aspects of international relations – from security to tourism, but which also reflect prevailing relations in a world that remains divided into rich and poor countries, into developed and developing countries.

The author was Serbian Ambassador in Cairo from 2011 to 2018

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AFGHANISTAN

MOHAMMA HASSAN AKHUND,ACTING PRIME MINISTER

Afghanistan is a landlocked, multi-ethnic country located at the heart of south-central Asia. The nearest coast lies along the Arabian Sea, about 480 km to the south. Due to both its isolation and volatile political history, it remains one of the most poorly surveyed areas anywhere in the world. It is bound to the east and south by Pakistan, to the west by Iran, and to the north by the Central Asian states of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. It also has a short border with Xinjiang, China, at the end of the long, narrow Vākhān, in the extreme northeast. Its overall area is roughly twice that of Norway.

The Islamic Republic of Afghanistan is a republic with two legislative houses: the House of the People and House of the Elders. The capital city is Kabul. It has eight official languages and the current president is Ashraf Ghani.

Amānullāh launched the inconclusive Third Anglo-Afghan War in May 1919. The month-long war enabled the Afghans to gain control of their own foreign affairs. Just a few months after this war, on 8th August, 1919, the

Treaty of Rawalpindi was signed. It was subsequently amended in 1921.

Before signing the final document with the British, the Afghans concluded a treaty of friendship with the new Bolshevik regime in the Soviet Union.

Afghanistan thereby became one of the first states to recognise the Soviet government, and a “special relationship” evolved between the two governments and lasted until December 1979, when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan.

Afghanistan became a member of the United Nations on 19th November, 1946. When Afghanistan began to plan the development of its economy with Soviet assistance in the mid-1950s, it not only lacked the necessary social organisation and institutions for modern economic activities, but also the required managerial and technical skills.

The country was at a much lower stage of economic development than most of its neighbours. Between 1956 and 1979, however, the country’s economic growth was guided by several five-year and seven-year plans and was aided by extensive foreign assistance.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1961

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60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

COMMENT

ALGERIA

ABDELMADJID TEBBOUNE, PRESIDENT

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1973

From Bandung to Algiers via Belgrade, the Non-Aligned Movement was meant to be a concept and policy response to a bipolarised world, as well as to tensions and crises that had been created by such a world, and it has had to adapt and evolve over the past 60 years.

Apart from strengthening the struggle to complete decolonisation and the struggle for independence, the sovereignty of states, the right to self-determination, general and complete disarmament and economic and social development for all peoples, our Movement must preserve the goals set, which remain more relevant than ever, despite the profound changes that have since occurred on the international scene.

Conceived by the founding fathers as a strategic solidarity mechanism and the mechanism of strengthening the collective autonomy of the countries of the South, the Movement has established itself as a standard bearer of the aspirations and demands of oppressed peoples in all international fora.

The strength of the Movement lies both in its heterogeneous, multi-confessional, multicultural, multilingual component and in the constancy and reaffirmation of its principles, the adjusting of its strategy and methods of action to global changes, enabling it to be a force to champion proposals, an actor and a partner in the development field, capable of articulating and promoting, jointly and collectively, the political, social and economic interests of its members, as well as the economic and technical cooperation that unites them.

60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

The longevity of our Movement and its achievements are but a reflection of the correctness of its positions and legitimacy of its demands, thus making its sustainability a fundamental act to ensure fair and impartial global balance.

Convened by the five powers of the Colombo Group: Burma, Ceylon, India, Indonesia and Pakistan, the Afro-Asian conference in Bandung (18th-24th April, 1955) was the baptism of fire for the diplomacy of my country to make the voice of the Algerian Revolution heard all over the world, only six months after its outbreak. The presence of a national delegation at this important meeting was a victory for our diplomacy, which brought the voice of the Algerian people to the world and the rightness of their revendications on the international scene.

The international consecration of the “fighting” Algeria would come in the form of its participation, as a founding member, in the creation of the Non-Aligned Movement, in Belgrade, in September 1961, where it was represented by a delegation of the GPRA (The Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic).

The expression of the NAM’s active solidarity with legitimate demands of the brave Algerian people has been a cornerstone forming the basis of the principles of the Movement meant to “give a voice to the voiceless”.

This date is deeply rooted in the history, memory and collective conscience of the Algerian people and Algeria in its resolute march towards independence, freedom and emancipation.

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COMMENT

ANGOLA

TETE ANTONIO, MINISTER OF EXTERNAL RELATIONS

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1976

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Sixty years after the foundation of the NAM at the conferences of Bandung, in 1955, and Belgrade, in 1961, its values remain almost the same, as we continue to be committed to the respect for fundamental human rights and the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations.

We continue to value respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all nations, and for the recognition of the equality of all races and the equality of all nations.

We value the abstention from intervention or interference in the internal affairs of another country and the respect for the right of each country to self-defence. The bipolarisation of the world into two ideological blocs, capitalism and communism, during the 1950s, threatened world peace and peaceful co-existence amongst all countries of the World.

Africa suffered greatly due to the policies of the Cold War, and the leaders of the newly independent African states, like Julius Nyerere of Tanzania, Kwame Krumah of Ghana, Agostinho Neto of Angola, Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia and many others, joined hands with other newly independent leaders in the third world, like Broz Tito of Yugoslavia, Nehru of India, Surka of Indonesia and Fidel Castro of Cuba, to advocate for the non-alignment of our foreign policy orientation.

I would like to assure you of the strongest will of the Angolan government to continue to collaborate closely with the NAM in order to find innovative and lasting solutions to the

important development challenges confronting the world today, namely climate change, immigration, racism, protectionism and the pandemic crisis that will endure if the rich countries continue to behave in an isolationist and selfish manner.

Arriving in Belgrade for the first time gave me a sense of déjà vu, due to the fact that our enduring bilateral relationship prevails and remains strong.

Our heritage comes from the solid ties of President Tito and Agostinho Neto, and we must continue promoting these strong bilateral relations.

You might be aware that, even during the period of the NATO bombing of 1999, Angola did not close its Embassy and all personnel stayed in Belgrade to support this friendly country.

It is also emotional to belong to a group of nations that have been resilient enough to avoid the worse political and economic situation that could have occurred if the NAM had not been created.

Last, but not least, is a feeling of hope born of the fact that, for many generations, our peoples have been voiceless, underrepresented and with limited access to international financial flows, which obliged us to stick together and fight all forms of colonialism. Finally, I hope that this Belgrade Conference will provide greater opportunities to further strengthen the heritage of the great leaders who set the tone for the implementation of more resilient policies aimed at eradicating political and economic inequality around the world.

60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA

COMMONWEALTH OF THE BAHAMAS

Antigua and Barbuda (population approx.

98,000) is a sovereign island country in the West Indies in the Americas, which lies between the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. It consists of two major islands, Antigua and Barbuda. The capital and largest port and city is St. John’s on Antigua (population 22,200), with Codrington being the largGASTON BROWNE, est town on Barbuda.

PRIME MINISTER Agriculture, once the mainstay of the economy, has been largely supplanted by tourism. Sugarcane was long the dominant crop on Antigua, but its production is now insignificant. Fruits and vegetables, including citrus fruits, mangoes and aubergines, are now cultivated on the islands. Manufacturing also plays a small role in the economy.

Antigua and Barbuda is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary form of government. The politics take place within the framework of a unitary, parliamentary, representative democratic monarchy, in which the head of State is the monarch who appoints the Governor-General as vice-regal representative. Elizabeth II is the present Queen of Antigua and Barbuda, having served in that position since the islands’ independence from the United Kingdom in 1981. The Queen is currently represented by Governor-General Sir Rodney Williams. Gaston Browne is the current prime minister of Antigua and Barbuda.

The Bahamas, known officially as the Commonwealth of The Bahamas (area 13,878sq/km; population approx. 400,000) is a country within the Lucayan Archipelago of the West Indies in the Atlantic Ocean. The archipelagic state consists of more than 700 islands, cays and islets.

The Bahamas relies heavily on tourism to generate most of its economPHILIP DAVIS, ic activity. As an industry, PRIME MINISTER tourism not only accounts for about 50% of the Bahamian GDP, but also provides jobs for about half of the country’s workforce. The Bahamas attracts over six million visitors annually, more than 70% of whom are cruise visitors. After tourism, the next most important economic sector is banking and offshore international financial services.

The Bahamas is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy, with the queen of the Bahamas (Elizabeth II) as head of state represented locally by a governor-general. Political and legal traditions closely follow those of England and the Westminster system. The Bahamas is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations and shares its head of state with other Commonwealth realms.

Prime Minister Philip Davis is the head of government and leader of the party with the most seats in the House of Assembly.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1983

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1983

60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

23

BAHRAIN

BARBADOS

Bahrain is a small island nation situated in a bay on the south-western coast of the Persian Gulf. An archipelago comprising Bahrain Island and some 30 smaller islands, Bahrain’s total land mass is slightly greater than that of Singapore. Saudi Arabia lies to the west, across the Gulf of Bahrain, while the Qatar peninsula lies to the east.

The 24-km-long King Fahd Causeway links Bahrain to Saudi Arabia.

KING HAMAD IBN ‘ISA The Kingdom of Bahrain is a constitutional monarchy AL KHALIFAH with two parliamentary bodies: the Council of Representatives and Shura Council. The ruler of the country is King Hamad ibn ‘Isa Al Khalifah. The capital city is Manama and the official language is Arabic.

Britain’s 1968 decision to withdraw all of its forces from the Persian Gulf led Sheikh ʿIsa ibn Salman Al Khalifah to proclaim Bahrain’s independence in August 1971. A treaty of friendship was signed with the United Kingdom, terminating Bahrain’s status as a British protectorate, and Sheikh ʿIsa was declared emir. It was then that Bahrain became a member of the Arab League. Following independence, tensions mounted between the predominantly Shiʿi population and Sunni leadership—especially following Iran’s 1979 revolution. Political unrest was fuelled by economic and social grievances related to the fall in oil prices and production, cutbacks in public spending and continued discrimination against the majority Shiʿi population. Bahrain became a member of the United Nations on 21st September, 1971. As the first emirate where oil was discovered (1932), Bahrain will most likely also be the first to exhaust its reserves. Consequently, Bahrain has developed one of the most diversified economies in the Persian Gulf region. Like other Arab states in the Persian Gulf, Bahrain’s economic activity has largely centred on the production of crude oil and natural gas and the refining of petroleum products, making the country sensitive to fluctuations on the world oil market. Bahrain has built on its long tradition of shipping and commerce, however, and has been more successful than some other states in the region when it comes to developing manufacturing and commercial and financial services.

The island of Barbados is a country in the southeastern Caribbean Sea, situated about 160 km east of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.

Roughly triangular in shape, the island measures some 32 km from northwest to southeast and about 25 km from east to west, at its widest point. The capital and largest town is Bridgetown, which is also the main seaport, with a population MIA MOTTLEY, of roughly 120,000.

PRIME MINISTER Mia Mottley is the current serving prime minister.

Barbados is the world’s 52nd richest country in terms of GDP per capita, has a well-developed, mixed economy, and a moderately high standard of living. According to the World Bank, Barbados is one of 83 high income economies in the world.

Despite this, the development bank also revealed that 20% of Barbadians live in poverty and nearly 10% are unable to meet their basic daily food needs.

English is the official language of Barbados and is used for communications, administration and public services throughout the island.

Barbados has been an independent country since 30th November 1966. It functions as a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy modelled on the British Westminster system. The Queen of Barbados, Elizabeth II, is head of state and is represented locally by the Governor-General of Barbados—presently Sandra Mason. Both are advised on matters of the Barbadian state by the Prime Minister of Barbados. There are 30 representatives within the country’s House of Assembly.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1973

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1983

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60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

COMMENT

PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF BANGLADESH

A.K. ABDUL MOMEN, FOREIGN MINISTER

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1973

When the Non-Aligned Movement was founded 60 years ago, the world was a very different place. The contours and context of international politics were then dominated by the Cold War and bipolar competition to establish hegemony over developing and newly independent countries. The Cold War has since ended, while the world’s challenges have only evolved and been supplanted by a new set of challenges that is more intractable and pressing. The realm of international politics is different now, but the metamorphosis of the world scene and altered circumstances have not detracted from the relevance of the Movement.

The NAM’s founding principles, which included a commitment to peace and disarmament, non-interference in the internal affairs of other countries, the right to self-determination, ending economic inequality, opposing cultural imperialism and the monopoly of information systems, and an emphasis on the peaceful settlement of disputes, still reverberate as guiding principles in the conduct of international relations, reinforcing the relevance of NAM today.

For Bangladesh, the NAM evokes a sense of close kinship and historical ties.

Our relationship with the NAM is historic, because the Movement extended a friendly hand to Bangladesh in 1973, when the newly independent country was enduring a turbulent time and desperately seeking international recognition. Our membership in NAM, obtained long before our membership in the UN, represented a strong stamp of recognition and heralded a new era of multilateral engagement through our acceptance as an independent country. Our ties with the NAM bear special significance, because it was the Father of our Nation, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, who led Bangladesh’s first participation in the fourth NAM Summit, held in Algiers in 1973. In his NAM speech that year, Bangabandhu said ‘as the principles

60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

of the Non-Aligned Movement reflected the most basic aspirations of the common man, therefore we have embodied these principles in Bangladesh’s Constitution and are committed by the Constitution to support the just struggle of the oppressed people against colonialism, imperialism and racism throughout the world.’ The very essence of Bangabandhu’s visionary NAM speech has guided our relationship with the NAM ever since. Following her father’s footsteps, Bangabandhu’s accomplished daughter, Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina, has always attached high importance to our relationship with the Movement.

Given that NAM is neither a military alliance nor an economic bloc, its impacts often remain intangible and its relevance is subjected to constant scrutiny. This debate, however, misses the bigger picture.

The NAM’s power emanates not from its economic or military strength, but from the fact that it represents the voice of two-thirds of UN members and 55% of the world’s population. The fact that the Movement continues to raise its voice against neocolonialism, racism and exploitation in various forms add to its power. The NAM has provided strong moral support whenever the world has faced a grave crisis, such as the current COVID-19 pandemic or gross injustices like the protracted occupation of Palestine. It has shaped global public opinion on pressing world issues and contributed to promoting global peace. Most importantly, it has provided space and visibility to developing countries, both large and small, making them relevant actors on the international political scene.

There is undoubtedly a need for the NAM to reorient its sights to remain relevant in a fast-changing and complex global environment. But to argue that the NAM’s relevance has diminished over the years would be an overstatement. Rather, the opposite is true and will remain so in the time to come.

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BELARUS

ALEXANDER LUKASHENKO, PRESIDENT

Belarus is a country located in the eastern part of Europe. Until it gained independence in 1991, Belarus, formerly known as Belorussia or White Russia, was the smallest of the three Slavic republics included in the Soviet Union (the larger two being Russia and Ukraine). Belarus is a landlocked country bordered by Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest, Russia to the north and east, Ukraine to the south, and Poland to the west. In terms of area, it is roughly one-third the size of its southern neighbour, Ukraine.

The Republic of Belarus is a republic with two legislative houses: the House of Representatives and Council of the Republic. The head of state is President Alexander Lukashenko. the official languages are Belarussian and Russian.

The capital city is Minsk.

Following Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev’s initiation of more moderate policies in the mid-1980s, the Belorussian S.S.R. acted somewhat less vigorously to break away from the Soviet Union than other Soviet republics, although there was steady growth in national separatist sentiment. Amid the

crisis of central authority in the USSR in the early 1990s, the Belorussian S.S.R. declared sovereignty (27th July, 1990) and independence (25th August, 1991). With the collapse of Communist Party rule and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the wake of the failed coup against Gorbachev, the Belorussian S.S.R. changed its name to the Republic of Belarus and joined the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), a free association of sovereign states that were formerly part of the Soviet Union.

Belarus became a state member of the United Nations on 24th October, 1945. The agricultural sector in Belarus, which employs about a tenth of the labour force but constitutes a diminishing proportion of GDP, is dominated by large collective and state-owned farms. Private holdings were permitted for household use during the Soviet era, but, while their number increased dramatically following independence, they remained small in size. A significant number of collective farms were sold to private or state-controlled companies in the early 21st century.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1998

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60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

BELIZE

REPUBLIC OF BENIN

Belize is located on the northeast coast of Central America. Known as British Honduras until 1973, it was the last British colony on the American mainland until gaining independence in 1981, but it has retained its historical ties with the UK through membership in the Commonwealth.

About three-fifths of Belize is forested, with at least 50 different forest tree species.

Many Belizeans are of mixed JUAN ANTONIO BRICEÑO, ancestry, most of them descendants of immigrants. Those PRIME MINISTER of mixed Mayan and Spanish heritage constitute the largest ethnic group and dominate the more sparsely inhabited interior, along with the Maya, who account for nearly a tenth of the population. English-speaking people (official language) of largely African and British ancestry are called Creole.

Belize has a developing free-market economy. Only a small proportion of Belize’s land is actively used for agriculture, which employs about a fifth of the population. Most farms are smaller than 40 hectares. Belize generally lacks natural resources. Mineral production includes clays, limestone, marble, sand and gravel for the construction industry. Belize relies heavily on imports for its mineral fuels, fossil fuels and electricity.

The Central Bank of Belize oversees the country’s banks and issues the country’s currency, the Belize dollar. Its main trade partners include the U.S., UK, China, Mexico, Curaƈao, Panama and certain members of the Caribbean Community. The country’s main exports are seafood, sugar, citrus products, bananas and clothing.

The country’s small but culturally diverse population is reflected in the country’s multiplicity of ethnicities, languages, religions, cuisines, styles of music and dress, and folklore.

Belize covers an area of 22,970 sq/km and has a population of 419,199. Belmopan is the capital city.

Belize is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. The structure of government is based on the British parliamentary system, and the legal system is modelled on the common law of England. The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who holds the title Queen of Belize.

The Republic of Benin, formerly known as Dahomey, is a country in West Africa. Bordered by Togo, Nigeria, Burkina Faso and Niger, its official language is French. The majority of its population lives on the small southern coastline of the Bight of Benin, part of the Gulf of Guinea in the northernmost tropical portion of the Atlantic Ocean. The capital of Benin is Porto-Novo, but the seat of government is in Cotonou, the country’s largest city and PATRICE TALON, economic capital. Benin covers an area of 114,763 sq/km PRESIDENT and its population in 2018 was estimated at approximately 11.49 million. Benin is a tropical nation that’s highly dependent on agriculture and is a large exporter of cotton and palm oil.

The Porto-Novo commune covers an area of 110sq/km and, as of 2002, had a population of 223,552.

The economy of Benin is dependent on subsistence agriculture, cotton production and regional trade. Cotton accounts for 40% of the country’s GDP and roughly 80% of official export receipts. Growth in real output has averaged around 5% over the past seven years, but rapid population growth has offset much of this increase. The country’s primary source of revenue is the Port of Cotonou, although the government is seeking to expand its revenue base. In 2017, Benin imported goods worth about $2.8 billion, including rice, meat and poultry, alcoholic beverages, fuel plastic materials, specialised mining and excavating machinery, telecommunications equipment, passenger vehicles and toiletries and cosmetics. Its chief exports are ginned cotton, cotton cake and cotton seeds, cashew nuts, shea butter, cooking oil and lumber Benin’s political framework is that of a presidential representative democratic republic, in which the President of Benin, currently Patrice Talon, is both head of state and head of government, within a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government.

Legislative power is vested in both the government and the legislature.

The majority of Benin’s 11,485,000 inhabitants live in the south of the country. The population is young, with a life expectancy of 62 years. About 42 African ethnic groups live in this country.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1984

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1964

60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

27

KINGDOM OF BHUTAN

BOLIVIA

Bhutan is a south-central Asian country located on the eastern ridges of the Himalayas. Bhutan an be physically divided into three regions from north to south: the Great Himalayas, the Lesser Himalayas and the Duars Plain.

Bhutan is a constitutional monarchy with two legislative bodies, the National Assembly and National Council. The leader KING JIGIME KHESAR NAMGYAL WANGCHUK of the state is King Jigime Khesar Namgyal Wangchuk. The capital city is Thimphu and the official language is Dzongkha.

Ugyen Wangchuk became Bhutan’s druk gyalpo in 1907, with British approval, and in 1910 the Bhutanese government agreed in a treaty to continue to be guided by he UK in its external affairs, in return for an increased annual subsidy and the promise of non-interference in Bhutan’s internal affairs. The Kingdom of Bhutan became a member of the United Nations on 21st September, 1971.

The Bhutanese economy is largely agrarian, while significant variations in elevation and climate across the country allow its farms to support a wide variety of crops and livestock.

However, the amount of land available for agriculture is only a fraction of the total area of the country, with an adverse climate, poor soil and steep slopes across much of Bhutan having made it necessary to leave large areas covered with forest growth, meadows and grasslands. Progressive changes to farming and forestry practises have been introduced to Bhutan since the late 20th century in an effort to increase productivity. A large number of orchards have been established and thousands of fruit plants have been distributed to farmers in order to popularise fruit growing.

Bolivia (area: 1,098,581 km2; population: 11,500,000) is a country of west-central South America. Encompassing an area of 1,500 km north-south and 1,300 km east-west, it is bordered to the north and east by Brazil, to the southeast by Paraguay, to the south by Argentina, to the southwest and west by Chile, and to the northwest by Peru.

LUIS ALBERTO ARCE Sucre (population CATACORA, PRESIDENT 365,000) is the constitutional capital of Bolivia, the capital of the Chuquisaca Department and the 6 th most populated city in Bolivia, while the seat of government and executive capital is La Paz (population 1.9 million).

Bolivia is rich in natural resources. It is a developing country that enjoys a high ranking in the Human Development Index. Its main economic activities include agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining and manufacturing goods like textiles, clothing, refined metals and refined petroleum. Bolivia is very rich in minerals, including tin, silver, lithium and copper.

Bolivia is unitary republic with a representative democratic government. Politically and administratively, the country is divided into nine departments, 112 provinces, 327 municipalities and 1,384 cantons. The Plurinational Legislative Assembly is bicameral. The House of Representatives consists of 130 members directly elected for five-year terms. The Senate consists of 36 members who are also directly elected for five year-terms. The current President of Bolivia is Luis Alberto Arce Catacora.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1973

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1979

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60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

BOTSWANA

BRUNEI

Botswana is a country at the centre of Southern Africa. The territory is roughly triangular - approximately 965 km from north to south and 965 km from east to west - with its eastern side protruding to form a sharp point. Botswana is bound by Namibia to the west and the Caprivi Strip to the north, Zambia and Zimbabwe to the northeast, and South Africa to MOKGWEETSI MASISI, HEAD OF THE STATE AND the southeast and south.

The country’s Zambezi River GOVERNMENT border with Zambia covers only a distance of several hundred yards. The Republic of Botswana is a multiparty republic with one legislative body, the National Assembly, the capital city is Gaborone and the current head of the state and Government is Mokgweetsi Masisi. The official language is Tswana. The country became the Republic of Botswana on 30th September, 1966, with Seretse Khama serving as its first president.

Botswana began playing a more significant role in international politics from 1969, putting itself forward as a non-racial, liberal democratic alternative to South African apartheid. In 1974, Botswana - together with Zambia and Tanzania, and later Mozambique and Angola - became one of the so-called “Frontline States” seeking to help bring majority rule to Zimbabwe, Namibia and South Africa. Botswana joined the United Nations on 10th October, 1966.

Botswana has a free market economy with a strong tradition of central government planning to provide infrastructure for private investment. The economy has grown rapidly since the mid-1960s, with gross domestic product per capita having since increased more than a hundredfold.

Brunei is an independent Islamic sultanate on the northern coast of the island of Borneo in Southeast Asia. It is bound to the north by the South China Sea and on all other sides by the East Malaysian state of Sarawak, which also divides the state into two disconnected segments of unequal size.

The State of Brunei Darussalam is a monarSULTAN SIR HAJIHASSANAL BOLKIAH chy (sultanate) with one advisory body: the LegisMU ‘IZZADDIN lative Council. The head of WADDAULAH, HEAD the state and government OF THE STATE AND THE is Sultan Sir Haji Hassanal GOVERNMENT Bolkiah Mu ‘izzaddin Waddaulah. The capital city is Bandar Seri Begawan and the official language is Malay. Brunei’s political life was stable throughout the 1970s, due in large part to its flourishing economy and its position as one of the world’s wealthiest (on a per capita basis) oil producers. In 1979, the United Kingdom and Brunei signed a treaty whereby Brunei would become fully independent as of 1st January, 1984. Malaysia and Indonesia both gave assurances that they would recognise Brunei’s status, thereby allaying the sultan’s concern that the state might be incorporated by one of its larger neighbours.

Brunei became a member state of the United Nations on st 21 September, 1984. Brunei’s economy is almost totally dependent on the exploitation of its vast reserves of petroleum and natural gas. Although oil and gas revenues have allowed the state to give its citizens one of the highest per capita incomes in Asia, they have also rendered the country dependent on a single commodity that is subject to market fluctuations.

In addition, Brunei must rely on imports for nearly all of its manufactured goods and most of its food.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1970

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1993

60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

29

BELGRADE

INVESTMENT CAPITAL

Of Southeast Europe The Non-Aligned Movement and non-alignment policy marked a major and important period of Yugoslav domestic and foreign policy during the 20th century. And it was actually Belgrade, as the then capital of Yugoslav, that was the host of the historic event that was the first official conference of the Non-Aligned Movement, which saw many countries opt to take the so-called “third way” and join this Movement. The Belgrade Conference was held in 1961, and it is also remembered by history as an event that opened the door to the modernisation of international relations, primarily through peaceful cooperation, advocacy for disarmament and the end of the Cold War. Today, precisely six decades later, Belgrade is the investment capital of Southeast Europe; a city that we can unreservedly dub the economic, financial, political, administrative, academic, cultural and sporting centre of the region. Belgrade has also been officially declared the city with the greatest economic and investment potential in Europe, according to renowned British platform Emerging Europe, where more than a hundred economic experts, consulting companies and investors participated in evaluating cities and their investment climate.

• KEY INVESTMENT PROJECTS IN BELGRADE Belgrade’s development concept has been established in such a way that its major infrastructure projects enable the city’s further development, but primarily increase the living standards of its citizens. Among

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60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

the capital projects being developed along the way are the Belgrade Waterfront project, construction of the Belgrade Metro rail system, the Belgrade bypass, environmental projects like the construction of a wastewater treatment facility in Veliko Selo and a new landfill site in Vinča, the construction of lacking infrastructure, underground parking garages, the constructing of new bridges and tunnels, as well as the formulating of projects in the area of energy efficiency.

• BELGRADE WATERFRONT Belgrade is a city of cranes, with over 2,000 of them currently active on the city’s many construction sites. Belgrade Waterfront is the city’s most important real estate development project, and its concept and significance extend well beyond the domain of the construction industry. Belgrade Waterfront is the crown jewel of Southeast Europe and a project that has come to symbolise change and the new, more modern Belgrade and Serbia. Alongside the local construction companies engaged on the implementation of works, construction works also utilise locally produced materials of the highest quality, which also contributes to the further development of the local economy. Works are now being

undertaken on a total of nine construction sites within the scope of the project, with more than 2,800 workers engaged. This project has also engaged a large number of complementary industries, from the construction industry to the improvement of the tourist offer, but also leading to the direct improvement of the service sector.

Once completed, it will encompass an area of approximately a million square metres.

The main tourist attraction of this project is the 168-metre-tall Belgrade Tower, which represents a new symbol of the city and includes a hotel and residential section.

It will be connected by a glass bridge to

60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

Galerija Belgrade, the region’s largest shopping centre and entertainment and gastronomic destination, which will advance Belgrade’s overall tourist offer and strengthen its economy.

• BELGRADE METRO The Belgrade Metro is one of the city’s priority development projects. As a project that will improve Belgraders’ quality of life significantly, it will serve to link the city’s existing neighbourhoods, but also future settlements that are planned as part of Belgrade’s exponential expansion. This investment has a total value of around 4.6 billion euros. It was in July this year that the City signed a contract on the development of project design-technical documentation with French company Egis, while work is now underway on the preparation of planning documentation and feasibility studies with the conceptual design, as well as environmental and social impact assessment studies.

The metro is not a goal in itself, though it will reduce traffic congestion in the city by 30 per cent. The Belgrade Metro forms part of the great networked traffic system of the

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Serbian capital, which will enable citizens to navigate their city faster, but also in a more economical and environmentally friendly way. The Metro’s first line will set off from Makiš and head to Mirijevo. This section will

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cover a distance of around 21 kilometres, with the same number of stations. The second line will extend from New Belgrade to Voždovac – and Belgraders have even voted on the look of the carriages.

• VELIKO SELO WASTE WATER TREATMENT FACILITY The City of Belgrade is actively engaged on resolving the issue of wastewater treatment, with preparations underway for the project to construct a wastewater treatment facility in the suburban settlement of Veliko Selo.

This plant will cover an area of approximately 97 hectares, while the facility will collect wastewater from the central part of Belgrade, but also from the settlements of Sremčica, Železnik and Banovo Brdo, as well as New Belgrade and Zemun. The current absence of a wastewater treatment system results in polluted used and industrial wastewater flowing directly into the city’s two rivers. This issue will now be resolved systemically in Belgrade, with the current City administration having set the resolving of the sewage and wastewater treatment problem as a priority.

Citizens will now have cleaner rivers and – as the City’s primary objective – a healthier natural environment.

The first phase in the construction of the Veliko Selo Wastewater Treatment Facility is worth 271 million euros. Once works are completed on the second phase of the construction project, 1.5 million people will no longer see their wastewater discharged directly into the sewer system. Moreover, the Veliko Selo facility will ultimately represent the largest of five plants for treating and processing wastewater on the territory of Belgrade.

60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

• NEW LANDFILL SITE IN VINČA Belgrade has gained a new sanitary landfill site, power plant and recycling facility for construction waste under the scope of the city’s Vinča landfill. This project, which is worth 370 million euros, solves the decades-long problem associated with the disposal of municipal waste in the city of Belgrade, enabling the City authorities to once again demonstrate their responsible approach to environmental protection. The entire project encompasses five smaller sub-projects, each of which is extremely important to the protection of the environment.

The first project is the closure of the old dump and the construction of a new sanitary landfill site. The second is the establishing of a landfill site intended specifically for the disposal of construction waste. The third

component is the construction of a power plant that will incinerate municipal waste, which is set to be completed by November 2022. This project will mean that, by the next heating season, Belgraders will receive about ten per cent of their total heating energy and five per cent of their electricity from renewable energy sources. The fourth project is a power plant that will be fuelled using landfill gas that it will convert into electricity and heat, while the fifth project relates to a wastewater treatment facility.

This plant is being constructed in accordance with the European Union’s top standards.

Belgrade’s positive investment climate is primarily the result of a stable economic situation in Serbia. Considering the size of the city’s market and its geostrategic positioning, Belgrade is recognised as one of the economic and financial hubs of this part of Europe, with the greatest potential to continue attracting foreign investment.

Belgrade devotes great attention to economic issues, both through the development of infrastructure projects and increasing the city’s attractiveness for investment. Ensuring a strong economy means advancing living standards. And the City Administration continues, with its responsible social policy, to ensure there are stimulating conditions to attract future domestic and foreign investors, with the aim of further improving the quality of life of all Belgraders.

Belgrade is a city that stands on two great rivers and has a high-speed railway that will connect it with other European capitals. Belgrade, together with its suburban municipalities, covers an area of 320,000 hectares, as much as 250,000 hectares of which is agricultural land, including 170,000 hectares of arable land.

It is due to all of this that Belgrade is a city that’s marked by the accelerating of communication and movement, but also by the development of the IT industry, economy and tourism, as well as the agribusiness sector.

ZORAN RADOJIČIĆ, MAYOR OF BELGRADE

60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

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BURKINA FASO

BURUNDI

Burkina Faso is landlocked country in western Africa. Occupying an extensive plateau, its geography is characterised by a savannah that is grassy in the north and gradually gives way to sparse forests in the south.

Burkina Faso is bound

by Mali to the north and west, Niger to the northeast, Benin to the southROCH MARC CHRISTAN east and Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana and Togo to the KABORÉ, PRESIDENT south.

Burkina Faso is multiparty republic with one legislative house, the National Assembly. The current President of the state is Roch Marc Christian Kaboré.

The population is today estimated at 21,488,000, while its capital city of Ouagadougou is home to over 2,450,000.

The major ethnolinguistic group of Burkina Faso is Mossi.

They speak a Niger-Congo language of the Gur branch and have been connected to the region that they inhabit for centuries. The official language of Burkina Faso is French.

Burkina Faso proclaimed its independence on 5th August, 1960, becoming a United Nations member state on 20th September of the same year.

Burkina Faso’s natural resources include various agricultural and mineral products. Agricultural is mostly used for local consumption (corn, peanuts, rice etc.), while its main export products are cotton, sesame and sugarcane.

The country’s farmers raise a lot of animals, including pigs, horses, sheep, camels and chickens. The chief sources of potential wealth are the mineral manganese and gold. However, Burkina Faso also boasts reserves of nickel, bauxite, zinc, lead and silver.

Burundi is a country located in east central Africa, south of the Equator.

It is bordered by Rwanda to the north, Tanzania to the east and south, and Lake Tanganyika and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west.

Burundi’s political system is that of a presidential representative democratic republic based upon a multi-party state. It has ÉVARISTE two legislative bodies, the NDAYISHIMIYE, Senate and the National PRESIDENT Assembly, and the current President of Burundi is Évariste Ndayishimiye.

Burundi’s official language is French, while its population is today estimated at 12,580,000.

Burundians began pressing for independence after World War II. Traditional leaders of Burundi and Rwanda were denied legal status for the political party that they formed in 1955, but the UPRONA party was established in Burundi three years later. It was in 1959 that the mwami chief was declared a constitutional monarch in Burundi. The then party leader was Prince Rwagasore, a Tutsi and the eldest son of Mwami Mwambutsa. Rwagasore represented populist aspirations and was the strongest supporter of the monarchy.

His assassination, on 13th October, 1961, ushered in a period of crisis that the country has struggled to recover from ever since. Despite this crisis, it finally became independent on 1st July, 1962. Burundi became a United Nations member state on 18th September, 1962, shortly after gaining its independence.

Burundi’s natural resources include beans, beef, milk, coffee, tea, sugar and cotton. The smaller lakes and rivers of its interior are rich sources of fish.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1973

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1964

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60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

COMMENT

CAMBODIA

OUCH BORITH, MINISTER ATTACHED TO THE PRIME MINISTER AND STANDING SECRETARY OF STATE OF THE MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS AND INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION OF THE KINGDOM OF CAMBODIA, HEAD OF THE DELEGATION OF THE KINGDOM OF CAMBODIA

Founded on the principle of peaceful co-existence of the Bandung Principle, the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) initiated a movement of international relations for maintaining neutrality in the polarised world of the Cold War and preventing future potential outbreaks of global conflict arising from the competition among major superpowers.

Since Cambodia joined the Conference of Heads of State or Government of Non-Aligned Countries in 1961 in Belgrade, the NAM has sought to secure its relevance in the current international order by responding to newly emerging challenges of the contemporary world.

Its ultimate goal is to bring unity and solidarity among the 120 member states to strengthen their political leverage on the international stage in line with the UN Charter, the Bandung Principles and the 2019 Baku Declaration.

Our arrival in Belgrade, this beautiful city marking the birthplace of the Non-Aligned Movement following the collapse of the colonial system and the emergence of the struggles for independence of the peoples of Africa, Asia and Latin America, reminded me of the bond of close friendship between the Late President Tito of the former Yugoslavia and our Late King, His Majesty

King-Father Samdech Preah Norodom Sihanouk. What is even more memorable is the warmest hospitality of the people and government of the former Yougoslavia that was extended to our Late King Norodom Sihanouk, who was the representative of Cambodia to the first NAM summit of 1961 in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, following his participation in the Bandung Conference of 1955.

The people and government of Cambodia always keep in mind this close relationship that was nurtured by our late leaders and is committed to further enhancing fruitful cooperation in all fields between the two countries, Cambodia and Serbia, for the benefit of the two nations.

I personally applaud the NAM milestones in safeguarding peace and stability within the past 60 years of its existence. Moving forward, I envisage the NAM continuing to foster the sense of solidarity and international cooperation, based on the principles of multilateralism, respect for sovereignty and equality of all nations to ensure the ultimate realisation of peace, security, development, economic cooperation and the democratisation of international relations, as aspired to by the UN Charter and the Bandung Declaration.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1961 60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

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REPUBLIC OF CAMEROON

PAUL BIYA, PRESIDENT

The Republic of Cameroon is a lower-middle-income country with a population of over 25 million. Located along the Atlantic Ocean, it shares its borders with the Central African Republic, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Nigeria. Two of its border regions with Nigeria (northwest and southwest) are Anglophone, while the rest of the country is Francophone.

The country is sometimes identified as West African and other times as Central African, due to its strategic position at the crossroads between West and Central Africa Cameroon is rich in natural resources, including oil and gas, mineral ores, high-value species of timber and agricultural products, such as coffee, cotton, cocoa, maize and cassava. Cameroon ranks among the world’s largest producers of cocoa beans, which are grown mainly in the south. Robusta coffee, which accounts for the majority of the country’s coffee crop, is grown both in the southern warm and humid parts of the country and in the western high plateau, where arabica coffee is also grown. Yields have been adversely affected by the increasing age of the plantations and delays in modernisation. Cotton was introduced in 1952 and is grown largely in the grasslands by private farmers. The systematic diversification of agricultural production,

into such crops as palm oil, rubber and sugar, has taken place.

The contribution of manufacturing to the economy grew strongly in the late 20th century and accounted for almost a fifth of GDP in the early 2000s. Industry is chiefly centred on the processing of the country’s various agricultural commodities; a significant focus is placed on sugar refining, cotton spinning, tobacco processing and wood pulp production. Industrial sector infrastructure includes the Edéa aluminium smelter, which smelts imported bauxite, and an oil refinery in Limbe.

Cameroon has the largest economy of the Central African Economic and Monetary Community (CEMAC), a region experiencing economic crisis triggered by the steep fall in oil prices.

Along with its CEMAC partners, Cameroon has therefore had to implement fiscal adjustment measures to adapt to the terms of trade shock and restore macro-stability and confidence in the common currency.

Cameroon’s ruling party, the Cameroon People’s Democratic Movement (CPDM), has long dominated the country’s political landscape. The incumbent president, Paul Biya, won the November 2018 presidential election. At the age of 85, Biya has held power since 1982 and is now serving his seventh term as the country’s president.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1964

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60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

REPUBLIC OF CABO VERDE

The Central African Republic (population approx.

4.7 million) is a landlocked country in Central Africa.

As of 2021, the Central African Republic continues to be plagued by a civil war that has raged since 2012.

Two-thirds of the country is within the Ubangi River basin (which flows into the Congo), while the remaining third lies in the basin of the Chari, which FAUSTIN ARCHANGE TOUADERA, PRESIDENT flows into Lake Chad. Bangui (population 710,000) is the capital of the Central African Republic, located on the west bank of the Ubangi River.

Politics in the Central African Republic formally take place within the framework of a semi-presidential republic. In this system, the President is the head of state, with a Prime Minister as head of government. The acting president has been Faustin Archange Touadera since April 2016.

Agriculture is dominated by the cultivation and sale of food crops like cassava, peanuts, maize, sorghum, millet, sesame and plantain. The importance of food crops over exported cash crops is indicated by the fact that the total production of cassava, a staple of most Central Africans, ranges between 200,000 and 300,000 tons a year, while the production of cotton, the principal exported cash crop, ranges from 25,000 to 45,000 tons a year.

Cape Verde, officially the Republic of Cabo Verde (population approx.

550,000) is an archipelago and island country in the central Atlantic Ocean, consisting of ten volcanic islands with a combined land area of about 4,033sq/km. Praia (population 160,000) is the capital and largest city of Cape Verde.

Cape Verde is a stable JORGE CARLOS semi-presidential repreFONSECA, PRESIDENT sentative democratic republic that is among the most democratic nations in Africa, ranked 26th worldwide according to the 2018 Democracy Index. The constitution defines the basic principles of its government. The office of the president, who serves as the head of state, is currently occupied by Jorge Carlos de Almeida Fonseca.

Cape Verde’s notable economic growth and improvement in living conditions, despite a lack of natural resources, has garnered international recognition, with other countries and international organisations often providing development aid. Over 90% of all food consumed in Cape Verde is imported. Local mineral resources include salt, pozzolana (a volcanic rock used in cement production) and limestone.

Today, more Cape Verdeans live abroad (nearly a million) than in Cape Verde itself.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1964

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1976

60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

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REPUBLIC OF CHAD

MAHAMAT IBN IDRISS DÉBY ITNO, ACTING PRESIDENT

The Republic of Chad (area 1.280,000 sq/km; population approx.

12,000,000) is a landlocked country in north-central Africa. It is bordered

by Libya to the north, Sudan to the east, the Central African Republic to the south, Cameroon to the southwest, Nigeria to the southwest (Lake Chad) and Niger to the west. It has a population of 16 million, including 1.6 million in the capital city of N’Djamena.

A largely semi-desert country, Chad is rich in gold and uranium and stands to benefit from its recently-acquired status as an oil-exporting state. Cotton is still among Chad’s important agricultural products. Although it is basically an export crop, the processing of raw cotton provides employment for a majority of those in industry and accounts for some of Chad’s highest export earnings, with the majority exported to Europe and the United States. Livestock constitutes another important economic resource and is primarily distributed across central Chad. Rice is produced in the Chari valley and in southwest Chad, while wheat is cultivated along the shores of Lake Chad; little of either crop is processed commercially. About half the fish caught is salted and dried for export. Most fish is caught in Lake Chad and the Chari and Logone basins.

Historically, Chad’s principal mineral resource was natron, which is extracted

in the Lake Chad and Borkou areas and is used as salt and in the preparation of soap and medicines. The discovery of oil in the north of Lake Chad led to further exploration and development, and in 2003 Chad began producing oil, which quickly became the country’s most important resource and export commodity.

There are deposits of gold located in various parts of Chad, including those mined in the south-western part of the country. Other mineral deposits include uranium, titanium and bauxite.

Chad’s post-independence history has been marked by instability and violence, stemming mostly from tension between the mainly Arab-Muslim north and the predominantly Christian and animist south. Under the 2018 constitution, Chad is a republic. The executive branch of government is represented by the president, who serves as the head of state and government. The president is elected by universal suffrage to a six-year term, limited to two terms.

The legislative branch is served by the National Assembly, comprising members who are directly elected to four-year terms, though the 2018 constitution will see terms changed to five years with the next election.

Mahamat ibn Idriss Déby Itno is the current Chairman of the Transitional Military Council of Chad, a position he gained following the death of his father, President Idriss Déby Itno.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1964

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60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

REPUBLIC OF CHILE

MIGUEL JUAN SEBASTIÁN PIÑERA ECHENIQUE, PRESIDENT

The Republic of Chile is a South American country that borders the South Pacific Sea. Neighbouring countries include Argentina, Bolivia and Peru. Chile has a strategic location relative to shipping lanes between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, including the Strait of Magellan, Beagle Channel and Drake Passage. Chile has varied geography due to the fact that it occupies a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes Mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west.

The country’s national language is Spanish and its capital and largest city is Santiago (population over 8 million).

Santiago is also among the largest cities in the Americas and marks the centre of Chile’s most densely populated region.

A geographically varied country, Chile is rich in mineral deposits, natural forests, sea resources and energy sources. The economy is based on the exploitation of agricultural, fishing, forestry and mining resources. Chile developed historically on the basis of a few agricultural and mineral exports, as was common in Latin America.

Many manufactured products had to be imported, while land, wealth and power were concentrated in the

hands of a small aristocracy. Although land reforms were implemented and manufacturing developed, many of Chile’s economic problems in the 20th century were related to the country’s early economic structure.

The current Constitution of Chile was drafted in 1980 and subsequently approved via a national plebiscite under the military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet. It entered into force in March 1981. Following Pinochet’s defeat in the 1988 plebiscite, the constitution was amended to ease provisions for future amendments to the Constitution.

The Congress of Chile has a 43-seat Senate and a 155-member Chamber of Deputies. Senators serve for eight years with staggered terms, while deputies are elected every four years. The last congressional elections were held on 19th November 2017, concurrently with the presidential election. The current Senate has a 21–15 split in favour of the opposition and five independents.

The Congress is located in the port city of Valparaíso, about 140 kilometres west of Santiago.

Miguel Juan Sebastián Piñera Echenique is a Chilean billionaire businessman and politician who has been president of Chile since 2018.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1973 60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

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COLOMBIA

IVÁN DUQUE, PRESIDENT

Colombia is a country in north-western South America that has 1,600 km of coastline along the Caribbean Sea to the north and 1,300 km of coastline along the Pacific Ocean to the west. It is bordered by Panama, which divides the two bodies of water, to the northwest,

by Venezuela and Brazil to the east, and by Peru and Ecuador to the south.

The Republic of Colombia is a unitary, multiparty republic with two legislative bodies, the House of Representatives and the Senate. The capital city is Bogota and the official language is Spanish.

President Iván Duque is the current head of Colombia’s state and government.

In 1810, the subordinated jurisdictions of New Granada expelled their Spanish officials, except in Santa Marta, Ríohacha, and what are now Panama and Ecuador. The uprising in Bogotá of 20th July, 1810, is commemorated as the Independence Day of Colombia, although these new governments swore allegiance to Ferdinand VII and did not begin to declare their independence until 1811.

Idealists and ambitious provincial

leaders desired a federation. Creole leaders sought to centralise authority over the new governments. A series of civil wars ensued, facilitating the Spanish reconquest of the United Provinces of New Granada between 1814 and 1816.

A remnant of republican forces fled to the llanos of Casanare, where they reorganised under Francisco de Paula Santander, a Colombian general who remained a prominent figure in Granadine politics until his death in 1840.

The Republic of Colombia joined the United Nations on 5th November, 1945.

In the colonial period, the economy was based almost entirely on gold mining, including the robbery of this precious metal from the graves of indigenous people. The modern economy is much more broadly based, with the exploitation of hydrocarbon fuels and several metals, agricultural production and the manufacture of goods for export and domestic consumption. Private enterprise dominates the economy, with direct government participation limited to such industries as the railways, petroleum and telecommunications.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1983

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60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO

DENIS SASSOU NGUESSO, PRESIDENT

The Republic of the Congo (population approx. 5.5 million), also known as Congo-Brazzaville, the Congo Republic or simply either Congo or the Congo, is a country located on the western coast of Central Africa. It is bordered to the west by Gabon, to the northwest

by Cameroon, to the northeast by the Central African Republic, to the southeast by the DR Congo, to the south by the Angolan exclave of Cabinda and to the southwest by the Atlantic Ocean. The capital and largest city of the Republic of the Congo is Brazzaville (population over 1.7 million). It is located on the Congo River, in the south of the country, immediately across from Kinshasa, the capital of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

The Congo is classed as a republic under the 2002 constitution. The executive branch of government is headed by the president, who is popularly elected to a maximum of two seven-year terms and serves as both officer-in-chief of the armed forces and head of government. The president appoints the Council of Ministers. The legislative branch is bicameral and consists of the Senate and the National Assembly. Members are elected to serve six-year and five-year terms, respectively. Denis Sassou Nguesso is a Congolese military leader and poli-

tician who has served as president of the Republic of the Congo since 1997.

Petroleum and mining are the country’s major export industries, followed by forestry and commercial agriculture.

Light manufacturing (mostly shoes), sugar processing and assembly industries have assumed greater importance over recent years. These activities, however, employ only a small fraction of the labour force, most of which work in agriculture and the non-salaried informal urban economy.

For the most part, agriculture, which employs more than a third of the workforce, is of a subsistence nature.

Poor soil and a lack of fertilisers limit yields, and the country is not self-sufficient in food production. Most of the cultivated land is in family holdings that are too small for mechanised farming.

International development strategies, which are shaped by reliance on largescale production, have yet to devise effective ways to enhance small-scale production.

Sugarcane and tobacco are the country’s major cash crops. Palm kernels, cacao and coffee are grown in more modest amounts. Other cash crops include rice, bananas and cotton. Commercial agriculture and cattle ranching are concentrated in the Niari valley.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1964 60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

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COMMENT

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO

DR. PAUL-EMILE TSHINHGA AHUKA, CHARGÉ D’AFFAIRES EN PIED OF THE EMBASSY OF THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO IN BELGRADE

From the basic document adopted at the Bandung Conference in 1955 and its embryonic beginnings at the Conference of Heads of State and Government in Belgrade in 1961, the Non-Aligned Movement has withstood the test of time.

Even though the Movement’s political influence waned after the end of the Cold War, it is not coincidence that the Movement today numbers 120 member States and that it represents more than two-third of members of the United Nations. This means that the majority of the world currently considers that the Non-Aligned Movement retains important political significance and clearly still has a role to play on the international stage.

By abiding by the imperatives of justice and equity throughout its history, the NAM has proven itself to be a positive force of international relations, fully committed to the preservation of sovereignty, territorial integrity, political independence and peaceful coexistence. It is nowadays confronted by the advent of globalisation, which calls for a profound revision of the existing international order.

In this globalised planetary space, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, alongside the majority of the countries of the African continent, is going through the phase of self-examination, seeking to forge links for cooperation against mass poverty and other chal-

lenges afflicting the continent. This year, the African Union has handed over the baton of command to the DRC, which is determined to work under the impulse of President Félix Antoine Tshisekedi Tshilombo to ensure that Africa becomes an integrated, politically united continent, based on the ideals of Pan-Africanism and the vision of African renaissance.

The Democratic Republic of the Congo, which has been a member of the Non-Aligned Movement since its inception, appreciates the important role that the Republic of Serbia, as legal successor to the great Yugoslavia, currently plays within the Movement.

We welcome the excellent relationship between our two countries, which represents a model of relations based on mutual respect and benefit.

As we also mark the 60th anniversary of the disappearance of Patrice Émery Lumumba, a worthy son of Congo and Africa, we remember the bonds of friendship and mutual support between our two peoples and our former leaders.

On behalf of my Government and the people of the DRC, I convey congratulations to the Non-Aligned Movement on the occasion of the 60th commemoration of its birth in Belgrade, this beautiful and welcoming city, while thanking the Governments of the Republic of Serbia and the Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan for organising this great event.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1961

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60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

REPUBLIC OF CÔTE D’IVOIRE

ALASSANE DRAMANE OUATTARA, PRESIDENT

The Republic of Côte d’Ivoire (area 318,000 sq/km; population 26,500,000) is a country located on the southern coast of West Africa. The Ivory Coast’s political capital is Yamoussoukro, located in the centre of the country, while its economic capital and largest city is the port city of Abidjan. It is bordered to the north by Mali and Burkina Faso, to the east by Ghana, to the south by the Gulf of Guinea, to the southwest by Liberia and to the northwest by Guinea.

The country’s official language is French, while local indigenous languages that are also widely used include Tsien, Baoulé, Dioula, Dan, Anyin and Cebaara Senufo. A total of around 78 different languages are spoken in Ivory Coast.

This country was once the world’s largest exporter of cocoa beans and had high levels of income for its region. In the 21st century, the Ivorian economy has been largely market-based, while it still relies heavily on agriculture, with predominantly smallholder cash-crop production. But this began to change in the late 1980s, with the country experiencing seven consecutive years of recession from 1987 to 1993. A significant fall in cocoa and coffee prices at the end of the 20th century, however, interrupted the recovery. Political instability, from the late 1990s and during the first decade of the 2000s,

also hindered the recovery process. The country experienced strong economic growth during the 2010s, but that growth slowed significantly in 2020 due to the disrupting impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the economy.

Côte d’Ivoire was proclaimed an independent republic in 1960. The 1960 constitution was suspended following the December 1999 military coup and a new constitution was approved in 2000. Another new constitution was approved in 2016 and amended in 2020. It vests executive power in the president, who is elected directly and serves a five-year term, and - as of 2020- can only be re-elected once. The president is also assisted by the prime minister, who serves as the head of government. The president appoints the prime minister and - according to the prime minister’s recommendations - the Council of Ministers. Legislative power is vested in a bicameral parliament consisting of the National Assembly and the Senate. The 255 members of the National Assembly are directly elected for five-year terms. The Senate, which was stipulated under the 2016 constitution but only created in 2018, has 99 members, 66 of which are indirectly elected by local and regional councils and 33 are appointed by the president. The current President of Côte d’Ivoire is Alassane Dramane Ouattara.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1973 60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

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REPUBLIC OF CUBA

MIGUEL MARIO DÍAZ-CANEL BERMÚDEZ, PRESIDENT

The Republic of Cuba (area 109,884 sq/km; population 12 million) is a country comprising the island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located at the point where the northern Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean meet. It is east of the Yucatán Peninsula (Mexico), south of both the U.S. state of Florida and the Bahamas, west of Hispaniola and north of both Jamaica and the Cayman Islands. Havana (2.1 million inhabitants) is the largest city and capital, while other major cities include Santiago de Cuba and Camagüey.

The Republic of Cuba is one of the few socialist countries following the Marxist–Leninist ideology. The Constitution of 1976, which defined Cuba as a socialist republic, was replaced by the Constitution of 1992, which describes the Communist Party of Cuba as the “leading force of society and of the state”.

The First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba is the most senior position in this one-party state. The First Secretary leads the Politburo and the Secretariat, making the office holder the most powerful person in Cuban government. Members of both councils are elected by the National Assembly of People’s Power. The President of Cuba, who is also elected by the Assembly, serves a five-year term and, since the ratification of the 2019

Constitution, there is a limit of two consecutive five-year terms.

Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz was a Cuban revolutionary, lawyer and politician who was the leader of Cuba from 1959 to 2008, serving as the prime minister of Cuba from 1959 to 1976 and president from 1976 to 2008.

Miguel Mario Díaz-Canel Bermúdez has served as the president of Cuba since 2019 and as the first secretary of the Communist Party since 2021.

Cuba has a centrally planned economy with increasing opportunities for private business and foreign investment, both of which were recognised in the amended constitution of 2019.

The Cuban government has had controlled wages and prices and enforced quota systems since the 1960s, but in 2008, after power changed hands from long-time leader Fidel Castro to his brother Raúl, some of those restrictions were lifted. The country’s main economic institution is the Central Planning Board, headed by the government. The government’s control of several key sectors of the economy—including transportation, construction, agriculture and retail sales—was significantly reduced in August 2011, as a continuation of the economic reforms initiated by Raúl Castro. This opening of the economy to market factors was accompanied by encouragement of the creation of small businesses.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1979

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60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

REPUBLIC OF DJIBOUTI

DOMINICA

The Republic of Djibouti is one of the smallest countries in Africa, encompassing an area of 23,200 sq/km and with a population of around 990,000.

Djibouti’s strength lies in its strategic location at the southern entrance to the Red Sea, marking a bridge between Africa and the Middle East. Djibouti City (approx. 600,000 inhabiISMAÏL OMAR GUELLEH, tants) is Djibouti’s capital and largest city.

PRESIDENT The size of its economy limits its ability to diversify production and increases its reliance on foreign markets, making it more vulnerable to market downturns and hampering its access to external capital. With less than 1,000 sq/km of arable land (0.04% of total land area) and average annual rainfall of only 130 millimetres, Djibouti is almost entirely dependent on imports to meet its food needs. Its economy is driven by a state-of-the-art port complex that’s among the world’s most sophisticated. Djibouti has some natural assets that could be used for tourism, untapped marine resources that could support more artisanal fishing and an infrastructure of undersea telecommunications cables which it could use to develop new digital and service industries.

Djibouti is a unitary presidential republic, with executive power resting in the presidency, which is in turn dominant over the cabinet and legislative power in both the government and the National Assembly. Ismaïl Omar Guelleh is the current president of Djibouti.

Dominica (area 751 sq/km; population 73,000), officially known as the Commonwealth of Dominica, is a mountainous, forested Caribbean island nation with a yearround tropical climate, national parks, rare indigenous birds and the second-largest boiling lake in the world. The capital, Roseau (approx. 15,000 inhabitants), is located CHARLES SAVARIN, on the western side of the PRESIDENT island. The country is geographically situated as part of the Windward Islands chain in the Lesser Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea. Dominica is one of the poorest Caribbean countries. Its economy is dependent on agriculture, which is intermittently destroyed by hurricanes. Attempts to diversify have had some success, with a growing tourism industry and a small offshore financial sector. However, agriculture remains the most important sector of the economy, in terms of both employment and its contribution to the GNP. Dominica’s main crops are bananas, citrus fruits and coconuts.

Dominica is a parliamentary democracy within the Commonwealth of Nations. The Commonwealth of Dominica is one of the Caribbean’s few republics. The president, currently Charles Savarin, is the head of state, while executive power rests in the hands of the cabinet, headed by the prime minister – a position that has been held by Roosevelt Skerrit since 2004.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1979

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 2006.

60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

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DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

LUIS RODOLFO ABINADER CORONA, PRESIDENT

The Dominican Republic is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean region. It is the second-largest nation in the Antilles by area (after Cuba) encompassing 48,671 sq/km, and third-largest by population, with approximately 10.8 million people, including the approximately 3.3 million inhabitants of the metropolitan area of Santo Domingo, the capital city. The country’s official language is Spanish.

The Dominican Republic has a mixed economy based largely on services (including tourism and finance), trade, manufacturing, telecommunications and construction, while agriculture and remittances from the many Dominicans living abroad are also important.

Agricultural production (mainly sugarcane, with smaller amounts of coffee, cacao and tobacco) was the economic mainstay until the late 20th century, when the economy began to diversify.

The growing economy, in turn, helped to accelerate the rate of urbanisation and increase the size of the middle class. The government has long played a major directing role in the economy,

and in the 1990s controversy arose concerning its privatisation of many formerly state-owned companies. The government also permitted numerous maquiladoras (foreign-owned factories) to be established in tax-free port zones. At the close of the decade, the nation had one of the highest economic growth rates in the world, though the government’s privatisation programme remained contentious.

The Dominican Republic is a representative democracy or democratic republic, with three branches of power: executive, legislative and judicial. The president of the Dominican Republic heads the executive branch and executes laws passed by the congress, appoints the cabinet and serves as commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The president and vice-president run for office on the same ticket and are elected by direct vote for fouryear terms. The national legislature is bicameral, composed of a senate, which has 32 members, and the Chamber of Deputies, with 178 members.

The President of the Dominican Republic is Luis Rodolfo Abinader Corona.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 2001

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60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

ECUADOR

GUILLERMO LASSO, PRESIDENT

Ecuador is a country of north-western South America and one of the most environmentally diverse countries in the world, which has made notable contributions to the environmental sciences. Ecuador straddles part of the Andes Mountains and occupies part of the Amazon basin. Situated on the Equator, from which its name is derived, it borders Colombia to the north, Peru to the east and the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It includes the Pacific archipelago of the Galapagos Islands.

Ecuador is a unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house, the National Assembly. The head of the state and government is President Guillermo Lasso. The capital city is Quito and the official language is Spanish.

The country’s fourth major subdivision, the Galapagos Islands, were little more than pirate nests during the colonial period. They were to achieve world fame in the 19th century, as it was there that Charles Darwin made a major portion of the observations

that led to his theories on evolution and his seminal work On the Origin of Species. The people of Quito claim that it was the scene of the first Ecuadoran patriotic uprising against Spanish rule (1809). Invading from Colombia in 1822, the armies of Simón Bolívar and Antonio José de Sucre came to the aid of Ecuadoran rebels, and on 24th May Sucre won the decisive Battle of Pichincha, thus assuring Ecuadoran independence.

Ecuador became a member of United Nations on 21st December, 1945.

Ecuador is a country with enormous economic potential. Development has focused on agricultural, marine and mineral resources, with industry playing a more limited role. The subsequent production of primary goods has been subject to cycles of boom and bust, however, and Ecuador has sought to diversify its resource exports and seek new markets. The country has improved its living standards, but it is still characterised by marked inequalities of wealth and well-being.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1983 60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

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COMMENT

EGYPT

AMR ALJOWAILY, AMBASSADOR

I would like to first extend the warmest congratulations to the Republic of Serbia for the initiative to celebrate the 60th anniversary of the first summit of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) in Belgrade. I commend CorD Magazine for the initiative to publish this volume, which delves deeper into the history of the Movement and looks further into its future. There could be no better way to mark this celebration than to extract the lessons learned and identify the best practices.

The image of the NAM that resonates so swiftly in our minds is particularly that of world leaders, during the 1960s and onwards, working together closely for a more participatory and just world order.

Since I flew from Cairo to Belgrade, arriving as Ambassador of Egypt to Serbia in January 2018, the photos of Nasser and Tito, displayed in government buildings and museums alike, have been a constant reminder of the leadership role that both capitals played in founding and nurturing that diplomatic fervour that impacted the course of international relations forever.

There is hardly a diplomatic function in which I represent my country, with full honours, at which my interlocutors in Belgrade don’t recount their personal involvement or childhood memories of the leaders of both countries in their encounters through the NAM. A visit to the Serbian Mission to the United Nations beside New York’s Central Park, almost midway between the East and Hudson rivers, or to the Serbian Embassy in Cairo, located almost on the bank of the Nile on

Zamalek Island, would quickly testify to where the two leaders met, sat, chatted and jointly envisaged a fairer world order whose fruits we enjoy today, ready to develop further by continuing to adjust the focus of the Movement’s lens to the vision of today’s geopolitical realities.

Cairo and Belgrade continued to pass the baton since the preparatory ministerial meeting held in Cairo back in June 1961, the first summit held in Belgrade that same year, and then the second summit held back in Cairo in 1964. Once again, Egypt carried the torch by hosting the Sharm El Sheikh Summit in 2009, while my country has also had the rare honour of twice chairing the Movement.

As high officials gather for the Belgrade Celebration, the NAM’s contribution to shaping a more just and fair international system continues at all levels, including through its coordinating bureau and its working groups at the headquarters of the United Nations, thus enriching the literature of international norms, rules and regulations on a daily basis and in a way that safeguards the legitimate interests and rightful aspirations of developing countries. Our 60th anniversary in Belgrade is a golden opportunity to cultivate this literature with fresh ideas and a renewed commitment to further the lasting ideals of the NonAligned Movement as they continue to be needed and relevant to efforts to foster a multilateralism that enables the world to collectively and successfully address humanity’s global challenges.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1961

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60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

ERITREA

EQUATORIAL GUINEA Equatorial Guinea is a country located on the west coast of Africa. It consists of the continental region of Río Muni and five islands.

Continental Equatorial Guinea is a roughly rectangular territory bordered

by Cameroon to the north and Gabon to the east and south. Near the coast are the small islands of Corisco and Great and Little Elobey.

Bioko, by far the largest of TEODORO OBIANG the country’s islands, lies NGUEMA MBASOGO, off the coast of Cameroon PRESIDENT in the Bight of Biafra. Annobón, a volcanic island, lies south of the Equator and almost 640 km to the southwest of Bioko. Equatorial Guinea is a republic with two legislative bodies, the Chamber of Deputies and Senate. The head of state is President Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo. The capital city is Malabo and the official languages are Spanish and French.

The country’s independence movement began taking shape at the end of 1967. It was early the following year that the Spanish government suspended autonomous political control and, with the subsequent approval of the Organisation of African Unity, proposed a national referendum to approve the new constitution, which received overwhelming support on 11th August and was followed by parliamentary elections and the proclamation of independence on 12th October 1968.

Equatorial Guinea joined the United Nations on 12th November, 1968. Equatorial Guinea’s economy traditionally relied on three commodities - cocoa, coffee and timber - but the discovery and exploitation of petroleum and natural gas changed the country’s economic profile virtually overnight in the 1980s. Nevertheless, the standard of living of most people has not improved significantly.

Eritrea is a country of the Horn of Africa that’s located on the Red Sea. Eritrea’s coastal location has long been important to its history and culture - a fact reflected in its name, which is an Italianised version of Mare Erythraeum, Latin for “Red Sea”. Eritrea’s coastline, which forms the north-eastern edge of the country, extends for roughly 1,000 ISAIAS AFWERKI, km from Cape Kasar, in PRESIDENT the north, to the Strait of Mandeb, separating the Red Sea from the Gulf of Aden in the south. The country is ordered by Djibouti to the southeast, Ethiopia to the south and Sudan to the west.

The State of Eritrea is a country with a transitional regime and one interim legislative house, the National Assembly.

President Isaias Afwerki is the current head of state and government. Its capital city is Asmara.

It was on 24 th May, 1991 that Isaias Afwerki, then secretary-general of the EPLF, was made president of the transitional government and proclaimed Eritrea officially independent. Following independence, Eritrea enjoyed a thriving economy, but had poor relations with its neighbouring countries, with the notable exception of Ethiopia.

The State of Eritrea joined the United Nations on 28th May, 1993. Agriculture is by far the most important sector of the country’s economy, providing a livelihood for about four-fifths of the population and accounting for a large proportion of Eritrea’s exports. Small-scale cultivation and traditional pastoralism are the main forms of agricultural activity. However, these are not mutually exclusive occupations, as most cultivators also keep animals and most pastoralists cultivate grains when possible.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1970

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1995

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ETHIOPIA

SAHLE-WORK ZEWDE, PRESIDENT

Ethiopia is a country of the Horn of Africa that lies completely within the tropical latitudes and is relatively compact, with similar north-south and east-west dimensions. Ethiopia is bordered by Eritrea to the north, Djibouti to the northeast, Somalia to the east, Kenya to the south and South Sudan and Sudan to the west.

The Democratic Republic of Ethiopia is a federal republic with two legislative houses, the House of Peoples’ Representatives and House of the Federation, which use Amharic as a working language. The head of state is President Sahle-Work Zewde and the capital city is Addis Ababa.

In 1994, the EPRDF adopted Ethiopia’s third constitution in 40 years, which was promulgated on 21st August, 1995, creating the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. This constitution enshrined the principles of regionalism and ethnic autonomy, devolving power to regional states, several of them coalitions of smaller ethnic groups.

It also enshrined, for the first time

as a constitutional principle, national ownership of land. The country’s first multiparty elections were also held in 1995, but they were boycotted by most opposition groups in protest against harassment, arrests and other actions instigated by the EPRDF-led government.

Ethiopia became a member of the United Nations on 13th November, 1945. Ethiopia’s most promising resource is its agricultural land. Although soil erosion, overgrazing and deforestation have seriously damaged the plateaus, nearly half of the potentially cultivable land is still available for use. Most of the reserve land is located in parts of the country that have favourable climatic conditions for intensive agriculture. In addition, Ethiopia is among the richest countries in Africa in terms of livestock numbers, including cattle. With better management of grazing lands and breeding, livestock has the potential to meet the demands of both internal and export markets.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1961

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60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

FIJI

GABON

Fiji (18,274 sq/km, population approx.

950,000) is a country and archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean. It surrounds the Koro Sea about 2,100 km north of Auckland, New Zealand. The archipelago consists of some 300 islands and 540 islets scattered over an area of around 3,000,000 sq/ km. About 100 of its islands are inhabited. The JIOJI KONOUSI capital, Suva (population KONROTE, PRESIDENT approx. 100,000), is on the southeast coast of the largest island, Viti Levu (“Great Fiji”). Although the indigenous Fijian people are usually classified as ethnically Melanesian, their social and political organisation is closer to that of Polynesia.

Endowed with forestry, mineral and fish resources, Fiji is one of the most developed of the Pacific island economies, though it still has a large subsistence sector. Natural resources include timber, fish, gold, copper, offshore oil and hydropower. Fiji also has significant tourism, with the popular regions being Nadi, the Coral Coast, Denarau Island and the Mamanuca Islands. It has a significant number of soft coral reefs and scuba diving is a popular tourist activity.

Fiji is a parliamentary representative democratic republic wherein the Prime Minister of Fiji is the head of government and the President is the head of state and the multiparty system. Jioji Konousi Konrote is the president of Fiji.

Gabon is a country situated on the west coast of Africa that strides the Equator. A former French colony, Gabon retains strong ties to France and the French language and culture. Gabon is bordered

by Equatorial Guinea and Cameron to the north, the Republic of the Congo to the east and south, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west.

The islands of Sao Tome ALI BONGO ONDIMBA, PRESIDENT and Principe are situated off the coast.

Gabon is a unitary multiparty republic with a Parliament composing two legislative houses, the Senate and National Assembly. The president is Ali Bongo Ondimba. The capital city is Libreville and the country has a current estimated population of 2,233,000. The official language is French.

About three-quarters of the country is covered by a dense equatorial rainforest that contains more than 3,000 species of vegetation, including the okoume, a hardwood tree that forms the backbone of Gabon’s timber industry. The rainforest is inhabited by antelope, monkeys, gorillas and elephants.

Gabon became an overseas territory with its own assembly and representation in the French Parliament (1946-58). During this era, France considerably expanded public investment in the economy, healthcare and education. Gabon became an autonomous republic within the French Community in 1958 and, after concluding cooperation agreements with France, gained formal independence on 17th August, 1960. Gabon became a member of the United Nations on 20th September, 1960.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 2009

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1970

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THE GAMBIA

GRENADA

The Gambia is a country in western Africa situated on the Atlantic coast and surrounded by the neighbouring country of Senegal. It occupies a long narrow strip of land that surrounds the Gambia River. The land is flat and dominated by the river, which is navigable throughout the length of the country.

The Republic of the ADAMA BARROW, Gambia is a multiparty rePRESIDENT public with one legislative house, the National Assembly. The capital city is Banjul and the official language is English. President Adama Barrow is the head of state and government.

Political parties were late to develop in the Gambia, but by 1960 there were several demanding independence.

Britain, believing that the Gambia would eventually merge with Senegal, gave the territory revised constitutions in 1954, 1960 and 1962, then finally granted it independence within the Commonwealth in February 1965. The Gambia became a republic on 24th April, 1970. The first president, Sir Dawda Jawara, head of the People’s Progressive Party (PPP), was returned in all elections after 1972. In 1981 an attempt to overthrow the government was put down with the aid of Senegalese troops, following heavy fighting in Banjul.

The Gambia joined the United Nations on 21st September, 1965. Gambian agriculture can be described as classic monoculture, with peanuts representing the most valuable agricultural commodity. Land is cleared by the slash-andburn technique, but farmers practise conservation. There is a sharp division of labour, with men involved in planting, cultivating and harvesting cash crops, while women cultivate subsistence crops such as aubergine, tomatoes and rice.

There are citrus orchards in the western area near Banjul.

Grenada is an island country of the West Indies and the southernmost island of the north-south arc of the Lesser Antilles, lying in the eastern Caribbean Sea about 160 km north of the coast of Venezuela. The southern Grenadines, the largest of which is Carriacou, with an area of 34 square km, are a dependency.

Grenada is a constiDAME CÉCILE LA GRENADE, GOVERNOR tutional monarchy with two legislative houses, the House of Representatives and Senate. The capital city is St. George’s and the official language is English. The head of the state is Queen Elizabeth II, represented by Governor Dame Cécile La Grenade.

In the general election of August 1967, the Grenada United Labour Party defeated the Grenada National Party and took office under the premiership of Eric M. Gairy, a trade unionist. Grenada became an independent nation on 7th February, 1974. The transition was marked by violence, strikes and controversy centred on Gairy, who was named prime minister. Opposition to Gairy’s rule continued to mount and a coalition called the New Jewel Movement, along with other opposition parties, succeeded in reducing GULP’s parliamentary majority in the 1976 election.

Grenada became a United Nations member on 17 th September, 1974. Agriculture and tourism are the most important sectors of the economy, although fishing and agriculture-based industries are becoming more significant. Grenada relies on financial support from the United Kingdom and other sources to bolster its economy.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1973

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1979

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60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

REPUBLIC OF GHANA

NANA AKUFO-ADDO, PRESIDENT

The Republic of Ghana (estimated population 31,500,000) is a country of West Africa located on the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. Ghana is one of Africa’s leading countries, partly due to its considerable natural wealth and partly because it was the first black Sub-Saharan African country to gain independence from colonial rule.

Modern-day Ghana, which became independent in 1957, consists primarily of the former Gold Coast. The colony’s drive for independence was led by nationalist and Pan-African leader Kwame Nkrumah, who viewed Ghana’s sovereignty as being important not only for the Ghanaian people, but for all of Africa, saying “Our independence is meaningless unless it is linked with the total liberation of the African continent.”

The current president of Ghana is Nana Akufo-Addo. Ghana’s administrative capital is the coastal city of Accra, with an estimated urban population of 4.2 million. Originally founded on the site of several Ga settlements, Accra developed into a prosperous trading hub and today serves as the commercial and educational centre of the county.

The economy is a mixture of private and public enterprise. About three-fifths of the GDP is derived from the services sector, while agriculture contributes almost a fifth and industry about a quarter.

Apart from providing the bulk of Ghana’s national income, agriculture,

forestry and fishing also employ more than half of the population. Cacao— grown commercially for its seeds, cocoa beans—is cultivated on more than half of Ghana’s arable land and represents a significant source of the country’s export revenue. Timber has also been an important source of foreign exchange earnings.

Although Ghana has a wide range of minerals, only some—gold, diamonds, manganese and bauxite—are exploited.

It also has reserves of oil and natural gas. The state-owned Ghana National Petroleum Corporation (GNPC) is involved in all aspects of the country’s oil and gas industry.

Ghana is home to many financial institutions, including commercial, development and foreign banks. The Bank of Ghana is the central bank and issues the national currency, the Ghana cedi.

The Ghana Stock Exchange is located in Accra.

The 1992 constitution provides for a multiparty republic with a president as head of state. He is elected for a four-year term.

Ghana has one of the best-developed education systems in West Africa. Basic education consists of two years of nursery school, six years of primary education and three years of junior secondary education. This is followed by three years of senior secondary education.

Basic education is free and compulsory.

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GUATEMALA

GUINEA-BISSAU

Guatemala is a Central American country that is distinguishable from its neighbours due to the dominance of an indigenous culture within its interior uplands. Guatemala is bordered to the north and west by Mexico, to the northeast by Belize, to the east by Honduras, to the southeast by El Salvador and to the south by the Pacific Ocean.

ALEJANDRO Guatemala is a republic GIAMMATTEI, with one legislative house, PRESIDENT the Congress of the Republic. The current President of Guatemala is Alejandro Giammattei. The capital and largest city is Guatemala City.

The country’s estimated population in 2021 is 15,712,000.

The official language is Spanish.

Following the gaining of independence from Spain in 1821 and Mexico in 1823, Guatemala became the political centre of the United Provinces of Central America. The principal factor in the collapse of the federation was the backcountry uprising in Guatemala, led by Rafael Cerrera, who established himself as the military arbiter of the state in 1838. And he controlled Guatemalan policy, either from or behind the executive’s chair, until his death in 1865. Elections had been dispensed with in 1854, when Cerrera was declared life-long president. Guatemala joined the United Nations on 21st November, 1945.

Agriculture employs about two-fifths of the workforce.

Commercial plantation agriculture, with an emphasis on the production of coffee for foreign markets, is restricted to large estates on the Pacific piedmont and coastal plain and the lower Motagua valley.

that lie off the coast.

Guinea-Bissau is a republic with one legislative house, the National People’s Assembly. The current head of state is President Umaro Sissoco Embaló and the official language is Portuguese.

The country gained full independence on 10th September 10, 1974. The Cape Verdean revolutionary comrades, Luís de Almeida Cabral and Aristides Pereira, became the first presidents of Guinea-Bissau and the Republic of Cape Verde, respectively. João (Nino) Vieira became the commander-in-chief of the armed forces of Guinea Bissau.

Guinea-Bissau joined the United Nations on 17th September, 1974. Its economy is largely agricultural, with good prospects for the development of the forestry and fishery ectors. Foods produced for local consumption include rice, vegetables, potatoes, palm oil and peanuts. Livestock includes pigs, goats, sheep, cattle and poultry. Fish and shrimp, raised for domestic consumption and export, are also important.

The export of commercial items, such as cashew nuts, palm products, rice, peanuts, timber and cotton, has long played an important role in the country’s economy.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1993

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1976

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UMARO SISSOCO EMBALÓ, PRESIDENT

Guinea-Bissau is a West African country located on the Atlantic coast. A predominantly low-lying country, it is slightly hilly inland. The country uses the name of its capital, Bissau, to distinguish it from Guinea, its neighbour.

Guinea-Bissau is bordered

by Senegal to the north, Guinea to the east and south, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. It includes the Bijagós archipelago and other islands

60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

REPUBLIC OF GUINEA

MAMADY DOUMBOUYA, INTERIM PRESIDENT

The Republic of Guinea is a coastal country in West Africa, formerly known as French Guinea. The modern country is sometimes referred to as Guinea-Conakry after its capital Conakry (population approx. 2 million), to distinguish it from other territories in the eponymous region, such as Guinea-Bissau and Equatorial Guinea.

Guinea has a population of 12.4 million and covers an area of 245,857 sq/km.

Guinea’s mineral wealth makes it potentially one of continent’s richest countries, but its people are among the poorest in West Africa. Guinea has abundant natural resources, including 25% or more of the world’s known bauxite reserves, but also has diamonds, gold and other metals, as well as great potential for hydroelectric power.

The majority of Guineans work in the agriculture sector, which employs approximately 75% of the population. Rice is cultivated in flood zones between streams and rivers. However, the local production of rice is not sufficient to feed the country, so additional quantities are imported from Asia. Guinea’s agriculture sector cultivates coffee beans, pineapples, peaches, nectarines, mangoes, oranges,

bananas, potatoes, tomatoes, cucumbers, bell peppers and many other types of produce. Guinea is one of the emerging regional producers of apples and pears. There are many grape and pomegranate plantations, while recent years have seen the development of strawberry plantations, based on the vertical hydroponic system.

Under the 2020 constitution, Guinea is a unitary republic. The constitution provides for a president to serve as the head of state. The president is elected by universal suffrage for a maximum of two six-year terms. A prime minister, who serves as head of government, is appointed by the president. Legislators are elected to the unicameral National Assembly by universal suffrage for an unlimited number of five-year terms.

The judiciary consists of the Supreme Court, the Court of Audit and lower courts and tribunals. There is also a Constitutional Court, which presides over constitutional and electoral issues, and a High Court of Justice, which tries the president and other members of government for high treason and other crimes. Following a military coup in September 2021, the 2020 constitution was suspended. Mamady Doumbouya is the Interim President of Guinea.

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COMMENT

REPUBLIC OF GUYANA

HUGH TODD, MINISTER OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS AND INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

It was 60 years ago that five visionary leaders from the developing world sought to confront and change the existing structures of great power politics by creating a body that would operate beyond the confines of these power structures, safeguard the interests of its members and contribute to the de-escalation of international tension.

And so, the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was born and presented as a strong response to the polarisation that characterised the international system of the time.

Six decades later, the Ten Bandung Principles that guide the Movement’s advocacy remain as relevant as they were when they were first adopted back in 1955. Issues of peace and security, equality, the promotion and protection of human rights, international cooperation, the peaceful settlement of disputes, territorial integrity and sovereignty, as well as non-interference in the internal affairs of other countries, all still permeate world affairs today.

As the largest experiment in global peace, the United Nations has not yet seen the emergence of the world envisaged by its founders – one free of the effects of maladies like war and poverty – and one in which the human race can thrive in peace and prosperity. While these noble ideals remain unfulfilled, the NAM remains relevant today precisely because these principled ideals remain at the heart of the Movement’s existence.

Over the years, the NAM has been, and continues to be, an influential and constructive voice on matters of international peace and security, human rights and development. The NAM’s concerted efforts to influence the convening of a Special Session of the United Nations General Assembly dedicated to discussing the COVID-19 pandemic is a more recent and palpable example of how proactive and responsive the Movement continues to prove itself to be in the face of global challenges.

Since joining the Movement in 1970, Guyana has embraced the NAM and was proud to host the First Meeting of NAM Foreign Ministers in Georgetown in 1972. The Non-Aligned Monument in the centre of Georgetown depicts the busts of the Movement’s four founding leaders.

Testifying to our firm commitment to the Movement is the active role that Guyana has continued to play since that time. Gathering in Belgrade on this historic occasion thus evokes a sense of pride, accomplishment and hope for all NAM members. We are proud that our Movement has been able to assert itself in the discourse on the most salient global issues. We have a sense of achievement, for we have remained true to our principles and purposes even amid the vicissitudes of international relations. Finally, it is our fervent hope that our Movement will remain well-positioned and ready to continue being a force for global good.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1970

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60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

REPUBLIC OF HAITI

ARIEL HENRY, ACTING PRESIDENT AND PRIME MINISTER

The Republic of Haiti (population approx. 12 million) is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea, to the east of Cuba and Jamaica and to the south of The Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands. Port-au-Prince is the capital and most populous city of Haiti, with an estimated population of over one million.

Haiti is the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere according to many measures. Some four-fifths of its population lives in absolute poverty, with as many as three-fifths unemployed or underemployed. Haiti’s limited resource base has been depleted, first through intensive co-

lonial exploitation and later through unplanned development and corruption. A few multinational corporations are active in the country.

The constitution, which incorporates features of the U.S. and French constitutions, provides for a president who is both head of state and the country’s main power holder. The head of government is the prime minister, appointed by the president from among the parliamentary members of the majority political party.

The bicameral parliament consists of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies.

Senators are elected for six-year terms and deputies for four. Ariel Henry is serving as the acting Prime Minister and acting President of Haiti.

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HONDURAS

JUAN ORLANDO HERNÁNDEZ, PRESIDENT

Honduras is a Central American country situated between Guatemala and El Salvador, to the west, and Nicaragua, to the south and east. The Caribbean Sea washes its northern coastline, while its narrow southern coast is on the Pacific Ocean. Its area includes the offshore Caribbean department of the Bay Islands.

The Republic of Honduras is a multiparty republic with one legislative body, the National Congress. The official language is Spanish and the capital city is Tegucigalapa. President Juan Orlando Hernández is the current head of state and government.

Independence from Spain came in 1821 and from Mexico in 1823, when Honduras joined in the formation of the United Provinces of Central America.

Friction between Liberal and Conservative factions soon undermined the federation, however. In general, the Liberals favoured republicanism, freer trade, less government regulation, the removal of the Catholic clergy’s political and economic powers and the imitating of foreign development models.

Conservatives defended the clergy,

leaned toward monarchism, mistrusted foreign models and were generally more traditional and pro-Spanish in their outlook. In 1830, a Honduran Liberal, Francisco Morazán, became president of this federation, and for a decade he promoted liberal policies that curtailed the traditional power and privileges of the clergy and increased agricultural exports. Conservative and popular opposition to liberal policies led to the collapse of the federation, and Honduras declared its absolute independence on 5th November, 1838.

The Republic of Honduras joined the United Nations on 17th December, 1945. Honduras is a poor country, with the majority of Hondurans working under extremely difficult conditions.

The government has, however, adopted more active economic policies since the mid-20th century. In 1954, striking banana workers led the trade union movement to one of its most resounding triumphs, which resulted in the promulgation (in 1955) of a labour code that is considered one of the most complete instruments of its kind in Latin America.

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60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

COMMENT

INDIA

SANJIV KOHLI, AMBASSADOR

We now live in a world that is increasingly becoming multipolar, as an outcome of the ongoing process of re-balancing global politics. The pandemic and other major global challenges of our times, such as terrorism and climate change, respect neither physical nor political boundaries.

Worse, they have a disproportionate impact on developing countries. As we contend with new challenges, it is these very principles that the NAM has espoused – those of mutual respect, solidarity and cooperation – that will guide the way.

The strength of the NAM family lies in its diversity, its shared developmental experience and its youthful populations brimming with hope and aspirations. The NAM has the potential to take the lead in addressing the primary issues of our times that demand global cooperation. It is important that our Movement, which represents two thirds of the world’s population, continues to work together and takes the lead in building multi-

lateral governance structures that are capable of meeting both present and future challenges. India has always been a constructive contributor to the Movement’s efforts to create an inclusive, transparent and responsive world order.

It was sixty years ago that the first NAM conference was held in the historic and beautiful city of Belgrade.

I have been in Belgrade now for two months. Belgrade, as a city, finds deep resonance in Indian minds precisely because of the role that the then Yugoslavia played in the setting up of the Non-Aligned Movement. Our relations with Serbia have expanded very significantly in recent years. The respect and goodwill that the people of our two countries have for each other is very heart warming. I therefore feel privileged to have this opportunity to serve as Ambassador of the Republic of India to the Republic of Serbia and look forward to the further strengthening of our time-tested bonds of friendship.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1961 60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

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COMMENT

INDONESIA

MOCHAMMAD CHANDRA WIDYA YUDHA, AMBASSADOR

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1961

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I think the strongest assets that the Non-Aligned Movement possesses lie in the unity and solidarity of its member countries. From my perspective, the fact that Indonesia is a country that has been very much engaged with the NAM since its inception, throughout the years and until the present day, allows me to believe that, for Indonesia, the NAM is an invaluable driving force to safeguard and fight for the collective interests of developing countries. The NAM has considerable influence over the multilateral agenda in the pursuit of peace, stability and prosperity for all. It adheres to the principles of equality, solidarity and togetherness, mutual respect and mutual assistance. And, with these principles in mind and at heart, the NAM can ensure that no country is left behind.

Today, as the Movement turns 60, it faces new and more complicated challenges. As the global political landscape has transformed immensely and as new disruptions, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, surface unexpectedly, some similar challenges to those faced by NAM member countries 60 years ago – such as inequality, major economic powers and socioeconomic injustice – have remained.

I am of the opinion that the NAM can be a unifying force for its member countries to synergise and become part of the solution to current global challenges, for example by providing access to equitable COVID-19 vaccines for developing countries and building cooperation for post-pandemic economic recovery.

In order for the NAM to wield its influence effectively, it must continue to stay relevant, bring the mutual interests and aspirations of all its members to the

fore and avoid pursuing the collective interests of a few.

I trust that the NAM can make a difference, in order for the world that we currently live in to be a better place for all of us and for future generations. The NAM must remain united, for together we are stronger. In such dire times, with the many hardships that befell all countries globally due to the pandemic, in order to overcome tremendous challenges, Indonesia always calls for all, including the NAM, to recover together and recover stronger.

As Ambassador of the Republic of Indonesia to the Republic of Serbia, I am delighted to be here in Belgrade during the commemoration of the 60th anniversary of the NAM. I feel very much humbled by the experience of attending this very auspicious gathering. As we know today, the Movement has become an important forum in paving the way for the aspirations of developing countries to be heard and realised internationally.

As an Indonesian, the city of Belgrade holds significant meaning for at least two main reasons. First, as Indonesia is a NAM founding member, Belgrade possesses great historic importance, as it was here that the first NAM Summit was held and the newly established Principles of Bandung were confirmed. Second, Belgrade also bore witness to the friendship between Indonesia’s first President, Soekarno, and President Joseph Broz Tito of the former Yugoslavia.

In my opinion, our commemoration is a timely moment for the NAM to reflect on the meaning of its existence in the midst of this complex world, but also the ways that the NAM can do more to bring peace, stability and prosperity to its member countries and the rest of the world.

60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

COMMENT

ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF IRAN

HOSSEIN AMIRABDOLLAHIAN, MINISTER OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS

When the founders of the NonAligned Movement held their first meeting in Bandung, Indonesia, in 1955, the goals and roles defined for this new grouping were completely compatible with the conditions of the world’s bipolar power system. Their goal was to revise the international order and make changes to the structures of the bipolar system in order to sustain their independence. The dominant spirit over the fundamental principles of the Non-Aligned Movement has been one denying hegemony and combating injustice in the international system.

In the world in transition today, the NAM must interpret international realities correctly and adopt and implement appropriate approaches and strategies to strengthen its position internationally. Surging global challenges call for more collective action at the international level. With the growing threat of unilateralism and protectionism worldwide, the NAM can promote and strengthen global partnerships to prove that multilateralism is no longer the prudent alternative; rather it is the only viable option to the world’s pressing crises. We should make the Movement a more active platform for dialogue and cooperation, and overhaul its structure to make it a more responsive and functioning body in the new emerging world power structure.

Unilateralism and the bullying tactics of certain powers have undermined multilateralism. The extreme unilateral

adventurism of the U.S., the U.S.-made Takfiri terrorism, military aggression, economic terrorism and unilateral coercive measures, as well as protectionism, are among the most crucial challenges that almost all of us have been facing – in one way or another. They continue to challenge the rule of law and peace and security throughout the world. On the important issue of Palestine, the blind and unbridled support for apartheid in Palestine, and the denial of the basic rights of the Palestinian people, further exacerbate the unstable situation in the entire Middle East region.

I would like to reiterate Iran’s resolve to continue to advocate the vision enshrined in the NAM’s basic documents.

Regionally, we have proposed several plans to provide necessary space for regional dialogue to resolve disputes and misunderstandings. Globally, we have demonstrated our resolute commitment to diplomacy by participating actively in different international fora to help tackle many challenges. The conclusion of the JCPOA is a testimony to our commitment. The abject failure of the U.S. and EU to fulfil their commitments is the main reason for the current deadlock in its implementation.

I hope that our memorable gathering in Belgrade to commemorate the 60th anniversary of our first conference could lead us to form a united front to reject unilateralism, promote multilateralism and tackle all the complex challenges collectively confronting our movement today.

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IRAQ

BARHAM SALIH, PRESIDENT

Iraq is a country of south-western Asia that’s one of the easternmost countries of the Arab world. It is bordered to the north by Turkey, to the east by Iran, to the west by Syria and Jordan, and to the south by Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. Iraq has 58 km of coastline along the northern end of the Persian Gulf, giving it a tiny sliver of territorial sea. Followed by Jordan, it is thus the Middle Eastern state with the least access to the sea and offshore sovereignty.

The Republic of Iraq is a multiparty republic with one legislative house, the Council of Representatives, The official languages are Kurdish and Arabic. The capital city is Baghdad and the head of state is President Barham Salih.

Iraq was admitted to the League of Nations as an independent state on 3rd October, 1932.

Since conflict between Iraq’s political leaders centred essentially on how to end the mandate rather than on the right of independence, King Fayṣal sought the cooperation of opposition leaders after independence.

Shortly after Iraq’s admission to the League, Nuri al-Said, who had been

prime minister since 1930, resigned.

Following the period of an interim administration, King Fayṣal invited Rashīd ʿAlī al-Gaylānī, one of the opposition leaders, to form a new government.

And it seemed, for a short while at least, that the country’s leaders would close ranks and devote all their efforts to internal reforms. The Republic of Iraq became a member of the United Nations on 21st December, 1945.

Iraq’s economy was based almost exclusively on agriculture until the 1950s, but considerable economic development occurred after the 1958 revolution. By 1980, Iraq had the second largest economy in the Arab world, after Saudi Arabia, and the third largest in the Middle East, while it had developed a complex, centrally planned economy dominated by the state. Although the economy, particularly petroleum exports, suffered during the Iran-Iraq War (gross domestic product actually fell in some years), the invasion of Kuwait, Iraq’s subsequent defeat in the Persian Gulf War and the UN embargo, beginning in 1990, dealt a far greater blow to the country’s financial system.

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JAMAICA

JORDAN

Jamaica is an island nation in the West Indies. The third largest island in the Caribbean Sea, after Cuba and Hispaniola, Jamaica is about 235 km long and has a width that varies from 35 to 82 km. It is situated some 160 km west of Haiti, 150 km south of Cuba and 630 km northeast of the nearest point on the mainland, Cape Gracias Dios, on the Caribbean SIR PATRICK LINTON coast of Central America.

ALLEN, GOVERNOR Jamaica is a constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses, the House of Representatives and Senate. The head of the state is Queen Elizabeth II, represented by Governor Sir Patrick Linton Allen.

The capital city is Kingston and the official language is English.

The Jamaica Labour Party was the overall winner of the April 1962 elections and Alexander Bustamante became the country’s first prime minister. The federation was dissolved that May and on 6th August, 1962, Jamaica became independent, with full dominion status within the Commonwealth, under a constitution that retained the British monarch as head of state. The following year, Jamaica joined the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Bustamante was succeeded in February 1967 by Donald Sangster, who died within about a month of leading the JLP to victory in the elections.

Jamaica became a member of the United Nations on th 18 September, 1962. Jamaica’s economy is mixed, but increasingly based on services, notably tourism and finance.

Agriculture continues to be one of the bases of the island’s economy, accounting for about one-twentieth of GDP and a sixth of the workforce. The major crop is sugarcane, with its by-products of molasses and rum.

Jordan is an Arab country of Southwest Asia that’s located in the rocky desert of the northern Arabian Peninsula. Jordan is bordered by Syria to the north, Iraq to the east, Saudi Arabia to the southeast and south, and Israel and the West Bank to the west.

Jordan is a constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses, the House of Representatives and KING ABDULLAH II Senate. The ruler of the country is King Abdullah II. The capital city is Amman and the official language is Arabic.

It was on 25th May, 1923, that the UK recognised the then Transjordan’s independence under the rule of Emir Abdullah, but – as outlined in a treaty and the constitution of 1928 – matters of finance, military and foreign affairs would remain in the hands of a British “resident”. Full independence was finally achieved after World War II, through a treaty concluded in London on 22nd March, 1946, and Abdullah subsequently proclaimed himself king. A new constitution was promulgated, and in 1949 the name of the state was changed to the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Jordan joined the United Nations on 14th December, 1955.

Although Jordan’s economy is relatively small and faces numerous obstacles, it is comparatively well diversified. Trade and finance combined account for nearly a third of Jordan’s GDP, is do transportation and communication, while public utilities and construction represent a fifth of total GDP, and mining and manufacturing account for another fifth. Remittances from Jordanians working abroad are a major source of foreign exchange.

Only a tiny fraction of Jordan’s land is arable and the country imports some foodstuffs to meet its needs. Wheat and barley are the main crops of the rain-fed uplands, while irrigated land in the Jordan Valley produces citrus and other fruits, potatoes, vegetables (tomatoes and cucumbers) and olives.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1970

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1964

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KENYA

UHURU KENYATTA, PRESIDENT

Kenya is an East African country that’s famous for its scenic landscapes and vast wildlife preserves. Bisected horizontally by the Equator and vertically by longitude 38° E, Kenya is bordered to the north by South Sudan and Ethiopia, to the east by Somalia and the Indian Ocean, to the south

by Tanzania, and to the west by Lake Victoria and Uganda.

The Republic of Kenya is a unitary multiparty republic with two legislative houses, the National Assembly and Senate. President Uhuru Kenyatta heads the state and government. The capital city is Nairobi and the official languages are Swahili and English.

The Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU) was a political party founded in 1960, which took the position was that ethnic interests could best be addressed through a decentralised government, while it was also concerned about Kikuyu domination. It lost seats to its rival Kenya African National Union (KANU) in elections held in February 1961, but both parties called for the release of KANU leader Jomo Kenyatta, who was finally freed from house detention in August. A coalition government of

the two parties was formed in 1962 and, after elections in May 1963, Kenyatta became prime minister under a constitution that gave Kenya self-government. Following further discussions in London, Kenya became fully independent on 12th December, 1963. A year later, Kenya became a republic with Kenyatta as its first president and Oginga Odinga as vice president. Kenya joined the United Nations on 16th December, 1963.

Since achieving independence, Kenya’s economy has included both privately-owned and state-run enterprises. Most of the country’s business is in private hands (with a large amount of foreign investment), but the government also shapes the country’s economic development through various regulatory powers and parastatals.

Agriculture plays an important role in Kenya’s economy. Although its share of GDP has declined—from more than two-fifths in 1964 to less than one-fifth in the early 21st century—agriculture supplies the manufacturing sector with raw materials and generates tax revenue and foreign exchange that support the rest of the economy. It also employs a majority of the population.

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KUWAIT

LAOS

Kuwait is a country of the Arabian Peninsula that’s located in the north-western corner of the Persian Gulf. Covering an area slightly larger than the U.S. state of Hawaii, Kuwait is bordered to the west and north by Iraq, to the east by the Persian Gulf, and to the south by Saudi Arabia.

The State of Kuwait is a constitutional monarchy SHEIK NAWAF with one legislative house, AL-AHMAD AL-JABER the National Assembly. The AL-SABAH, HEAD head of state is Sheik Nawaf OF STATE al-Ahmad al-Jaber al-Sabah.

The capital city is Kuwait City and the official language is Arabic.

It was on 19th June, 1961, that the UK recognised Kuwait’s independence. However, Iraq renewed its claim to the territory, which was rebuffed first by the British and then by the forces of the Arab League. Kuwait joined the United Nations on 14th May, 1963, but it wasn’t until October 1963 that a new Iraqi regime formally recognised Kuwait’s independence and, subsequently, its borders, while continuing to press for access to the islands. The Iran-Iraq War of 1980–88 represented a serious threat to Kuwaiti security.

Fearing Iranian hegemony in the region, Kuwait saw no alternative to providing Iraq with substantial financial support and serving as a vital conduit for military supplies.

According to the World Bank, Kuwait is the world’s fifth richest country according to gross national income per capita and the world’s twentieth largest economy by GDP per capita. Kuwait’s main export products have been mineral fuels, including oil, aircraft and spacecraft, organic chemicals, plastics etc.

Laos is a landlocked country of northeast-central Southeast Asia. It consists of an irregularly round portion in the north that narrows into a peninsula-like region stretching to the southeast. Overall, the country extends about 1,050 km from northwest to southeast.

Laos is bordered by China to the north, Vietnam to the northeast and east, BOUNNHANG VORACHITH, PRESIDENT Cambodia to the south, Thailand to the west and Myanmar to the northwest.

The Lao People’s Democratic Republic is a unitary single-party people’s republic with one legislative body, the National Assembly. The capital city is Viangchan and the official language is Lao. The leader of the state is President Thongloun Sisoulith.

Laos was granted limited self-government within the French Union following the July 1949 signing of a Franco-Laotian convention and after a constitution was promulgated and general elections were held. All-important power, however, remained in French hands. Although many of the Lao Issara leaders were prepared to work with the French under this new arrangement, their decision was opposed by a more radical group, led by Kaysone Phomvihan and Prince Souphanouvong. Laos joined the United Nations on 14th December, 1955.

The economy of Laos is primarily agricultural and has remained heavily dependent on foreign aid and investment since the late 20th century. Agriculture is the mainstay of the country’s economy. In the early 21st century, this sector generated nearly half the country’s GDP and employed some three-quarters of the population.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1964

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1964

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COMMENT

LEBANON

GENERAL MICHEL AOUN, PRESIDENT

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1961

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The 60th anniversary of the first conference of the Non-Aligned Movement marks an occasion for us to emphasise the fact that the core objectives behind the creation of the Movement still represent an international need, now more than ever before.

In light of the economic, political and ideological tensions we are witnessing between the influential great powers, conflicts in a number of regions around the world, the proliferation of extremist and terrorist movements that have deepened fears and even hatred among different religions and ethnic groups, it is crucial to join global efforts that the Non-Aligned Movement can lead in order to affirm the fundamental principles that must govern international relations and states’ policies, regardless of their size, capabilities and political systems, in an effort to promote world peace. The most notable of these principles are: the right to self-determination, respect for the territorial sovereignty of states, non-interference in the internal affairs of other countries, avoiding conflicts, rejecting the use of force in international relations, and promoting international cooperation on an equal footing.

Lebanon, as one of the United Nations’ founding member states, joined the Non-Aligned Movement with its inception and provided an important contribution to the drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Indeed, my small country has a long-standing civilisation and represents a vital location as a bridge between three continents, while it also has a remarkable intellectual and cultural heritage that ensured it was

among the leading States to embrace democracy in the Middle East.

Yet, its geopolitical location and the deep crises that surround it have weighed heavily on it with their adverse effects, exposing the country to various ordeals and wars throughout its modem history.

Nevertheless, the Lebanese people’s faith in the culture of dialogue, mutual respect and peace among states and peoples prompted me to launch an initiative to establish the “Academy for Human Encounters and Dialogue”, which received the support of 165 UN member States in 2019. This Academy aims to promote dialogue between cultures and religions and spread the message of convergence and communication between peoples, representing goals that definitely meet the founding principles of the Non-Aligned Movement. There is no doubt that Lebanon is the most suitable country to host this Academy. It represents a unique pole in the region and the world for the fusion of cultures and civilisations. My wish is for the Academy to see the light of day soon, so it would form an additional drive to endeavours dedicated to mitigating conflicts and achieving more justice, equality and mutual respect among countries and peoples.

In conclusion, I would like to thank the Republic of Serbia and the Republic of Azerbaijan, as the current chair of the NAM, for holding this meeting to commemorate the 60th anniversary of the Movement. I do wish for the momentum of our joint cooperation to persist in favour of construction rather than destruction, peace rather than conflict and dialogue rather than dictation.

60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

LIBERIA

KINGDOM OF LESOTHO Lesotho is a country in Southern Africa. A scenic land of tall mountains and narrow valleys, Lesotho owes a long history of political autonomy to the mountains that surround it and protect it from encroachment. The country forms an enclave within South Africa, bordering on three of the latter’s provinces - KwaZulu-Natal, Free State, and Eastern KING LETSI III Cape. Like only two other independent states in the world (Vatican City and the Republic of San Marino), Lesotho is completely encircled by another country, on which it must depend for access to the outside world.

Lesotho is a constitutional monarchy with two legislative bodies, the National Assembly and Senate. The ruler of the country is King Letsi III. The official languages are Sotho and English, and the capital city is Maseru.

On 4th October, 1966, when the then Basutoland gained its independence from Britain, it was renamed the Kingdom of Lesotho and headed by paramount chief Moshoeshoe II as king and Chief Jonathan as prime minister. Executive power was given to the prime minister in 1967. In the first post-independence general elections (January 1970), the opposition BCP gained a majority of seats. The results were never released, however, and Chief Jonathan suspended the constitution, arrested leading members of the opposition and temporarily exiled the king. The Kingdom of Lesotho became a member of the United Nations on 17th October, 1966.

Lesotho is a poor country. Other than water, its few natural resources are insufficient even for the present population. Lesotho’s economy could not be sustained without the benefits it derives from South Africa.

Liberia is a country perched on the coast of West Africa. It is bordered

by Sierra Leone to the northwest, Guinea to the north, Côte d’Ivoire to the east and the Atlantic Ocean to the south and west.

The Republic of Liberia is a multiparty republic with two legislative houses, the House of Representatives and Senate. The capital city is Monrovia and the GEORGE WEAH, official language is English.

PRESIDENT The leader of the state and government is President George Weah.

When the American Colonisation Society intimated that Liberia should cease its dependency on the organisation, Joseph Jenkins Roberts, an African-American merchant who was born in Virginia and settled in Liberia, proclaimed the country an independent republic and became its first president. The year was 1847. Independence was recognised between 1848 and ‘56 by most countries, though formal recognition by the U.S. did not come until 1862. At the time independence was declared, a constitution based on that of the United States was drawn up. Roberts remained in office until 1856. During that period, the slave trade, theretofore illicitly continued from various nominally Liberian ports, was brought to an end through the activities of the British and U.S. navies.

The Liberian economy is predominantly agrarian, while raw materials, equipment and consumer goods are imported.

Production for export is carried out on a large scale through foreign investment in rubber, forestry and mining. Agriculture is the leading sector of the economy. About half the land area is suitable for cultivation, though only a small percentage is actually cultivated. Commercial farms are often operated by foreigners. Traditional farms, which comprise the largest number, are usually cultivated by slash-and-burn methods.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1970

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1964

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LIBYA

MOHAMED AL-MENFI, CHAIRMAN OF THE PRESIDENTAL COUNCIL

Libya is a North African country located mostly in the Sahara desert.

Libya is bound by the Mediterranean Sea to the north and borders Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Niger and Chad to the south, and Tunisia and Algeria to the west.

The Libyan Republic has an interim government. The capital city is Tripoli and the official language is Arabic. The current head of state is Chairman of the Presidential Council Mohamed al-Menfi.

Long discussions were held on the future of Libya following World War II. In light of the contribution to the fighting made by the volunteer Sanūsī force, the then British foreign minister pledged, in 1942, that the Sanūsīs would never again be subjected to Italian rule. During the discussions, which lasted four years, suggestions included an Italian trusteeship, a Soviet mandate for Tripolitania and various compromises. Finally, in November 1949, the UN General Assembly voted that Libya should become a united and independent kingdom no later

than 1st January, 1952. A constitution creating a federal state with a separate parliament for each province was drawn up, and the pro-British head of the Sanūsiyyah, Sīdī Muḥammad Idrīs al-Mahdī al-Sanūsī, was chosen king by a national assembly in 1950. On 24th December, 1951, King Idris I declared the country independent. Political parties were prohibited and the king’s authority was sovereign. Though not themselves Sanūsīs, the Tripolitanians accepted the monarchy largely in order to profit from the British promise that the Sanūsīs would not be subjected to Italian rule again. Libya joined the United Nations on 14th December, 1955.

Agriculture is limited by the environment and labour shortages. Only about one per cent of the country’s total land area is cultivated, mostly on the Al-Jifārah and Barce plains, and about a tenth of that area is irrigated. An additional almost one-tenth of the land is pastures. Agricultural development via land reclamation and irrigation is a government priority.

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COMMENT

MADAGASCAR

MALAWI

The Republic of Madagascar, previously known as the Malagasy Republic, is an island country in the Indian Ocean, approximately 400km off the coast of East Africa across the Mozambique Channel.

With an area of 592,800 sq/km, Madagascar is the world’s second-largest island nation.

Madagascar is a republic with two legislative housANDRY NIRINA es, the National Assembly RAJOELINA, PRESIDENT and Senate. The country head of state is President Andry Rajoelina. The population is today estimated at 28,184,000 with the capital of Antananarivo having a population of over 1.3 million. Its major foreign communities include French, Comorian, Indian and Pakistani, and Chinese, although emigration reduced their populations significantly in the late 20th century.

The Malagasy Republic became independent in 1960, after a brief period as an autonomous republic in the French Community from 1958. Madagascar became a member of the United Nations in 1960, shortly after gaining its independence, on 26th June, 1960.

Madagascar’s natural resources include a variety of agricultural and mineral products, while it is also the world’s principal supplier of vanilla, cloves and ylang-ylang flowers.

The island supplies 80% of the world’s natural vanilla. Other key agricultural resources include coffee, lychees and shrimp.

Since its founding in Belgrade in 1961, the NonAligned Movement has been a voice for countries plagued by conflict, social injustice, poverty and economic underdevelopment. It has thus played a huge role in the preservation of global peace and security. Today, the Movement, with a strong membership of 120 member states, making EISENHOWER NDUWA it the largest grouping of MKAKA, MINISTER OF states worldwide after the FOREIGN AFFAIRS United Nations, has the ability to shape the global agenda and provide solutions to global challenges through its active participation in different fora.

The movement’s agenda, focused on multilateralism, has left an indelible mark on the disarmament agenda, international security and the attainment of sovereignty and promotion of human rights for member states, among others. Malawi has fully aligned itself with the Movement’s aspirations and agenda since gaining independence in 1964.

Our presence at this Commemorative Anniversary in Belgrade, the venue of the First Conference, is a moment of joy, as it is this place that afforded our predecessors an environment to consolidate the aspirations of the Movement, whose fruits we are enjoying today. Malawi is, therefore, grateful and honoured to be part of another phase in the history of the Non-Aligned Movement.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1973

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1964

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REPUBLIC OF MALI

COLONEL ASSIMI GOÏTA, PRESIDENT

The Republic of Mali is a country in West Africa. The eighth largest country in Africa, it covers an area of just over 1,240,000 sq/km and has a population exceeding 21 million. Its capital and largest city is Bamako (population over 2 million), which is also the nation’s administrative centre.

The sovereign state of Mali consists of eight regions and its northern borders reach deep into the middle of the Sahara Desert. The country’s southern part is in the Sudanian savanna, where the majority of inhabitants live and which is traversed by both the Niger and Senegal rivers.

The constitution provides for a separation of powers among the executive, legislative and judicial branches of government. The system of government can be described as “semi-presidential”. Executive power is vested in a president, who is elected to a fiveyear term by universal suffrage and is limited to two terms. The president serves as chief-of-state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces.

Colonel Assimi Goïta is a Malian military officer who has served as interim President of Mali since 24th May, 2021. Goïta was the leader of the National Committee for the Salvation of the People, a military junta that

seized power from former president Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta in 2020.

Subsistence and commercial agriculture form the basis of the Malian economy. Some four-fifths of the working population is engaged in subsistence agriculture, but the government supports the development of commercial products. An agricultural area of major importance is the inland Niger delta. Millet, rice, wheat and corn (maize), as well as yams and cassava (manioc), are the main subsistence crops.

With the northern half of the country occupied by the Sahara, most human activity is concentrated in the more southerly regions, in particular in the valleys of the Niger and Sénégal rivers and their tributaries. Livestock farming characterises domestic activities, although many people supplement their income by growing cash crops like cotton and by migrating seasonally to the Ivory Coast and Senegal. Change in the rural sector has been limited by an unfavourable climate, periodic droughts since the late 1960s, and low levels of technology.

The industrial and natural resource sectors have not been developed fully.

Industry concentrates largely on food processing for domestic use.

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COMMENT

MALAYSIA

DATO’SAIFUDDIN ABDULLAH, MINISTER OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS

The formal establishment of the NonAligned Movement 60 years ago was timely, providing a platform for nations seeking to remain neutral or independent during the Cold War. The Movement has since contributed much to the world. It has been a constant voice on various global and regional issues, such as the situation in Palestine, nuclear disarmament, food security and climate change.

When Malaysia chaired the Movement, from 2003 to 2006, the NAM took a leading role in areas such as women’s development, social and economic development and the development of information and communications technology, as well as shifting the Movement’s focus towards more socioeconomic issues.

NAM today represents over half the world’s population, giving its members a stronger collective voice that is now needed to promote health diplomacy amid the COVID-19 pandemic.

I commend the Movement for establishing a Task Force to meet the medical and humanitarian needs of member states, but I believe more can be done. The Movement can review the global health system, working together and with other stakeholders to ensure public health is made a global public good.

We must also address global conflicts

and instability. NAM member states should champion peaceful coexistence between nations – a fundamental goal of the Movement – and commit to preventing conflicts and solving disputes through dialogue and mutual understanding.

We can do more, but we need to do it together. The NAM should be more unified and integrated in moving forward, to amplify the voice of the Movement on issues of mutual concern.

The first thing that comes to mind is how far we have come since the NAM was established back in 1961.

With 120 Member States, the NAM is the biggest political platform after the United Nations. As a family of non-aligned nations, we should work in unison to overcome the challenges we face collectively.

We must bolster international cooperation and find ways to recover from COVID-19, which exposed the gulf in access to vaccines between developed and developing nations. We must ensure this is rectified and never again repeated.

We should also close ranks on health diplomacy, not only to address COVID-19, but also other aspects of global health.

While I will not be able to personally attend the Commemorative Meeting, due to other prior engagements, I sincerely hope for the successful convening of this Commemorative Meeting.

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COMMENT

MYANMAR

WUNNA MAUNG LWIN, FOREIGN MINISTER

I am pleased to contribute to the official publication commemorating the 60th anniversary of the first conference of the countries of the Non-Aligned Movement. In my opinion, the NAM has, since 1961, been a relevant and imperative platform for developing countries to play a crucial role in maintaining international peace and security based on the NAM’s fundamental principles: mutual respect for other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty; mutual non-aggression; mutual non-interference in the domestic affairs of other countries; equality and mutual benefit; and peaceful co-existence. It is undeniable that the NAM has come a long way in 60 years, from invisible to visible, with the dedication to represent the interests and aspirations of developing countries. Witnessing the current world loaded with inequalities and newly emerging global challenges, including the COVID-19 pandemic, I believe that the NAM is an important multilateral mechanism that needs to remain united in order to practically address the global issues of concern, as well as to constrain conflicts and arms races among great powers. I am confident that the NAM, as an international collective entity, will continue and strengthen in order for developing states to have a unified

voice to address global issues on the world stage. Last but not least, I wish to extend my cordial congratulations and best wishes to all NAM member states on this auspicious 60th anniversary.

Being a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and a co-sponsor of the Bandung Conference, I am truly honoured to participate in the 60th anniversary of the first conference of NAM as an official representative of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar.

This is indeed a great opportunity for all members of NAM to gather in Belgrade, which is an historically important place for the NAM, to reaffirm our commitments to the Bandung Principles and further strengthen our solidarity and collective efforts to achieve our common goal of a world of peace and prosperity for all, while maintaining the admirable spirit of the founding fathers of the Movement. Another factor that motivates me to fly to Serbia is because of the unique beauty of the country, including the Belgrade Fortress that lies at the confluence of the Danube and Sava rivers and the country’s wonderful people. Finally, yet importantly, please allow me to congratulate the Republic of Serbia and the Republic of Azerbaijan for graciously holding this commemorative event of the Movement.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1961

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MALDIVES

MAURITANIA

The Maldives is an independent island nation in the north-central region of the Indian Ocean. It consists of an archipelago chain of about 1,200 small coral islands and sandbanks (some 200 of which are inhabited), grouped in clusters, or atolls. All the islands are low-lying, with none rising to more than 1.8 metres above sea-level.

Reefs protect the islands IBRAHIM MOHAMED from the destructive effects SOLIH, PRESIDENT of monsoons. The rainy season, running from May to August, is brought by the southwest monsoon, while the northeast monsoon brings dry and mild winds from December to March.

The Republic of Maldives is a multiparty republic with one legislative house, the People’s Majlis. The capital city is Maale and the official language is Dhivehi. President Ibrahim Mohamed Solih is the current head of the government and state.

The Maldives Islands gained full political independence from the British in 1965, and in 1968 a new republic was inaugurated and the sultanate abolished. The last British troops departed on 29th March, 1976, with that date having since been celebrated in the Maldives as Independence Day. Ibrahim Nasr, the country’s first president, was succeeded in 1978 by Maumoon Abdul Gayoom, who was re-elected to his sixth consecutive term in 2003. The Maldives became a member of the United Nations on 21st September, 1965, and a member of the Commonwealth in 1982.

The economy of the Maldives has developed rapidly since the 1970s. Annual GDP growth has been high, averaging about six per cent in the 2010s, and gross national income per capita - among the lowest in the world in the 1970s – had reached the level of upper middle-income countries by the late 2010s.

Mauritania is a country on the Atlantic coast of Africa. It is bordered

by Western Sahara to the northwest, Algeria to the northeast, Mali to the east and southeast, and Senegal to the southwest. Its western Atlantic Ocean coastline extends for 700 km.

The Islamic Republic of Mauritania is a republic with one legislative house, the National Assembly. The MOHAMED OULD official language is Arabic CHEIKH GHAZOUANI, and the capital city is NouakPRESIDENT chott. The head of state is President Mohamed Ould Cheikh Ghazouani.

The French nickname for the colony was “Le Grand Vide” (“the great void”). And as long as the population was quiet, there was little evidence of a French presence. Moorish lineages were engaged on both sides of the colonial occupation, some assisting the French and others opposing their presence. Some who benefited from the French presence were well-positioned to take on prominent political roles in 1958, when the first elected government, under Moktar Ould Daddah, negotiated membership in the French Community. The Islamic Republic of Mauritania was declared an independent state on 28th November, 1960, and became a member of the United Nations on 27th October, 1961.

In areas of the country where precipitation exceeds 430 mm a year, millet and dates are the principal crops, supplemented by sorghum, beans, yams, corn and cotton. Seasonal agriculture is practised on the easily flooded riverbanks and in the wadis of the Sahelian zone, upstream from the dams.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1976

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1964

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73

MAURITIUS

MONGOLIA

Mauritius is an island country of the Indian Ocean located off the eastern coast of Africa. Mauritius lies about 800 km east of Madagascar. It also claims sovereignty over the Chagos Archipelago, some 2,000 km to the northeast, though this claim is disputed by the UK. The Republic of Mauritius is a country with one legislative house, the NaPRITHVIRAJSING tional Assembly. The capital ROOPUN, PRESIDENT city is Port Louis and the official language is English. The head of state is President Prithvirajsing Roopun.

Mauritius became an independent state within the Commonwealth on 12th March, 1968, with a governor-general on the island representing the British monarch as the head of state. In the first years of independence, Mauritius attempted to diversify its economy beyond the production of sugar, but made only limited progress. The combined effects, however, of Cyclone Claudette in late 1979, falling world sugar prices in the early 1980s, and political protest and social unrest generated by those who saw no economic future on the island, led the government to initiate a vigorous and highly successful economic diversification programme.

Mauritius joined the United Nations on 24th April, 1968.

Mauritius has a mixed developing economy based on manufactured exports, agriculture, tourism and financial services.

Government efforts to diversify the economy after 1980 have been successful, ensuring that the island is no longer completely dependent on sugar.

Mongolia is a country located in north-central Asia. A unitary multiparty republic with one legislative body, the State Great Hural, its capital city is Ulaanbaatar and the official language is Khalkha Mongolian. The current head of state is President Ukhnaagiin Khürelsükh.

By 1206, the tribal warfare success of UKHNAA KHURELSUKH, Temüüjin led to him being proclaimed ruler of All the PRESIDENT Mongols, with the rank of khan and the title of Genghis (Chinggis) - a word probably derived from the Turkic tengiz, meaning ocean. Although this explanation has not convinced all Mongol scholars, it is consistent with the belief that the ocean symbolised breadth and depth of wisdom (Later the equivalent Mongol word, dalai, was applied to the supreme lama of Tibet.)

Previous nomads had invaded China, but none had yet ruled it entirely, chiefly because they had invaded prematurely, leaving other nomads on their flanks and in their rear. Genghis Khan, however, first united all the tuurgatan (people of the felt-walled tents), probing far back, away from China, to make sure that he controlled all potential nomadic rivals.

Mongolia became a member of the United Nations on 27th October, 1961. Livestock farming, based on millions of head of sheep, goats, cattle, horses and camels - often referred to as the five animals - accounts for some fourfifths of the value of Mongolia’s agricultural production.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1973

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1993

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COMMENT

MOROCCO

MOHAMMED AMINE BELHAJ, AMBASSADOR

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1961

The Kingdom of Morocco, as a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement, has always considered the NAM as one of the priority lines of genuine collective action for building a world where democratic values, security, justice and solidarity prevail.

As such, the Belgrade Conference is also an exceptional opportunity to remember the noble principles and values upon which the Movement was built; values that aspire to forge a better future for the peoples of the world.

We are now realising that the world is facing different crises from those imposed on the wise founding fathers of the Non-Aligned Movement 60 years ago, but that does not mean that the Movement is losing its role and significance. On the contrary, I believe that in the world we inhabit today, imbued with numerous global issues and threats, an organisation like the Non-Aligned Movement is more necessary than ever.

This is indeed an important platform to promote unity among the countries of the developing world, which is necessary for them to face their longstanding, emerging and growing challenges.

Today, the unprecedented health crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic has drastically affected every segment of our society and continues to impact business and politics severely. This crisis has proved that solidarity and cooperation between member states are key to recovering and achieving sustainable development. I am confident that this historical commemoration will constitute favourable momentum for

60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

a genuine and renewed start for the Non-Aligned Movement to face both current and future challenges.

I have to say that I am very pleased that the upcoming Conference is being organised in Belgrade and I believe that it will send not only a symbolic message, but also a strong message of solidarity and unity among the Movement’s member countries.

I am glad to announce that a Moroccan high level delegation is participating in this commemorative event, as well as in the military exhibition “Partner 2021” that will be held on the margins of the NAM conference. That is, indeed, a clear indication of how strong and profound the ties of friendship are between Serbia and Morocco, two countries that will celebrate their own jubilee by marking 65 years since the establishment of bilateral diplomatic relations.

I would like to remind readers that the Embassy of the Kingdom of Morocco in Belgrade organised a photo exhibition in the Gallery of Belgrade Fortress’s Military Museum back in 2017, which was aimed at introducing the Serbian public to some historical events related to the first visit of Yugoslav President Jopis Broz Tito to Morocco, in April 1961, as well as to the meeting between Late Moroccan King Hassan II and Tito, during the First Conference of Non-Aligned Movement in Belgrade.

I once again wish for the successful organisation of this anniversary conference to both the Republic of Serbia, for hosting such a significant event, and the Republic of Azerbaijan, in its capacity as current Chair of the Movement.

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MOZAMBIQUE

NAMIBIA

Mozambique is a scenic country of southeast Africa.

Rich in natural resources, it is biologically and culturally diverse, and has a tropical climate. Mozambique is about the size of the combined areas of the U.S. states of Colorado, New Mexico and Utah. Most of its territory stretches along the coast of the Indian Ocean from Cape Delgado in the north, past the capital city of Maputo in the south. It is bordered to the FILIPE NYUS, PRESIDENT north by Tanzania, to the east by the Mozambique Channel, which separates it from the island of Madagascar, to the south and southwest by South Africa and Swaziland, to the west by Zimbabwe, and to the northwest by Zambia, Malawi and Lake Nyasa.

The Republic of Mozambique is a multiparty republic with a single legislative body, the Assembly of the Republic. The current head of state and government is President Filipe Nyusi. The capital city is Maputo and the official language is Portuguese.

Mozambique became an independent, single-party state led by Frelimo, with Machel serving as president, on 25th June, 1975. Frelimo’s solidarity with other African guerrilla groups fighting for political rights in the region strongly shaped events after it controlled the entire country. Mozambicans widely supported Frelimo’s decisions to close the border with the then Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), to implement international sanctions against the country and to allow its guerrilla forces to develop bases in Mozambique, but these decisions proved costly when Mozambique suffered major losses of revenue and lives and the destruction of key infrastructure. Frelimo’s support for the African National Congress (ANC) brought similar economic and military retribution from the apartheid white regime in South Africa.

Although agriculture employs about four-fifths of the country’s workforce, it constitutes only about one-fifth of Mozambique’s GDP. Most agricultural production comes from family farming operations, which produce the two staple crops of corn, in which Mozambique was self-sufficient by 1997, and cassava, as well as beans, rice and a variety of vegetables and oilseeds, such as peanuts, sesame and sunflower.

Namibia is a country located on the south-western coast of Africa, bordered by Angola, Zambia, Botswana, South Africa and the Atlantic Ocean.

The Republic of Namibia is a republic with two legislative houses, the National Council and National Assembly. The official language is English. The capital city is Windhoek and the current head of state HAGE GEINGOB, is President Hage Geingob.

PRESIDENT The Namibian constitution, which emphasises human, civil and property rights, was adopted unanimously at the end of 1990, when reconciliation began with settlers and (to a degree) with South Africa. For the new government, the costs of reconciliation included retaining about 15,000 unneeded white civil servants, deferring land ownership and mineral company terms issues, and offering de facto amnesty for all pre-independence acts of violence (including those of SWAPO against suspected spies and dissidents in Angola in the late 1980s).

Namibia became a United Nations member on 23rd April, 1990. Commercial farming (predominantly by white settlers) is concentrated on the production of Karakul sheep and beef for export. This trade was hit hard by drought and drops in world prices, but in the early 1990s Karakul prices improved, thanks to a commitment by the European Community to purchase beef, while relatively good weather also improved short-term prospects.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1976

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1979

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COMMENT

NEPAL

BIDYA DEVI BHANDARI, PRESIDENT

I am happy to know that Belgrade, the founding city of the Non-Aligned Movement, is hosting the commemorative 60th anniversary of its first conference.

As one of the NAM’s founding members, Nepal attaches high importance to this Movement. I appreciate the Republic of Serbia for the initiative of commemorating this special and historic moment.

The NAM was established in the midst of a world divided by bloc politics, colonialism, apartheid, aggression, racism and occupation. Over the passage of time, this Movement has grown to become a large peace movement of 120 members.

The 1961 Belgrade summit of the nonaligned countries laid the foundations for a peaceful world order and provided an alternative approach to military blocs and rivalries. The NAM has overcome many obstacles and remained steadfast to its principles and ideals ever since.

The Movement has a distinct footprint in the struggle against imperialism, neo-colonialism, racism, apartheid and all forms of foreign intervention. The NAM proved successful in accelerating the process of self-determination for peoples under colonial domination; and consolidating the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of its member states. The Movement has remained at the forefront in advocating the agenda of disarmament and become the voice of peace, security, greater economic wellbeing and social justice for all.

The NAM has its own internal challenges. The initial euphoria of the end of the Cold War evaporated with the eruption of inter and intra state conflicts, wanton violence, ethnic strife,

religious fanaticism and the parochial nationalism that deluded the prospects of peace, harmony and the prosperity of its members. It is critically important to maintain internal cohesion, as much as unity and sustained solidarity, to work for shared prosperity.

The COVID-19 outbreak and prevailing vaccine inequality reinforces the relevance of the NAM. Its impact on poor and vulnerable countries requires greater international cooperation and support. Hence, a consistent voice for ensuring vaccine equity, greater international solidarity for economic recovery and the strengthening of international health regulations for a more equitable health order.

Nepal’s faith in NAM’s founding principles has been well manifested in its Constitution as one of the guiding principles of its foreign policy. The NAM must be able to enhance the economic and social wellbeing of developing countries through meaningful North-South cooperation and South-South and triangular cooperation, as well as preserving multilateralism to address pressing global challenges.

On the occasion of the 60th anniversary of the Belgrade summit, Nepal believes that the NAM continues to be relevant as new fault lines emerge in global geopolitics.

The world is yet to be a perfect place for all to live and prosper. The NAM has a role to play in forging an equitable world order based on equality, justice and fairness. And this occasion provides us with an opportunity to reinforce our commitment to the NAM’s founding principles for a better world.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1961 60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

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NICARAGUA

NIGER

Nicaragua is country of Central America and the largest of the Central American republics.

Nicaragua is bordered by Honduras to the north, the Caribbean Sea to the east, Costa Rica to the south and the Pacific Ocean to the west.

The Republic of Nicaragua is a unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house, the National DANIEL ORTEGA, Assembly. The official lanPRESIDENT guage is Spanish and the capital city is Managua. The head of state and government is President Daniel Ortega.

In 1811, inspired by struggles in Mexico and El Salvador, revolutionaries deposed the governing intendant of Nicaragua. León, however, soon returned to the royalist cause and Granada bore the brunt of the punishment for disobedience. In 1821, León rejected and Granada approved the Guatemalan declaration of independence from Spain. Both accepted union with Mexico (1822–23), but they fought one another until 1826, when Nicaragua took up its role in the United Provinces of Central America. After Nicaragua seceded from the federation in 1838, the rivalry between León, which identified with the Liberal Party, and Granada, the centre of the Conservative Party, continued.

Nicaragua became a member of the United Nations on 24th October, 1945. Nicaragua is one of Latin America’s poorest countries and suffers from high unemployment rates and a large external debt. Remittances from Nicaraguans living abroad and foreign assistance are among country’s main sources of foreign income, though income from tourism has increased since the 1990s. The majority of Nicaraguans live in poverty.

Niger is a landlocked country of West Africa that’s bordered by Algeria to the northwest, Libya to the northeast, Chad to the east, Nigeria and Benin to the south and Burkina Faso and Mali to the west.

The Republic of Niger is a republic with one legislative body, the National Assembly. The capital city is Naimey and the official language is French.

OUHOUMOUDOU The head of the state is MAHAMADOU, President Ouhoumoudou PRESIDENT Mahamadou.

At least until 1954–55, the French administration (headed for 12 years by Governor Jean Toby) remained firmly in control of the political situation. The first local executive was established in 1957. Its head, the left-wing trade unionist Djibo Bakary, advocated a no vote in the referendum of 1958, but 72 per cent of the votes cast were in favour of a continued link with France. Nevertheless, under Bakary’s successor, his cousin and fellow Songhai-Zarma Hamani Diori, independence was proclaimed on 3rd August, 1960.

Niger joined the United Nations on 20th September, 1960.

The economic system is based on central planning, but provides an important role to private enterprise. The three main policy objectives are the maintenance of national unity, the elevation of the living standards of the population and the attainment of economic independence. The economy’s private sector consists partly of a multitude of small enterprises and partly of enterprises belonging to large French or international companies.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1979

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1973

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NIGERIA

MUHAMMADU BUHARI, PRESIDENT

Nigeria is country located on the west coast of Africa bordered by Niger to the north, Chad and Cameroon to the east, the Gulf of Guinea to the south and Benin to the west. Nigeria is not only large in area, but also Africa’s most populous country.

Nigeria is a federal republic with two legislative houses, the Senate and House of Representatives. The capital city is Abuja and the official language is English. President Muhammadu Buhari is the current head of state and government.

Nigeria was granted independence on 1st October, 1960. A new constitution established a federal system with an elected prime minister and a ceremonial head of state. The NCNC, then headed by Azikiwe (who took control after Macaulay’s death in 1946), formed a coalition with Balewa’s NPC after neither party won a majority in the 1959 elections. Balewa continued to serve as the prime minister, a position he had held since 1957, while Azikiwe took the largely ceremonial position of

president of the Senate. Following a UN-supervised referendum, the northern part of the Trust Territory of the Cameroons joined Nigeria’s Northern region in June 1961, while in October the Southern Cameroons united with Cameroun to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon. Nigeria became a republic on 1st October, 1963. Azikiwe became president of the country, although as prime minister Balewa was still more powerful. Nigeria joined the United Nations on 7th October, 1960.

The Nigerian economy is one of the largest in Africa. It has been based primarily on the petroleum industry since the late 1960s. A series of world oil price increases from 1973 produced rapid economic growth in transportation, construction, manufacturing and government services. This led to a great influx of rural people into the larger urban centres, causing agricultural production to stagnate to such an extent that cash crops like palm oil, peanuts and cotton were no longer significant export commodities.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1964 60TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

79

OMAN

SULTAN HAITHAM BIN TARIQ AL SAID, HEAD OF GOVERNMENT AND STATE

Oman is country occupying the south-eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, at the confluence of the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea. Oman is bordered by Yemen to the southwest, the Arabian Sea to the south and east, the Gulf of Oman to the north, the United Arab Emirates to the northwest and Saudi Arabia to the west.

The Sultanate of Oman is a monarchy with two advisory bodies, the State Council and Consultative Council.

The official language is Arabic and the capital city is Muscat. The head of state and government is Sultan Haitham bin Tariq Al Said.

The Dhofar rebellion led to a palace coup on 23rd July, 1970, when Sultan Saʿīd was overthrown by his son, Qaboos bin Said. Qaboos, who had been trained in Britain at the Royal Military Academy in Sandhurst, England, quickly reversed his father’s policy of isolation and began to develop and modernise Oman. Sultan Qaboos appointed the country’s first official cabinet and took steps toward building a modern government structure.

Qaboos served as prime minister after his uncle, Ṭāriq ibn Taymūr, resigned.

He also held the post of minister of defence and foreign affairs. At the same time, the rebellion in Dhofar continued.

With British personnel and equipment, Jordanian and Iranian troops, and financial assistance from the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia, the rebellion was finally crushed in December 1975.

Oman joined the United Nations on 7 th October, 1971. Agriculture is practised mainly for subsistence and employs only about five per cent of the population. The falaj irrigation system has long supported a three-tiered crop approach, with date palms above; lime, banana or mango trees in the middle level; and alfalfa, wheat and sorghum at ground level. Vegetables, melons, bananas and dates are the country’s most significant crops. Limes that are grown in the interior oases are traded for fish from coastal areas, as well as being exported. Grapes, walnuts, peaches and other fruits are cultivated on the high mountain plateaus.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1973

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PAKISTAN

ARIF ALVI, PRESIDENT

Pakistan is multi-ethnic country in South Asia that’s bordered by Iran to the west, Afghanistan to the northwest and north, China to the northeast and India to the east and southeast. The coast of the Arabian Sea forms its southern border.

The Islamic Republic of Pakistan is a federal republic with two legislative bodies, the National Assembly and Senate. The official languages are English and Urdu. The capital city is Islamabad and the current head of state is President Arif Alvi.

Like India, Pakistan gained independence as a dominion within the Commonwealth in August 1947.

However, the leaders of the Muslim League rejected the appointment of Lord Mountbatten, the last British viceroy of India, as Pakistan’s first governor-general, or head of state - in contrast to the Congress, which made him India’s chief executive.

Wary of Britain’s machinations and in a desire to reward Jinnah - their “Great Leader” (Quaid-e Azam), a title he was given before indepen-

dence - Pakistanis made him their governor-general, while his party lieutenant, Liaquat Ali Khan, was named prime minister. Pakistan’s first government, however, faced a difficult task. Unlike Muhammad Iqbal’s earlier vision for Pakistan, the country had been formed from the two regions where Muslims were the majority - the north-western portion he had espoused and the territories and the eastern region of Bengal province (which itself had also been divided between India and Pakistan).

Pakistan became a member of the United Nations on 30th September, 1947. Overall, approximately a quarter of the territory of Pakistan is arable land, although only small fractions of that are in permanent crops (about 1 per cent) or permanent pastures (6 per cent). Roughly five per cent of the country is forested.

Nonetheless, agriculture, forestry and fishing still employ the single largest proportion of the labour force and provide a livelihood for an even larger segment of the population.

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81

COMMENT

STATE OF PALESTINE

RIAD AL- MALKI, MINISTER OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS AND EXPATRIATES

The Non-Alignment Movement and its Member States continue to reaffirm the organisation’s commitment to the ideals, principles and purposes for which the Movement was founded.

With over 120 members advancing the Bandung Principles, we still have the will to do that collectively and despite all the challenges we are facing at many levels, including the pandemic.

The NAM has played a distinguished role in recognising the PLO as the sole legitimate representative for the Palestinian people and their cause, which was a stepping-stone towards international recognition of the State of Palestine and the inalienable rights of the Palestinian people, including the right to self-determination.

The NAM and its member states possess the power to advance the values and principles of the Movement, including the need for accountability for crimes. Through its diplomatic and economic strengths, the NAM can uphold the international order and hold Israel accountable for its violations, in accordance with NAM principles and values.

I come to Belgrade carrying the hopes and aspirations of the Palestinian people and more determined than ever to work with NAM member states to advance Palestinian rights and end Israel’s occupation, in accordance with NAM principles and values.

A peaceful solution to the Question of Palestine remains the ultimate litmus test for the efficacy of multilateralism. Ever inspired by the diplomatic successes of the NAM and its leading role in multilateralism, I am also eager to work with NAM members to strengthen our leading role in this regard and advance the common interests of our peoples.

I also arrive here with full confidence and belief in the power of the NAM and its member states to prioritise international law and human rights and to ensure accountability for crimes without exception. Such a commitment would ensure an end to the injustice the Palestinian people have endured for so long, thus contributing to a peaceful, just and sustainable peace in Palestine and beyond.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1976

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PANAMA

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

Panama is a Central American country located on the Isthmus of Panama, the narrow bridge of land that connects North and South America. Panama is bordered to the north by the Caribbean Sea and to the south by the Pacific Ocean. It has an elongated S shape, with its Caribbean coastline stretching some 1,290 km and the Pacific LAURENTINO CORTIZO, coast some 1,700 km.

The Republic of Panama PRESIDENT is a multiparty republic with one legislative house, the National Assembly. The capital city is Panama City and the official language is Spanish. The head of state and government is President Laurentino Cortizo.

On 3rd November, 1903, a revolutionary junta proclaimed Panamanian independence. Colombian forces were sent to crush the rebellion, but they were mired at Colón due to the U.S.-administered railroad having strategically removed its trains from the northern terminus. U.S. naval forces also deterred reinforcements that were sent by land from Bogotá.

The secessionist junta appointed Bunau-Varilla minister to Washington, D.C., with full powers to negotiate treaties. On 18th November, 1903, he and then U.S. Secretary of State John Hay signed the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty.

Panama became a member of the United Nations on 13th November, 1945. Nearly three-quarters of Panama’s GDP is generated by the service sector – representing a greater proportion than in any other Latin American country – and services employ the majority of the workforce. Services have grown mainly because of offshore banking and canal traffic, while public administration and other services are also important.

Papua New Guinea is an island nation in the south-western Pacific Ocean, stretching from just south of the Equator to the Torres Strait, which separates New Guinea from Cape York Peninsula. Mainland Papua New Guinea reaches its maximum north-south expanse of some 820 km along its western border with Indonesian Papua.

BOB DADAE, Papua New Guinea is GOVERNOR a constitutional monarchy with one legislative house, the National Parliament. The country is ruled by Queen Elizabeth II, represented by Governor Bob Dadae. The capital city is Port Moresby and the official languages are English, Hiri Motu and Tok Pisin.

In the 1950s, Australia took a gradualist approach to educating the population and improving health services, but from 1960 international pressure led Australia to expedite efforts to create an educated elite and improve social conditions, boost the economy and develop political structures in preparation for decolonisation. General elections for a House of Assembly were held in 1964, 1968 and 1972, with self-government achieved on 1st December, 1973, and full independence from Australia on 16th September, 1975. Papua New Guinea joined the United Nations on 10th October, 1975.

Agricultural production, mostly from subsistence farming, accounts for about a third of the country’s GDP. In the archipelagos of the north and northeast, yams, taro and bananas are grown as staple foodstuffs. These were formerly also the staples for the highlanders who now mostly rely on sweet potatoes, known as kau-kau.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1976

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1993

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83

PERU

PEDRO CASTILLO, PRESIDENT

Peru is a country in the western part of South America. It borders Colombia to the northeast and Brazil to the east, traversing an area of lower ranges or tropical forests, while its borders with Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south and Ecuador to the northwest cover the territory of the high Andes.

The Republic of Peru is a unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house, the Congress of the Republic. The official languages are Spanish, Quechua and Aymara. The capital city is Lima and the current head of state and government is President Pedro Castillo.

With Argentine forces having been defeated in Upper Peru, San Martín determined to surround the Spaniards by liberating Chile and using it as a

base for a seaborne attack on Peru.

Chile was freed in 1818 and the fleet was readied, enabling San Martín to occupy the Peruvian port of Pisco in September 1820. When the viceroy withdrew his forces to the interior, San Martín entered Lima. Peruvian independence was duly declared on 28th July, 1821.

Peru became a member of the United Nations on 31st October, 1945. The primary economic activity in Peru has traditionally been agriculture, although the importance of this sector to the national economy declined sharply during the second half of the 20th century. Peru imports large amounts of grain (particularly wheat, rice and corn), soy, vegetable oils and dairy products to feed its population.

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PHILIPPINES

RODRIGO DUTERTE, PRESIDENT

The Philippines is a country of Southeast Asia that lies in the western Pacific Ocean. It is an archipelago consisting of more than 7,000 islands and islets located about 800 km off the coast of Vietnam.

The Republic of the Philippines is a unitary republic with two legislative houses, the House of Representatives and Senate. The capital city is Manila and the official languages are Filipino and English. The head of state and government is President Rodrigo Duterte.

As president of the Senate, Manuel Roxas became, in effect, MacArthur’s candidate for president. Roxas was nominated in January 1946 in a separate convention of the “liberal wing” of the Nacionalista Party, as it was first called.

Thus was born the Philippines’ second major political party, the Liberals. Osmeña, though he had the advantages of incumbency, was old and tired and did not fully utilise the political tools he possessed. In April of that year, Roxas was elected by a narrow margin.

He was inaugurated as the last chief executive of the commonwealth the

following month, and on 4th July, 1946, when the Republic of the Philippines was proclaimed, he became its first president. Roxas, as expected, extended amnesty to all major collaborators with Japan. In the campaign for the election of 1949, there was an attempt to raise the collaboration issue against José Laurel, the Nacionalista presidential candidate, but it was ineffective. In the fluidity of Philippine politics, “guerrillas” and “collaborator” were found on both sides of all political fences. The Philippines became a member of the United Nations on 24th October, 1945.

The agricultural sector is a major component of the Philippine economy, although it contributes only about a seventh of GDP. Crops can be grown throughout the year in the country’s rich and fertile soils, and the sector employs nearly a third of the total workforce. The principal farm products are sugarcane, rice, coconuts, bananas, corn and pineapples. Additional products include mangoes, citrus, papayas and other tropical fruits, as well as coffee and tobacco.

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QATAR

RWANDA

Qatar is an independent emirate located on the west coast of the Persian Gulf. It shares a border with eastern Saudi Arabia, where the peninsula connects to the mainland, and is situated to the north and west of the United Arab Emirates.

The State of Qatar is a constitutional emirate with one advisory body, the Advisory Council. The EMIR SHEIKH TAMIM BIN HAMAD AL THANI, capital city is Doha and the official language is Arabic.

HEAD OF STATE Emir Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani is the head of state.

Qatar declared its independence on 3rd September, 1971, when pre-existing agreements with Britain were replaced with a treaty of friendship. Qatar became a member of both the Arab League and the United Nations that same month, formally becoming a member of the United Nations on 21st September, 1971.

Petroleum and natural gas are the cornerstones of Qatar’s economy and account for more than 70% of total government revenue, more than 60% of GDP and roughly 85% of export earnings. Qatar has the world’s third largest proven natural gas reserves and is the second-largest exporter of natural gas. Food production continues to generate only a tiny fraction of the emirate’s GDP, with the scarcity of fertile land and fresh water imposing severe limitations on agriculture and ensuring that a large proportion of the country’s food must be imported.

Rwanda is a landlocked republic lying south of the Equator in east-central Africa. Known for its breath-taking scenery, Rwanda is often referred to as le pays des mille collies (French: land of a thousand hills). Rwanda is bordered by Uganda to the north, Tanzania to the east, Burundi to the south and the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Lake Kivu PAUL KAGAME, to the west.

PRESIDENT The Republic of Rwanda is multiparty republic with two legislative houses, the Chamber of Deputies and Senate. The capital city is Kigali and the official languages are French, Kinyarwanda, English and Swahili. The ruler of the state is President Paul Kagame Communal elections were first held in 1960, resulting in a massive transfer of power to Hutu elements at the local level. And in the wake of the coup (January 1961) in Gitarama in central Rwanda, which was carried out with the tacit approval of the Belgian authorities, an all-Hutu provisional government came into being. Therefore, by the time independence was proclaimed in July 1962, the revolution had already run its course. Thousands of Tutsi began fleeing Rwanda, and by early 1964, following a failed Tutsi raid from Burundi, at least 150,000 were residing in neighbouring countries. Rwanda became a member of the United Nations on 18th September, 1962.

The country’s economy is overwhelmingly agricultural, with the majority of the workforce engaged in agricultural pursuits. Broadly diversified cultivation is practised throughout the country. Dry beans, sorghum, bananas, corn, potatoes, sweet potatoes and cassava are the primary crops grown in Rwanda.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1973

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1970

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SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS

SAINT LUCIA

Saint Kitts and Nevis is a state composed of two islands of the Lesser Antilles in the eastern Caribbean Sea. They encompass a combined area of 269 sq/ km. The capital is Basseterre, on the island of Saint Kitts. Saint Kitts is 37 km long and 8 km wide, oval in shape, and covers an area of 176 sq/km. A volcanic mountainous ridge down the centre forms a SAMUEL WEYMOUTH semicircle around a plain TAPLEY SEATON, in the southeast.

GOVERNOR The Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis is a federated constitutional monarchy with one legislative house, the National Assembly. The head of the country is Queen Elizabeth II, represented by Governor Samuel Weymouth Tapley Seaton. The capital city is Basseterre and the official language is English.

The islands of Saint Kitts, Nevis and Anguilla were united by a federal act of 1882 and became an independent state in association with the United Kingdom on 27th February, 1967. The islands were granted full internal self-governance, with the United Kingdom retaining responsibility for defence and foreign affairs.

Saint Kitts and Nevis joined the United Nations on 23rd September, 1983. The cultivation of sugarcane—once a nationalised industry and the mainstay of the Saint Kitts and Nevis economy—ceased in 2005 following a decline in overseas markets. It was replaced by tourism as the most-important economic sector. Crops now cultivated include vegetables and fruits, chiefly coconuts. The Eastern Caribbean Central Bank serves as the country’s monetary authority and the Eastern Caribbean dollar is the official currency.

Saint Lucia (population approx. 185,000) is an island state in the Caribbean Sea. It is the second largest of the Windward group of the Lesser Antilles and is located about 39 km south of Martinique and 34 km northeast of Saint Vincent.

The exact date of the European discovery of Saint Lucia is unknown, PHILIP J. PIERRE, PRIME but it is thought to have been around 1500. Castries MINISTER (population 20,000) is the capital and largest city of Saint Lucia.

Sugarcane was formerly Saint Lucia’s chief crop, but production ceased entirely in 1964, when most of the cane fields were converted to banana cultivation. Bananas are now the principal crop. Other crops include coconuts, cacao, citrus and other fruits, spices, cassava and yams.

There is a steady local fishing industry.

Saint Lucia is a constitutional monarchy with the British monarch as head of state, represented by a governor-general. The bicameral parliament consists of the House of Assembly, elected by universal adult suffrage, and the Senate, with members appointed on the advice of the prime minister, the opposition leader in the House and the governor-general. The prime minister, represented by the leader of the majority party, heads the government.

The current PM is Philip J. Pierre.

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Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1998

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SAINT VINCENT AND THE GRENADINES

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF SÃO TOMÉ AND PRÍNCIPE

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines is an island country in the Caribbean.

Its 369 sq/km of territory is located in the southeast Windward Islands of the Lesser Antilles, which lie in the West Indies at the southern end of the eastern border of the Caribbean Sea, where it meets the Atlantic Ocean.

The territory consists of the main island of Saint RALPH GONSALVES, Vincent and, to the south, PRIME MINISTER two-thirds of the northern part of the Grenadines, a chain of 32 smaller islands.

Most Vincentians are descendants of African people brought to the island as slaves to work on plantations.

There are other ethnic groups, such as Portuguese (from Madeira) and East Indians, both brought in to work on the plantations after the abolishing of slavery by the British living on the island.

Agriculture, dominated by banana production, is the most important sector of this lower-middle-income economy. The services sector, based mostly on a growing tourist industry, is also important.

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines is a parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy, with Elizabeth II as Queen, represented as head of state in the country by the Governor-General of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.

The current Prime Minister is Ralph Gonsalves.

São Tomé and Principe is an island country of Central Africa, located on the Equator in the Gulf of Guinea. It consists of two main islands, São Tomé and Príncipe, and several rocky islets. The population (approx. 220,000) consists mainly of Forros (from forro, Portuguese for “free man”), descendants of immigrant Europeans and EVARISTO DO ESPÍRITO enslaved Africans. Standard Portuguese is the official SANTO CARVALHO, language and is understood PRESIDENT by virtually all islanders.

Almost three-quarters of the population resides in urban areas. The capital city is São Tomé.

The economy has historically been dependent on agriculture, with much of the total agricultural area of the two islands belonging to the state. São Tomé and Principe is reputed to be the recipient of one of the highest amounts of foreign aid per capita in the world, but this has not prevented large budgetary and balance-of-payment deficits.

The National Assembly, the supreme organ of the state and the highest legislative body, is composed of 55 members. The president of the republic is elected to a five-year term by direct universal suffrage and a secret ballot, and must gain an outright majority to be elected. Evaristo do Espírito Santo Carvalho is the current president of São Tomé and Príncipe.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 2000

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1976

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SAUDI ARABIA

KING SALMAN, HEAD OF GOVERNMENT AND STATE

Saudi Arabia is an arid, sparsely populated kingdom of the Middle East.

The country occupies about four-fifths of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered

by Jordan, Iraq and Kuwait to the north, the Persian Gulf, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates and Oman to the east, a portion of Oman to the southeast, Yemen to the south and southwest, and the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba to the west.

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is a monarchy with a Consultative Council that acts as an advisory body. The capital city is Riyadh and the official language is Arabic. The head of state and government is King Salman.

Since its establishment in September 1932, Saudi Arabia enjoyed full international recognition as an independent state, although it did not join the then League of Nations. In 1934, Ibn Saud was involved in a border dispute war with Yemen. An additional cause of the war was Yemen’s support for an uprising led against Ibn Saud by an Asiri prince.

In a seven-week campaign, the Saudis were generally victorious. Hostilities were terminated by the Treaty of AlṬāʾif, which saw the Saudis gain the disputed district. Diplomatic relations with Egypt, severed in 1926 because of an incident on the Meccan pilgrimage, were not renewed until after the death of King Fuʾād of Egypt in 1936.

Saudi Arabia became a member of the United Nations on 24th October, 1945. Fuelled by enormous revenues from oil exports, the economy boomed during the 1970s and ’80s. Unlike most developing countries, Saudi Arabia had an abundance of capital and vast development projects sprung up that turned this once underdeveloped country into a modern state. During that time, unemployment was all but non-existent. A large numbers of foreign workers were imported to do the most menial and highly technical tasks, and per capita income and per capita GDP were among the highest in the non-Western world.

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SENEGAL

MACKY SALL, PRESIDENT

Located at the westernmost point of Africa and served by multiple air and maritime travel routes, Senegal is known as the “Gateway to Africa”. It is bordered by the Sénégal River to the north and northeast, which separates it from Mauritania, by Mali to the east, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau to the south, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west.

The Republic of Senegal is a multiparty republic with one legislative body, the National Assembly. The capital city is Dakar and the official language is French. The head of state and government is President Macky Sall.

The Senegalese electorate accepted advice to vote in favour of membership in Charles de Gaulle’s proposed French Community in 1958, but two years later Senegal claimed and received independence (initially within the short-lived Mali Federation). As the country’s first president, Léopold Sédar Senghor maintained collaboration internally with Muslim religious leaders and externally with France, which continued to provide economic,

technical and military support. The economy, however, remained vulnerable both to fluctuations in world prices for peanuts and phosphates and to the Sahelian droughts, while the government increasingly struggled to satisfy the expectations of the working class and a rapidly growing student body.

Although Senegal remained more tolerant and pluralist than many African states, there were encroachments on political freedoms. In 1976, however, Senghor authorised the formation of two opposition parties. Abdou Diouf, to whom he transferred presidential power in January 1981, tentatively extended those freedoms.

Senegal joined the United Nations on 28 th September, 1960. The Senegalese economy has traditionally revolved around a single cash crop, the peanut. The government, however, has worked to diversify both cash crops and subsistence agriculture by expanding to commodities like cotton, garden produce and sugarcane, as well as by promoting non-agricultural sectors.

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REPUBLIC OF SEYCHELLES

SIERRA LEONE

The Seychelles (population approx. 100,000) is a republic in the western Indian Ocean. An archipelago comprising about 115 islands, with lush tropical vegetation, beautiful beaches and a wide variety of marine life, the capital city of Victoria is located on the island of Mahé (population less than 30,000).

Creole, also called SesWAVEL RAMKALAWAN, elwa, is the mother tongue PRESIDENT of most Seychellois. Under the constitution, Creole, English and French are recognised as national languages.

Tourism is the most important sector of the economy.

Victoria’s principal exports are vanilla, coconuts, coconut oil, fish and guano.

Independence was granted in 1976 and the country became a republic at the same time. It has been a member of the Commonwealth since. The president of the Seychelles, who is both head of state and government, is elected by popular vote for a five-year term of office. The unicameral Seychellois parliament, the National Assembly or Assemblée Nationale, consists of 35 members, 26 of whom are elected directly by popular vote, while the remaining nine seats are appointed proportionally according to the percentage of votes received by each party. The current president is Wavel Ramkalawan.

Sierra Leone is a West African country that owes its name to 15th-century Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, the first European to sight and map Freetown harbour. The original Portuguese name, Serra Lyoa (Lion Mountains), referred to the range of hills that surrounds the harbour. Sierra Leone is bordered by Guinea to the north and east, Liberia to JULIUS MAADA BIO, the south and the Atlantic PRESIDENT Ocean to the west.

Sierra Leone is a republic with one legislative house, the Parliament. The capital city is Freetown and the official language is English. The current head of state and government is President Julius Maada Bio. During the 1950s, parliamentary institutions based on the British model were introduced in stages. The last stage was reached on 27th April, 1961, when Sierra Leone became an independent state within the Commonwealth. The first years of independence were prosperous. Mineral resources (iron ore and diamonds) brought substantial revenues, much of which was used for development, particularly education.

Njala University College was founded in the early 1960s and amalgamated with Fourah Bay College in 1967, as the University of Sierra Leone. Sierra Leone joined the United Nations on 27th September, 1961.

Private capital dominates mining concerns, commerce and banking. European, Lebanese and Indian interests are predominant, and participation by Sierra Leoneans is limited.

Various inefficient parastatals were privatised in the 1980s and ’90s. More than three-fifths of the population engage in agricultural production, primarily for the domestic market but some also for export. Rice, the main food crop, is widely cultivated on swampland and upland farms.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1976

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1964

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REPUBLIC OF SINGAPORE

HALIMAH BINTE YACOB, PRESIDENT

The Republic of Singapore is known as the Lion City (Singapura) and consists of the main island and about 64 smaller islands. Two bridges connect Singapore to Malaysia and Continental Asia. The Johor–Singapore Causeway links Singapore to the Malaysian city of Johor Baru on Peninsular Malaysia.

Singapore shares maritime borders with Malaysia and Indonesia.

The city-state occupies an area of 718 sq/km and is the smallest state in Southeast Asia. Singapore has a population of about 5.7 million people (in 2020). Spoken languages are English, Singlish (the Singaporean creole), Malay, Chinese (Mandarin) and Tamil.

Singapore is famous for being a centre of global finance, among the most densely populated places in the world, and for having a world-class city airport with a waterfall, and a Botanical Garden that is a World Heritage Site. It is known as a tourist destination and for its hot and humid climate, but also for being very clean and for growing in area due to land reclamation.

Singapore is a parliamentary representative democratic republic with a (in theory) multiparty system. Since 1965, Singapore’s policy has been dominated by the People’s Action Party (PAP). Therefore, Singapore

is classified as a one-party state by critics. On the other hand, Singapore has been consistently rated in the Top 10 least corrupt countries in the world by Transparency International.

The head of state is the president and the head of government is the prime minister, appointed by the president.

The current heads of state is President Halimah Binte Yacob.

Singapore is also the headquarters of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Secretariat and Pacific Economic Cooperation Council (PECC) Secretariat, as well as many international conferences and events. Singapore is also a member of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, East Asia Summit, Non-Aligned Movement and the Commonwealth of Nations.

Only primary level education is compulsory, though secondary and tertiary levels are mostly supported by the state. English is the language of instruction in all public schools and all subjects are taught and examined in English, except for the “mother tongue” language paper. While the term “mother tongue” in general refers to the first language internationally, in Singapore’s education system it is used to refer to the second language, as English is the first language.

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SOMALIA

MOHAMED ABDULLAHI MOHAMED, PRESIDENT

Somalia is the easternmost country of Africa, located on the Horn of Africa. Somalia is a federal republic with two legislative houses, the House of the People and Upper House. The official languages are Arabic and Somali and the capital city is Mogadishu. The current head of state is President Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed.

The Somali protectorate reverted to the Colonial Office in 1948. The Ogaden and Hawd regions were gradually surrendered to Ethiopia, and in 1950 the Italians returned to southern Somalia with 10 years to prepare the country for independence under a United Nations trusteeship. Taking advantage of the modest progress achieved by the British military administration, the Italians rapidly pursued social and political advancement, although economic development proved much more difficult. The British protectorate, in the event, became independent on 26th June, 1960. Italian Somalia followed suit on 1st July, and the two territories merged to form the Somali Republic.

The politics of the new republic were conditioned by clan allegiances, but the first major problems arose from the last-minute marriage between the former Italian trust territory and the former British protectorate. Urgent improvements in communication between the two areas were necessary, as were readjustments in their legal and judicial systems. Somalia became a member of the United Nations on 20th September, 1960.

By far the most important sector of the country’s economy is agriculture, with livestock farming surpassing crop cultivation fourfold in value and earning about three-fifths of Somalia’s foreign exchange. Agriculture in Somalia can be divided into three subsectors. The first is nomadic pastoralism, which is practised outside the cultivation areas.

This sector, which focuses on raising goats, sheep, camels and cattle, has become increasingly market-orientated.

The second sector is the traditional, chiefly subsistence, agriculture practised by small farmers.

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SOUTH AFRICA

CYRIL RAMAPHOSA, PRESIDENT

South Africa is the southernmost country on the African continent, renowned for its varied topography, great natural beauty and cultural diversity, all of which have made the country a favourite destination for travellers since the legal ending of apartheid. South Africa is bordered

by Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Swaziland. South Africa’s coastlines border the Indian Ocean to the southeast and the Atlantic Ocean to the southwest. The country possesses two small subantarctic islands, Prince Edward and Marion, situated in the Indian Ocean.

The Republic of South Africa is a multiparty republic with two legislative bodies, the National Assembly and National Council of Provinces.

South Africa has three capital cities – Pretoria (executive), Bloemfontein (judicial) and Cape Town (legislative) – and 11 official languages. President Cyril Ramaphosa is the current head of the government and state.

The end of apartheid rule came through bargaining between Nelson

Mandela and Frederik de Klerk, with both making concessions resulting in both of them running the risk of losing the support of their respective constituencies. While whites were loath to forfeit their power and privileges, Blacks hoped to win complete control of the state. A majority of white voters endorsed the negotiating process in a 1992 referendum, but extremists on both sides tried to sabotage the process through various acts of terror.

Mandela and de Klerk finally reached a peaceful agreement at the end of 1993, for which they jointly received the 1993 Nobel Peace Prize. South Africa joined the United Nations on 7th November, 1945.

The economy of South Africa was revolutionised in the late 19th century, when diamonds and gold were discovered. Agriculture is of major importance to South Africa, producing a significant portion of exports and contributing greatly to the domestic economy, especially as an employer, despite generally poor land and water resources.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1994

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SRI LANKA

GOTABAYA RAJAPAKSA, PRESIDENT

Sri Lanka, formerly Ceylon, is an island nation in the Indian Ocean that’s separated from the Indian subcontinent by the Palk Strait, southwest of the Bay of Bengal. The main island of Sri Lanka covers an area of 65,268 sq/ km, making it the world’s 25th largest island, while dozens of smaller islands account for the country’s remaining 342 sq/km of territory.

The Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka is a unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house, the Parliament. The official languages are Sinhala and Tamil. The capitals cities are Colombo and Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte, and the current head of state is President Gotabaya Rajapaksa.

Actual independence for the dominion of Ceylon came on 4th February, 1948, when the 1947 constitution came into effect. The constitution provided for a bicameral legislature with a popularly elected House of Representatives and a Senate that was partly nominated and partly elected indirectly by members of the House of Representatives. A prime minister and

his cabinet, chosen from the largest political group in the legislature, held collective responsibility for executive functions. The governor-general, as head of state, represented the British monarch. In matters that the constitution failed to address, the conventions of the United Kingdom were observed.

Sri Lanka became a member of the United Nations on 14th December, 1955. Sri Lanka’s top resource potential are in minerals like gemstones, graphite, ilmenite, iron ore, limestone, quartz, mica, industrial clays and salt.

Small but commercially extractable amounts of nonferrous metals and minerals, such as titanium, monazite and zircon, are contained in the beach sands of a few Sri Lankan locations.

When it comes to fossil fuels, the only known resource is the low-grade peat found in a swampy stretch along the west coast. Rice production is the most important economic activity among Sri Lanka’s peasantry, with paddy production having increased impressively since the country gained independence.

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SUDAN

ABDEL FATTAH AL-BURHAN, PRESIDENT

Sudan is a country located in north-eastern Africa bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, South Sudan to the south, the Central African Republic and Chad to the west and Libya to the northwest.

The Republic of the Sudan has a transitional government. The capital city is Khartoum and the official languages are English and Arabic. The current head of state is President Abdel Fattah al-Burhan.

On 12th February, 1953, the Egyptian government signed an agreement with Britain granting self-government for the Sudan and self-determination within three years for the Sudanese.

Elections for a representative parliament to rule the Sudan followed in November and December 1953.

The Egyptians threw their support behind Ismāʿīl al-Azharī, then leader of the NUP, who campaigned on the slogan “Unity of the Nile Valley.” This position was opposed by the Ummah Party, which had the less-vocal but pervasive support of British officials.

To the shock of many British officials and the chagrin of the Ummah, which had enjoyed power in the legislative council for nearly six years, Azharī’s NUP won an overwhelming victory.

Although Azharī had campaigned to unite the Sudan with Egypt, the realities of disturbances in the southern Sudan and the responsibilities of political power and authority ultimately led him to disown his own campaign promises and declare Sudan an independent republic with an elected representative parliament on 1st January, 1956.

Sudan joined the United Nations on 12th November, 1956.

Sudan is one of the poorest and least-developed countries in the world, with about a third of its inhabitants dependent on farming and animal husbandry for their livelihoods. Though its role in the economy has declined in the decades since independence, agriculture still accounts for about a third of Sudan’s GDP. Oil production began in the late 1990s and petroleum quickly became the country’s most important export.

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REPUBLIC OF SURINAME

KINGDOM OF ESWATINI

(formerly known as the Kingdom of Swaziland)

The Republic of Suriname (population over 600,000) is a country on the north-eastern Atlantic coast of South America. Paramaribo is the capital and largest city of Suriname, located on the banks of the Suriname River in the Paramaribo District. Paramaribo has a population of roughly 250,000, representing almost half of Suriname’s population.

The name Suriname may CHANDRIKAPERSAD SANTOKHI, PRESIDENT derive from an indigenous people called Surinen, who inhabited the area at the time of European contact.

Situated slightly north of the Equator, Suriname is a tropical country dominated by rain forests. Its extensive tree cover is vital to the country’s efforts to mitigate climate change and maintain carbon negativity.

The Republic of Suriname is a representative democratic republic, based on the Constitution of 1987. The legislative branch of government consists of a 51-member unicameral National Assembly, simultaneously and popularly elected for a five-year term. President Chandrikapersad Santokhi is the current leader of Suriname.

Suriname’s democracy gained some strength after the turbulent 1990s, and its economy became more diversified and less dependent on Dutch financial assistance. Bauxite mining used to be a strong source of revenue. The discovery and exploitation of oil and gold added substantially to Suriname’s economic independence. Agriculture, especially rice and bananas, remains a strong component of the economy, and ecotourism is providing new economic opportunities. More than 93% of Suriname’s land-mass consists of unspoilt rainforest.

Education in Suriname is compulsory until the age of 12 and the nation has a net primary enrolment rate of 94%. Literacy is very common, particularly among men. The main university in the country is the Anton de Kom University of Suriname.

Eswatini, officially the Kingdom of Eswatini (population 1,115,000), previously known as the Kingdom of Swaziland, is a landlocked country on the eastern flank of South Africa, where it borders Mozambique. It extends about 175 km from north to south and about 130 km from west to east at its longest and widest points. The majority of Eswatini’s population is ethnic Swazi, mixed with a KING MSWATI III small number of Zulus and white Africans, predominantly of British and Afrikaner origin.

Mbabane (estimated population of 95,000) is a city in Eswatini that is one of the two capitals, along with Lobamba, serving as the executive capital. Eswatini is an absolute monarchy with constitutional provision and Swazi law and customs. The head of state is the king, or Ngwenyama (lit. Lion), currently King Mswati III. On 19th April, 2018, King Mswati III announced that the Kingdom of Swaziland had renamed itself the Kingdom of Eswatini, reflecting the extant Swazi name for the state eSwatini, to mark the 50th anniversary of Swazi independence. The new name, Eswatini, means “land of the Swazis”.

Eswatini is a developing country and is classified as a lower-middle income economy. Overall, the economy displays a marked duality of large-scale intensive production and smallscale semi-subsistence activities. This produces a great contrast in incomes and living standards, which tends to be obscured by average per capita statistics. National economic policy is based on the free enterprise or market philosophy, with fiscal measures to redistribute resources to education, health and community improvement projects. Government revenue is derived principally from receipts from the Southern African Customs Union, sales tax and corporate and personal taxation. The largest agro-industry is the cultivation of sugarcane and the manufacture of sugar. Also of major commercial importance are the extensive man-made forests of pine and eucalyptus, which supply timber to a wood pulp mill and several sawmills.

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Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1970

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COMMENT

SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC

FAISAL MEKDAD, MINISTER OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS AND EXPATRIATES

As you know, the Non-Aligned movement consists of 120 member states, in addition to eight observer members, among them the Russian Federation and the People’s Republic of China. Today, at more than any time before, and despite the terrorist and economic war that has been waged against the Syrian Arab Republic, our country adheres to the principles of the Non-Aligned Movement that were originally approved at the Bandung and Belgrade conferences.

The Syrian Arab Republic had the honour of participating in these two conferences, which had called on the creation of a safer world where peace, justice, solidarity and cooperation prevail; a world based on respect for states’ equality, sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity, and refraining from the threat or use of force while promoting the peaceful settlement of disputes. However, some states, among which are permanent members of the Security Council who are supposed to maintain international peace and security, do not read the principles of the Non-Aligned move-

ment – principles that are similar to the principles established in the charter of the United Nations.

They do this despite the huge challenges facing the world, chiefly the prevalence of terror at the regional and international levels. As such, we still count on the Movement’s ability to contribute to rebalancing international relations in order to achieve security and stability around the world.

In fact, an historical friendship binds us with the Republic of Serbia, “previously Yugoslavia”. I am very happy to be among the Serbian people, whom we highly respect and appreciate. I would like to remind you that the Syrian Arab Republic was one of 25 participating states in the meeting held 60 years ago in Belgrade. I congratulate the Serbian leadership for its initiative to host this important meeting of the NonAligned Movement during this phase of the increased political polarisation of international relations. I am quite sure that all participating delegations will receive the well-known hospitality offered by the Serbian government and the friendly Serbian people.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1964

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TANZANIA

SAMIA SULUHU HASSAN, PRESIDENT

Tanzania is an east African country bordered by Uganda, Lake Victoria and Kenya to the north, the Indian Ocean to the east, Mozambique, Lake Nyasa, Malawi and Zambia to the south and southwest, and Lake Tanganyika, Burundi and Rwanda to the west.

The United Republic of Tanzania is a unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house, the National Assembly. The official languages are English and Swahili and the capital city is Dodoma. The current head of state and government is President Samia Suluhu Hassan.

It was in 1959 that a constitutional committee recommended unanimously that the 1960 elections ensure a large majority of the members of both sides of the council be Africans and that elected members form the basis of the government. In the 1960 Legislative Council elections, the TANU party and its allies were overwhelmingly victorious, and when Tanganyika became independent, on 9th December, 1961,

Julius Nyerere became its first prime minister. The next month, however, he resigned to devote his time to writing and synthesising his views on government and African unity. He was succeeded as PM by Rashidi Kawawa. One of Nyerere’s more important works was a paper called Ujamaa - the Basis for African Socialism, which later served as the philosophical basis for the Arusha Declaration of 1967. Tanganyika adopted a republican constitution on 9th December, 1962, with Nyerere becoming executive president of the country. Tanzania joined the United Nations on 14th December, 1961.

Some two-fifths of the country’s population is engaged in agricultural production (working as independent producers or salaried farm labourers) and agriculture accounts for approximately the same proportion of the country’s GDP. The major food crops are corn, rice, sorghum, millet, bananas, cassava, sweet potatoes, barley, potatoes and wheat.

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KINGDOM OF THAILAND

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF TIMOR-LESTE

Located at the heart of mainland Southeast Asia, Thailand is a country of mountains, hills, plains and a long coastline along the Gulf of Thailand and the Andaman Sea, not including the coastlines of some 400 islands, most of which are in the Andaman Sea. A multi-ethnic nation with a population exceeding 69 million, Bangkok is the capital and most popVAJIRALONGKORN, ulous city, with population THE KING of 11 million.

Thailand is a parliamentary democracy with a constitutional monarchy. After the country went through a peaceful transformation in 1932, sovereign power came to belong to the Thai people, with the King as the head of state, who is above partisan politics and carries out his role in accordance with the country’s Constitution. Vajiralongkorn is the King of Thailand. He is the only son of King Bhumibol Adulyadej and Queen Sirikit.

The Thai economy is well integrated into the global marketplace, with exports accounting for over 70 per cent of the Kingdom’s GDP. Thailand also has a strong industrial sector (40 per cent of GDP) and a robust and growing services sector (50 per cent of GDP), centred on the tourism and financial services industries. It is the 2nd largest economy in Southeast Asia, after Indonesia.

East Timor is an island nation in the eastern Lesser Sunda Islands (population of 1,350,000) at the southern extreme of the Malay Archipelago. Dili is the capital and largest city, with a population of 1,320,000.

On 20th May, 2002, the Constitution of the Democratic Republic of East Timor came into force and East Timor was recognised FRANCISCO GUTERRES, PRESIDENT as independent by the UN. The Constituent Assembly was renamed the National Parliament and Xanana Gusmão was sworn in as the country’s first president since the end of Indonesian occupation. The head of state of East Timor is the President of the Republic, who is elected by popular vote for a five-year term. Although the president’s executive powers are somewhat limited, they do have the power to appoint the Prime Minister and veto government legislation.

The economy of East Timor is a market economy that used to depend on exports of just a few commodities, such as coffee, marble, petroleum and sandalwood. It now generates revenue from offshore oil and gas reserves, but little of that has been spent on the development of villages, which still rely on subsistence farming. As of 2012, nearly half of the East Timorese population was living in extreme poverty.

Francisco Guterres is an East Timorese politician who has been President of East Timor since 2017.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1995

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 2001

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TOGO

FAURE GNASSINGBE, PRESIDENT

Togo is a country of West Africa.

From its 51-km-long coastline on the Gulf of Guinea, Togo extends northwards for about 515 km between Ghana, to the west, and Benin, to the east, to its border with Burkina Faso to the north.

The Togolese Republic is a multiparty republic with one legislative body, the National Assembly. The capital city is Lome and the official language is French. The current head of the state President Faure Gnassingbe.

French Togoland became an autonomous republic within the French Union on 30th August, 1956. This status was confirmed (despite opposition) by a plebiscite held in October under French patronage. Nicolas Grunitzky was appointed premier. Following UN representations, elections of April 1958 favoured complete independence and rejected Grunitzky’s Togolese Progress Party in favour of Sylvanus Olympio’s Togolese National Unity Party. Togo became independent on 27th April,

1960. Following the 1961 elections, which established a presidential form of government, Olympio became the first president. He maintained economic cooperation with France. Togo became a member of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU, now the African Union) in 1963 and subscribed to the renewed Joint African and Malagasy Organisation in 1965, which provided for economic, political and social cooperation among French-speaking African states. Togo joined the United Nations on 20th September, 1960.

A broad variety of soils and climates enables Togo to grow a wide range of products. A large proportion of the population is engaged in agricultural pursuits, many of which are subsistence-based. Agricultural products also factor prominently in the Togolese foreign exchange income. Staple crops include corn, cassava, rice, yams, sorghum, millet and peanuts, while export crops include cocoa beans, coffee, shea nuts, cotton and palm kernels.

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TUNISIA

KAIS SAIED, PRESIDENT

Tunisia is a country of North Africa bordered by Algeria, Libya and the Mediterranean Sea to the east and north.

The Tunisian Republic is a republic with one legislative body, the Assembly of People’s Representatives. The official language is Arabic and the capital city is Tunis. The current head of state is President Kais Saied.

The French granted full independence to Tunisia under an accord reached on 20th March, 1956, and Habib Bourguiba was chosen as the first prime minister. The rule of the bays was subsequently abolished and on 25th July, 1957, a republic was declared, with Bourguiba installed as president. After independence was granted, the Neo-Destour Party (from 1964 to 1988 the Destourian Socialist Party; from 1988 the Democratic Constitutional Rally [known by its French acronym RCD]) ensured that Tunisia moved quickly with reforms, most notably in the areas of education, the liberation of women

and legal reforms. Tunisia became a member of the United Nations on 12th November, 1956.

Tunisia has a well-diversified economy, although it continues to be dominated by just a few large sectors. The economy depends heavily on mineral exports, especially petroleum and phosphates, a growing manufacturing sector that has received much investment and agricultural products.

Tourism is also a significant source of revenue and foreign exchange, as are remittances from migrant workers living abroad. While foreign debt has been brought under control, the country continues to suffer from a regional imbalance between the north and the Al-Sāḥil region, which are more fertile and more economically developed, and the arid central and southern regions, which have fewer natural advantages. After a brief experiment with socialism in the 1960s, Tunisia shifted its economic doctrine toward a mixed planned and market economy.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1961

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TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

TURKMENISTAN

Trinidad and Tobago is an island nation of the south-eastern West Indies comprising the two main islands and several smaller islands.

The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago is a multiparty republic with two legislative bodies, the House of Representatives and Senate. The official language is English and the capital city is Port of Spain. The current PAULA-MAE WEEKES, head of state is President PRESIDENT Paula-Mae Weekes.

For about 10 years after universal suffrage, the politics of the colony was characterised by individualism and confusion, but in 1956 the People’s National Movement won a victory at the polls and formed the first party-based cabinet government, under the PNM’s founder and leader, Eric Williams. Trinidad and Tobago gained independence in 1962 and became a republic within the Commonwealth in 1976.

The PNM won six consecutive elections and held power from 1956 to 1986. This continuity and stability of government was accompanied by economic problems and social unrest, which broke out in widespread disturbances in 1970–71. Trinidad and Tobago became a member of the United Nations on 18th September, 1962.

The petroleum industry dominates the economy, which is therefore exposed to fluctuations in the global energy market.

Tourism and manufacturing are of great importance. Some state-owned enterprises were privatised during the 1980s and ’90s. In Tobago, tourism is by far the largest sector of the economy.

Turkmenistan is the second largest country in Central Asia, after Kazakhstan, and the southernmost of the region’s five republics. Turkmenistan is located in the southwest of the Central Asia region. It is bordered by Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, Iran and the Caspian Sea. Tu r k m e n i sta n i s a republic with one legislative house, the Mejlis GURBANGULY or Assembly. The official BERDIMUHAMEDOV, language is Turkmen and PRESIDENT the capital city is Ashgabat. The current head of state and government is President Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov.

The republic declared its independence on 27th October, 1991, adopting the name Turkmenistan. In the early years of independence, a corrupt regime under the dictatorial rule of Saparmurad Niyazov failed to improve the quality of life for the population, despite the interest of foreign investors in Turkmenistan’s natural gas reserves. In addition to declaring himself life-long president, Niyazov also pursued a number of extravagant projects. Turkmenistan joined the United Nations on 2nd March, 1992.

Turkmenistan specialises in cotton growing and the extraction of oil and natural gas. Turkmenistan’s energy resources, underground in the western plain and underwater along the Caspian Sea, include extensive reserves of oil and natural gas, as well as deposits of mirabilite, iodine, bromine, sulphur, potassium and salt.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1970

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1995

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REPUBLIC OF UGANDA

YOWERI KAGUTA MUSEVENI, PRESIDENT

The Republic of Uganda (population exceeding 42 million) is a landlocked country in east-central Africa. It mostly sits on a central plateau covered by rainforest. It has high volcanic mountains along its eastern and western borders. Uganda’s neighbours include South Sudan to the north, Kenya to the east, Tanzania and Rwanda to the south and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west. Kampala is the capital and largest city, with a population of 1,680,000.

The Ugandan economy is basically agricultural, with farming employing some four-fifths of the working population. Uganda’s moderate climate is especially congenial to the production of both livestock and crops.

Economic development and modernisation have been enormous tasks impeded by the country’s political instability. In order to repair the damage done to the economy by the governments of Idi Amin and Milton Obote, foreign investment in agriculture and core industries, mainly from Western countries and former Asian residents, was encouraged. From the early 2000s onwards, Uganda has been acclaimed

for its economic stability and high growth rates. It is one of the few African countries to be praised by the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and the international financial community for its economic policies of government divestiture, privatisation and currency reform.

Under the new constitution promulgated in 1995, the president is the head of state, government and the armed forces and is assisted by a prime minister and cabinet. Legislative power is vested in a unicameral parliament.

Most members of parliament are directly elected for five-year terms, with the remaining seats reserved for one female representative from every district and representatives of specific groups, such as the army, youth, labour and persons with disabilities. The constitution also recognises the right of ethnic groups to pursue their own cultural practises.

Uganda had a “no-party” political system until a 2005 referendum overwhelmingly supported a return to multiparty politics.

The next year saw the country hold its first multiparty elections since 1980.

Uganda’s current president is Yoweri Kaguta Museveni.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1964

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UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

SHEIKH KHALIFA BIN ZAYED BIN SULTAN AL NAHYAN, PRESIDENT

The United Arab Emirates is a country in Western Asia located at the eastern end of the Arabian Peninsula. It borders Oman and Saudi Arabia and has maritime borders in the Persian Gulf with Qatar and Iran.

The UAE is an elective monarchy formed from a federation of seven emirates: Abu Dhabi, which serves as the capital (population approx. 1.5 million), Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras Al Khaimah, Sharjah and Umm Al Quwain.

The UAE has developed from the juxtaposition of Bedouin tribes to one of the world’s most wealthy states in a period of only around half a century.

Economic growth has been impressive and steady throughout the history of this young confederation of emirates, with only brief periods of recession, e.g. during the global financial and economic crisis years of 2008–09, and a couple of more mixed years starting in 2015 and persisting until 2019. The UAE offers businesses a strong enabling environment: stable political and macroeconomic conditions, a future-orientated government, good general infrastructure and strong ICT infrastructure. Moreover,

the country has made continuous and convincing improvements to its regulatory environment and ranked as the 26th best nation in the world for doing business according to the World Bank’s Doing Business 2017 Report. The UAE also ranks high on several other global indices, such as the World Economic Forum’s (WEF) Global Competitiveness Index (GCI), the World Happiness Report (WHR) and the Global Innovation Index (GII).

The United Arab Emirates is a federal constitutional monarchy comprising a federation of seven hereditary tribal monarchy-styled political systems called Sheikhdoms. It is governed by a Federal Supreme Council consisting of the ruling sheikhs of Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Fujairah, Sharjah, Dubai, Ras al-Khaimah and Umm al-Quwain. All responsibilities not granted to the national government are reserved to the individual emirate.

A percentage of revenues from each emirate is allocated to the UAE’s central budget. The UAE uses the title Sheikh instead of Emir to refer to the rulers of individual emirates. Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan is the current president of the UAE.

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REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN

SHAVKAT MIROMONOVICH MIRZIYOYEV, PRESIDENT

The Republic of Uzbekistan (population approx. 35,000,000) is a doubly landlocked country in Central Asia. It is surrounded by Kazakhstan to the north, Kyrgyzstan to the northeast, Tajikistan to the southeast, Afghanistan to the south and Turkmenistan to the southwest. Its capital and largest city is Tashkent.

Uzbekistan forms part of the Turkish speaking world and is a member of the Turkish Council. Uzbek, a Turkish language written in a modified Latin alphabet, is spoken natively by approximately 85% of the population.

Russian has widespread use as an inter-ethnic tongue and in governance.

With a population of around 2.5 million, Tashkent is the most populous city in Central Asia.

Uzbekistan is among the world’s leading cotton producers. It is known for its orchards and vineyards and is also important for raising Karakul sheep and silkworms. Uzbekistan’s mineral and oil and gas reserves are substantial. The country produces and exports a large volume of natural gas. Its central bank issues the national currency, the sum.

The country’s resources include copper, zinc, lead, tungsten and molybdenum. Uzbekistan possesses substantial reserves of natural gas,

oil and coal. The country consumes large amounts of its own natural gas, while gas pipelines link its cities and also stretch from Bukhara to Russia’s Ural region. Surveys show petroleum resources in the Fergana Valley (including major reserves in the Namangan area), in the vicinity of Bukhara and in Qoraqalpoghiston. The modern extraction of coal has begun gaining importance, especially in the Angren fields. Hydroelectric dams on the Syr Darya, Naryn and Chirchiq rivers help augment the country’s nuclear, coal and petroleum-powered generation of electricity.

It was in 1992 that Uzbekistan adopted a new constitution to replace the Soviet-era constitution that had been in effect since 1978. The new constitution established the country as a republic and provided for legislative, executive and judicial branches of government, dominated by a strong executive. Personal liberties are generally protected, but the government is given the right to restrict some of these liberties under certain circumstances. Nationalist or religious political parties are prohibited. The current head of state and supreme commander-in-chief of the armed forces is President Shavkat Miromonovich Mirziyoyev.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1992

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VANUATU

TALLIS OBED MOSES, PRESIDENT

Vanuatu is a country in the south-western Pacific Ocean consisting of a chain of 13 principal and many smaller islands located about 800 km west of Fiji and 1,770 km east of Australia. The islands extend northsouth for some 650 km in an irregular Y shape. The main islands are Vanua Lava and Santa Maria. The country has an estimated population of 309,700.

Vanuatu is a republic with one legislative house, the Parliament. The current head of state is President Tallis Obed Moses. The official languages are English, Bislama and French and its capital city is Port-Vila.

The native population of Vanuatu is Melanesian, though some of the outlying islands have Polynesian populations.

Independence was agreed upon at a 1977 conference in Paris attended

by British, New Hebridean and French representatives. Elections were held and a constitution was drawn up in 1979. Despite an unsuccessful attempt in mid-1980 by Na-Griamel Party leader Jimmy Stevens to establish the independence of the island of Espiritu Santo from the rest of the group, the New Hebrides became independent within the Commonwealth under the name of the Republic of Vanuatu on 30 th July, 1980. Vanuatu joined the United Nations on 15th September, 1981.

The country’s most important exports are kava, beef, copra, timber and cocoa, while the main export destinations are Australia, New Zealand, Japan and New Caledonia. Imports – mainly of machinery and transport equipment, food and live animals – come from Fiji, Australia, Singapore and New Zealand.

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COMMENT

VENEZUELA

FÉLIX RAMÓN PLASENCIA GONZÁLEZ, MINISTER OF PEOPLE’S POWER FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS

The Non-Aligned Movement is an important international forum for political dialogue made up of 120 member states, 17 observer states and 10 international observer organisations, whose primary purpose is to raise their voice on behalf of the national interests of less favoured nations, or nations suffering under foreign aggression. Its ideals rest on the establishment of an alliance of independent states and the creation of the neutral option of non-alignment with the international policy of the great hegemonic powers.

The NAM has confirmed its capacity to adapt to changes within the international system, and to adjust the Non-Aligned principles created during the Cold War with the aim of promoting sustainable economic development, poverty alleviation and nuclear disarmament, to the new international environment of the 21st century. Nonetheless, the struggle to achieve success in certain initiatives, such as the reform of the UN Security Council, still continues, as does the fight against neoliberal policies that tend to undermine the sovereignty and integrity of smaller countries.

Another point worth noting with regard to the significance of the Movement is the full validity of the Ten Principles of Bandung from 1955, which served as the foundation for its establishment at the First Conference of the NAM that was held in Belgrade in 1961.

Our emotions are filled with joy and the hope of strengthening peaceful diplomacy, for which all of our united peoples yearn.

We are making history by commemorating the 60th Anniversary of the First Conference of Heads of State of Non-Aligned Countries right here, in Belgrade.

Venezuela organised and hosted the 7th Conference of Ministers of Information of the Non-Aligned Countries (COMINAC VII), held on the Island of Margarita from 2nd to 4th July 2008. That event made it possible

to highlight the initiatives promoted by the countries of the South that sought greater democratisation in the management of information and communications. Two such initiatives stood out: the NAM News Network, headquartered in Kuala Lumpur, and Telesur, headquartered in Caracas.

Our country held the Pro Tempore Presidency from 2016 to 2019, and in 2016 Venezuela organised and hosted the 17th NAM Summit, once again on the beautiful Island of Margarita.

Last year, our President, Nicolás Maduro, during his speech at the Summit of Non-Aligned Contact Group held on 4th May 2020, reiterated the need to create an International Humanitarian Fund as part of urgent measures that must be adopted to fight the novel coronavirus.

On 9th October 2020, during its remote participation in the NAM Ministerial Meeting, Venezuela advocated for unity and collective work in the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic, and the lifting of the unilateral coercive measures imposed against sovereign countries that represent a clear violation of the UN Charter and international law.

These unilateral coercive measures against the Venezuelan people, with dire economic consequences, violate human rights and international law itself. They are an attack on the country’s sovereignty and its civilian population, and are classified as a crime against humanity, being used solely as a means to achieve political ends.

We shall take the opportunity of this gathering among so many brotherly peoples, idiosyncrasies and diverse cultures in Belgrade to send a message of unity, solidarity and South-South cooperation. We will continue to revitalise the Movement to face the new challenges of the system of international relations, in order to achieve what all peoples of the world desire: the establishment of world peace, security and prosperity in a world of equals.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1989

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SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM

NGUYỄN PHÚ TRỌNG, GENERAL SECRETARY OF THE CENTRAL COMMITTEE OF THE COMMUNIST PARTY

The Socialist Republic of Vietnam is a country in Southeast Asia. Located at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, it covers an area of 311,699 sq/km, with a population of over 96 million.

It is the world’s 15th most populous country. Vietnam borders China to the north, Laos and Cambodia to the west, and shares maritime borders with Thailand through the Gulf of Thailand, and the Philippines, Indonesia and Malaysia through the South China Sea. Its capital city is Hanoi (population over 8 million), but the largest city is Ho Chi Minh City (population over 9 million).

Vietnam’s greatest economic resource is its literate and energetic population. Its long coastline provides excellent harbours, access to marine resources and many attractive beaches and areas of scenic beauty that are well suited to the development of tourism. Since the late 1990s, the country’s economy has been on a vigorous upswing. Early in the 21st century, state markets were opened to foreign competition and Vietnam became a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO).

Government investment has favoured heavy industry at the expense of agriculture, handicrafts and light industry – the traditional mainstays of

the economy. Agriculture has flourished in the Mekong Delta, with the standard of living significantly higher in the south than in the north.

Although manufacturing, and especially services, grew in importance after the introduction of reforms, agriculture remained a major component of the economy. After 1998, however, the economy began to rebound. Exports diversified and per capita income started to climb, nearly doubling in less than a decade. The export of seafood, like shrimp, squid, crab and lobster, has become a major source of foreign revenue. There has also been an increase in the number of commercial shrimp farms. The most important freshwater fisheries are located on the plains of the Mekong and Champasak (Bassac) rivers.

A unicameral, popularly elected National Assembly is Vietnam’s supreme organ of government. It elects the president, who is head of state, and the vice president, who is nominated by the president. The cabinet consists of the prime minister, who is nominated by the president and approved by the National Assembly. The current General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party and leader of Vietnam is Nguyễn Phú Trọng.

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REPUBLIC OF YEMEN

ABD RABBUH MANSUR HADI, PRESIDENT

The Republic of Yemen (population approx. 30,000,000) is situated on the south-western extreme of the Arabian Peninsula. It is mostly mountainous and generally arid, though there are broad patches with sufficient precipitation to make agriculture successful.

The people speak various dialects of Arabic and are mostly Muslims. Sanaa (population approx. 2,600,000) is the capital and largest city. The present Republic of Yemen came into being in May 1990, when the Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen) merged with the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen (South Yemen). According to the unification agreement, Sanaa, formerly the capital of North Yemen, now functions as the political capital of the country, while Aden, formerly the capital of South Yemen, functions as the country’s economic centre.

Services are the largest economic sector (61.4% of GDP), followed by the industrial sector (30.9%) and agriculture (7.7%). Of these, petroleum production represents around 25% of GDP and 63% of the government’s revenue. Principal agricultural commodities produced in

the nation include grain, vegetables, fruits, pulses, qat, coffee, cotton, dairy products, fish, livestock (sheep, goats, cattle, camels) and poultry.

Most Yemenis are employed in agriculture. However, the role of the agriculture sector is limited due to the relatively low share of the sector in GDP and the large share of net food-buying households in Yemen (97%). Sorghum is the most common crop. Cotton and many fruit trees are also grown, with mangoes being the most valuable.

Yemen is a republic with a bicameral legislature. Under the 1991 constitution, power is shared between an elected president, an elected 301-seat Assembly of Representatives and an appointed 111-member Shura Council. The president is the head of state and the prime minister is the head of government. The Supreme Political Council sits in Sana’a. The 1991 constitution provides that the president be elected by popular vote from at least two candidates endorsed by at least 15 members of the Parliament. Yemen’s current head of state is President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1961

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ZAMBIA

HAKAINDE HICHILEMA, PRESIDENT

Zambia is a landlocked country in south-central Africa. It is situated on a high plateau and takes its name from the Zambezi River, which drains all but a small northern part of the country.

Zambia has a long land border with Angola to the west. Its other neighbours are Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Malawi, Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

The Republic of Zambia is a country with one legislative house, the National Assembly. The president is also the head of government. The serving President is Hakainde Hichilema. The official language is English and the capital city is Lusaka. Zambia has a current estimated population of 18,403,000.

In 1958, led by Kenneth Kaunda, a group of radicals split from the Congress to establish the Zambia African National Congress and its successor, the United National Independence Party (UNIP). Britain accepted that Africans would have to be given more power than the federal government was willing to concede. The federation was dissolved at the end of 1963. Early

in 1964, an election based on universal adult suffrage brought the UNIP a decisive majority, while it was also supported by nearly a third of white voters. The country became the independent Republic of Zambia within the Commonwealth on 24th October that year, with Kaunda serving as executive president. Zambia joined the United Nations on 12th January, 1964.

Zambia’s economy is heavily dependent on mining, in particular copper mining. However, reserves of copper ore at some mines are becoming depleted, production costs have increased and income has fluctuated.

Farms range in size from household farms to large commercial farms.

Smallholder farmers use hand tools and a few external inputs, while they mainly produce food crops such as corn, sorghum, millet, cassava and groundnuts. Much of Zambia’s cotton, which is used for the local textile industry as well as being exported, is also grown by smallholders. Medium and large commercial farms benefit from improved seed, fertiliser and animal draft power.

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ZIMBABWE

EMMERSON MNANGAGWA, PRESIDENT

Zimbabwe is a landlocked country of southern Africa. It shares its 200-kilometre southern border with the Republic of South Africa and is bordered by Botswana to the southwest and west, Zambia to the north and Mozambique to the northeast and east. Zimbabwe lies almost entirely above an elevation of 300 m/asl.

Zimbabwe is a unitary republic with two legislative bodies, the National Assembly and Senate. Zimbabwe has 16 official languages and an estimated population of 19,982,000. Its capital city is Harare. The current head of the state and government is President Emmerson Mnangagwa.

Independence talks for the then Rhodesia involved Bishop Abel Muzorewa, Robert Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo at London’s Lancaster House conference in late 1979, resulting in the UK briefly retaking control of Southern Rhodesia as a colony until a new round of elections was held in February 1980.

Of the 80 contested Black seats, ZANU (now using the name ZANU-PF) won

57, ZAPU 20 and the UANC 3. Mugabe became the first prime minister as Zimbabwe achieved internationally recognised independence on 18th April, 1980. Mugabe wrote an article for the 1982 Britannica Book of the Year (events of 1981) detailing the black majority’s struggle for independence, entitled ‘Struggling for Nationhood: The Birth of Zimbabwe’. Zimbabwe subsequently joined the United Nations on 25th August, 1980.

Although the country’s agricultural sector declined dramatically in the early 21st century, it remains an important productive sector of the country’s economy. It regularly generates about 15 per cent of Zimbabwe’s GDP. More than half of the total workforce is engaged directly in agriculture.

The sector is divided into large-scale commercial farming, which occupies some 40 per cent of the total land area and was historically dominated by white farmers, and small-scale farming, which is both commercial and subsistence in nature.

Member of Non-Aligned Movement since 1979

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COMMENT

SLOVENIA

BORUT PAHOR, PRESIDENT

After the Second World War, many countries were seeking a way to fully emancipate themselves and become part of the international community of sovereign and equal states. This was a time of emerging ideological and political divisions of the world. The new bipolar international order was crippling the functioning of the UN system, and, at the extreme end of the spectrum, posed a threat to humanity due to the possibility of nuclear conflict.

States that were not part of any bloc, and especially those that had then only recently liberated themselves from foreign colonial rule, felt that their role in the international community was to transcend bloc politics and uphold the fundamental principles of the UN Charter, in particular the principles of sovereignty and equality of all states, non-interference in the internal affairs of others, the prohibition of the threat or use of force as a means of foreign policy, and the obligation to resolve international disputes through peaceful means. They also focused on development issues, with the aim of combating poverty and overcoming development disparities.

Following a series of preparatory international meetings, the first NonAligned Movement Summit took place in Belgrade in 1961. Due to the great ideological, political and developmental differences between the members of the Non-Aligned Movement, as well as practical reasons and divergent interests, the Movement did not evolve into an international organisation. However, through the documents adopted at the Belgrade Summit, the basic orientation of the Non-Aligned Movement and the framework for its future activities were outlined.

Despite great differences among individual members, and notwithstanding their ideological and economic ties with the bloc alliances, the Non-Aligned Movement played a significant role in the bipolar world of that time. Important achievements of the Non-Aligned Movement include the final abolition of colonialism, a contribution to the

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maintenance of international peace and the emancipation of new countries and their interests within the international community.

With the end of the Cold War and the bipolar reality, the Non-Aligned Movement lost much of its purpose. However, there are still many pressing and even existential global issues that are important and often specific to the countries that are still bound by the Non-Aligned Movement. Among such challenges are climate change, crisis situations that are more or less related to human rights issues and terrorism, and lately also the COVID-19 pandemic. The peaceful resolution of disputes also remains a pressing issue among countries, including those belonging to the Non-Aligned Movement. I certainly believe that the Non-Aligned Movement could be an important stakeholder in dealing with the aforementioned issues and others that concern the modern world.

The Republic of Slovenia is a successor of the former Yugoslavia, which was among the leaders of the Non-Aligned Movement. However, after the end of the Cold War and the disintegration of the joint state, Slovenia decided to pursue its fundamental national interests within the European Union and NATO. Slovenia supports the multilateral management of international relations within the UN system and other international organisations and institutions. We are committed to the peaceful resolution of disputes and advocate tolerance and peaceful coexistence within and among countries. I believe that these principles are also extremely important for the Non-Aligned Movement.

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COMMENT

OBSERVERS

RUSSIA point of view from the decision-making process. The Movement’s approaches to many key international issues are in harmony with those of Russia. Along with the Movement’s members, our country is firmly committed to the principles of sovereign equality, non-interference in the internal affairs of other states and the peaceful settling of international disputes and other obligations under international law.

In July 2021, Russia received observer status in the Non-Aligned Movement.

This is natural and logical given the close cooperation that has been developing between the former USSR, succeeded

by Russia, and the Movement from the very start. We believe that the further promotion of our constructive partnership will strengthen multilateral foundations of international relations and world economy, bring about peace and security, and enhance the prosperity of all nations.

We are glad that the Serbian capital is this October welcoming the high-level meeting of the Non-Aligned Movement on the occasion of the 60th anniversary of its first conference. Belgrade’s time-honoured foreign policy tradition emphasises multi-faceted diplomacy and the consistent development of mutually beneficial ties, which enables Serbia to keep its profile as the leading country in the region and a notable centre of world affairs. The forum is sure to facilitate the achievement of these important aims.

ALEXANDER BOTSAN-KHARCHENKO, AMBASSADOR

Russia and the Non-Aligned Movement, which was co-founded by Belgrade, foster cordial relations based on the acknowledgement of cultural and civilisational diversity on our planet and the recognition of the right of each state to independently determine—within the scope of the UN Charter—their foreign policy and socioeconomic paradigm.

The first conference of the Non-Aligned Movement, which took place in Belgrade 60 years ago, contributed significantly to the development of a more just and balanced international architecture. It may be said that international aspirations towards universal multilateralism, which is now being established, already manifested themselves back then. It is clear these days that ideology-based alliances and blocs are no longer capable of tackling cross-border challenges. The demand for inclusive inter-state organisations that recognise the central and coordinating role of the UN and act upon terms of mutual respect, equality and non-confrontation, is reasonably growing. Without doubt, the Non-Aligned Movement, as a platform uniting more than half of the nations around the globe, is at the vanguard of this trend. Indeed, as are the G20, BRICS and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, in which our country participates actively.

The Non-Aligned Movement is fully engaged in solving global and regional problems on the UN agenda. It prevents the exclusion of those who have their own

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OBSERVERS

ARGENTINA

ARMENIA

Argentina is a South American country that covers most of the southern portion of the continent and borders Chile, Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay and the Atlantic Ocean.

The Argentine Republic is a federal republic with two legislative houses, the Senate and Chamber of Deputies. President ALBERTO FERNANDEZ, Alberto Fernandez is the current head of governPRESIDENT ment and state. The official language is Spanish and the capital city is Buenos Aires.

An assembly met at San Miguel de Tucumán and on 9th July, 1816 (Nueve de Julio) and declared the country independent under the name of the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata. Several years of hard fighting followed, before the final defeat of the Spanish royalists in northern Argentina. However, they remained a threat from their base in Peru until it was itself liberated by José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar in 1820-24. The Buenos Aires government tried to maintain the integrity of the old Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, but the outlying portions, which had never been effectively controlled, were soon lost: Paraguay in 1814, Bolivia in 1825, and Uruguay in 1828.

Argentina joined the United Nations on 24th October, 1945. Argentina is one of the world’s major exporters of soybeans and wheat, as well as meat. It is also one of the largest producers of wool and wine. Although agriculture is an important source of export earnings, it now accounts for a small percentage of the overall GDP and employs only a tiny portion of the nation’s workforce.

Armenia is country of Transcaucasia that lies just to the south of the great mountain range of the Caucasus and fronts the north-western extreme of Asia. Armenia is bordered

by Georgia, Azerbaijan, Iran and Turkey.

The Republic of Armenia is a unitary multiparty republic with a single legislative body, the National Assembly. The head of ARMEN SARKISYAN, state is President Armen PRESIDENT Sarkisyan. The capital city is Yerevan and the official language is Armenian.

With the rise of Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, the Armenians organised a massive nationalist movement focused on recovering Nagorno-Karabakh for Armenia. This movement grew into a popular democratic organisation, the Armenian National Movement, and in the 1990 elections the ANM won a majority in parliament. Armenia declared its sovereignty on 23rd August, 1990, and its independence on 23rd September, 1991. It was in October of that year that Levon Ter-Petrossian was elected the first president of Armenia. Ethnic violence between Armenians and Azerbaijani in the enclave, which had begun in 1988, escalated into war.

Armenia joined the United Nations on 2nd March, 1992.

Agriculture in Armenia has to contend with many difficulties. Arable land is scarce, while cultivated lands (ploughland, orchards and vineyards) occupy less than two-fifths of the total area. Pastures and meadows mowed for hay cover a larger area, approaching a quarter of the territory. Farmlands in mountainous regions form a mosaic of cornfields, orchards, vineyards and pastures.

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OBSERVERS

BRAZIL

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA Bosnia-Herzegovina is a country situated in the Western Balkan region of Europe’s Balkan Peninsula. This roughly triangular-shaped country is bordered to the north, west and south by Croatia, to the east by Serbia, to the southeast by Montenegro and to the southwest by the Adriatic Sea, along a narrow extension of the country. ŽELJKO KOMŠIĆ, Bosnia-Herzegovina is CHAIRMAN an emerging republic with two legislative houses, the House of Representatives and House of Peoples. The head of state is a nominally tripartite presidency with a chair that rotates every eight months. The current chairman is Željko Komšić. The country’s official languages are Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian, while the capital city is Sarajevo.

Attempts by EC negotiators to promote a new division of the country into ethnic “cantons” during February and March 1992 failed: different versions of these plans were rejected by each of the three main ethnic parties. When Bosnia-Herzegovina’s independence was recognised by the United States and the EC, on 7th April, civil war erupted. Bosnia-Herzegovina joined the United Nations on 22nd May, 1992.

The country is a significant agricultural region, with a third of its land cultivated or pastures. In hillier areas, land is employed for both cultivation and grazing. The country’s main crops include corn, potatoes, wheat, plums, cabbages and apples.

Brazil is a South American country that occupies half of the continent’s landmass. The Brazilian landscape is immense and complex, with interspersed rivers, wetlands, mountains and plateaus adjoining other major features and traversing the boundaries of states and regions.

Brazil is a multiparty federal republic with JAIR BOLSONARO, two legislative bodies, the PRESIDENT Chamber of Deputies and Federal Senate. The current head of state and government is President Jair Bolsonaro. The capital city is Brasilia and the official language is Portuguese.

In January 1822, a ministry was formed and headed by José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva, a distinguished Paulista scholar later known as the Patriarch of Independence, because he proved a tower of strength to the young regent during the first uncertain months of independence. It was on 3rd June the same year that Dom Pedro convoked a legislative and constituent assembly, and on 7th September, on the plain of Ipiranga, near the city of São Paulo, he proclaimed the independence of Brazil. He was crowned emperor on 1st December. Brazil became a member of the United Nations on 24th October, 1945.

Farming and livestock rearing account for about a fifth of the employment of the country’s labour force and roughly a twelfth of its GDP. Although fishing and forestry are important, they are much smaller parts of the overall economy.

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OBSERVERS

CHINA China is a country of East Asia that borders Mongolia to the north, Russia and North Korea to the northeast, the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea to the east, the South China Sea to the southeast, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, India, Bhutan, and Nepal to the south, Pakistan to the southwest, and Afghanistan, Tajikistan, KyrXI JINPING, PRESIDENT gyzstan and Kazakhstan to the west.

The People’s Republic of China is a single-party people’s republic with one legislative house, the National People’s Congress. President Xi Jinping is the current head of state.

The capital city is Beijing and the official language is Mandarin Chinese.

Once in power, communist cadres could no longer condone what they had once sponsored and, inevitably, adopted a more rigid and bureaucratic attitude towards popular participation in politics. Many communists, however, considered these changes a betrayal of the revolution; their responses gradually became more intense and the issue eventually began to divide the once cohesive revolutionary elite. That development became a central focus of China’s political history from 1949. China joined the United Nations on 24th October, 1945.

As a result of its topographic and climatic features, the area of China suitable for cultivation is small: only about 10 per cent of its total area. Of this, slightly more than half is unirrigated, while the remainder is divided roughly equally between paddy fields and irrigated areas. Good progress has been made in improving water conservancy, though the quality of the soil in cultivated regions varies around the country and environmental problems, such as floods, drought and erosion, pose serious threats in many areas.

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CROATIA Croatia is country located in the north-western part of the Balkan Peninsula. It is bordered by Serbia, Hungary, Slovenia and Montenegro, as well as sharing a long border with Bosnia-Herzegovina.

Croatia is a multiparty republic with one legislative house, the Croatian Parliament. President Zoran Milanović is the current head of state. The offiZORAN MILANOVIĆ, cial language is Croatian and PRESIDENT the capital city is Zagreb.

In May and August of 1995, two Croatian military offensives regained control of western Slavonia and central Croatia from rebel Serbs. Croatia was disappointed, however, when in November the U.S.-brokered Dayton Accords failed to provide a clear timetable for the return of eastern Slavonia to Zagreb’s control. In 1996, Slobodan Milošević, Serbia’s president and the effective leader of the rump Yugoslavia, agreed to give up claims to eastern Slavonia.

Croatia joined the United Nations on 22nd May, 1992.

Agriculture (grazing and tilling) occupies less than a quarter of Croatia’s land and contributes less than a tenth of the country’s GDP. Most agricultural land is privately held, but many landholdings are too small for profitable production.

Croatian agricultural produce is exported mainly to nearby countries, particularly Bosnia-Herzegovina, Italy, Slovenia and Serbia. Croatia’s main industry is tourism.

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OBSERVERS

COSTA RICA Costa Rica is a Central American country bordered by Nicaragua, the Caribbean Sea - along its 300-km-long north-eastern coastline, Panama and the Pacific Ocean. At the country’s narrowest point, the distance between the Pacific and the Caribbean is only about 120 km.

The Republic of Costa Rica is a unitary multiparty republic with one legislaCARLOS ANDRÉS tive house, the Legislative ALVARADO QUESADA, Assembly. President Carlos PRESIDENT Andrés Alvarado Quesada is the head of state and government. The official language is Spanish and the capital city is San Jose.

When Mexico declared its independence from Spain in 1821, Costa Rica, along with other parts of Central America, joined the short-lived Mexican Empire. In 1823, Costa Rica helped create the United Provinces of Central America, but – disenchanted with the strife in the other four states of the federation – severed its ties in 1838. Costa Rica joined the United Nations on 2nd November, 1945.

Costa Rica is neither rich, as its name (Rich Coast) implies, nor is it as poor as many of its neighbours. The country’s wealth is better distributed among all social classes than elsewhere in Central America. During the 1980s, the Costa Rican standard of living declined somewhat as a result of economic stagnation and inflation, but by the 1990s and into the 21st century the country was again vying with Panama and Belize for the title of Central America’s highest per capita gross national product.

EL SALVADOR E l S al vador i s the smallest and most densely populated of the seven Central American countries. El Salvador borders Honduras to the north and east, the Pacific Ocean to the south and Guatemala to the northwest. The entire territory of El Salvador is located on the Central American volcanic axis, which determines the country’s major geographNAYIB BUKELE, ic regions.

PRESIDENT El Salvador is a republic with one legislative body, the Legislative Assembly. The head of state and govermment is President Nayib Bukele. The capital city is San Salvador and the official language is Spanish.

It was on 15th September, 1821 that the province endorsed Guatemala’s declaration of independence from Spain. The Salvadorans, however, opposed the Guatemalan decision to accept incorporation into Agustín de Iturbide’s Mexican empire, a stance that led to confrontations with the Guatemalan and Mexican armies. Facing defeat in late 1822, a Salvadoran congress sought adoption of a resolution providing for the province’s annexation to the United States, but this scheme was abandoned when Iturbide’s government collapsed in 1823.

El Salvador became a member of the United Nations on 10th October, 1945. El Salvador’s economy was predominantly agricultural until its industry began expanding rapidly in the 1960s and ’70s. Despite its traditional concentration on agriculture, the country is not self-sufficient and must import food. At the root of this problem is the disproportionate distribution of land, which favours commercial crops and leaves many peasants landless and unable to grow subsistence crops.

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OBSERVERS

KAZAKHSTAN

KYRGYZSTAN

Kazakhstan is country of Central Asia that’s bordered by Russia to the northwest and north, China to the east, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, the Aral Sea and Turkmenistan to the south, and the Caspian Sea to the southwest.

The Republic of Kazakhstan is a unitary republic with a Parliament consisting of two houses, the House of RepresentaKASSYM-JOMART tives and Senate. President TOKAYEV, PRESIDENT Kassym-Jomart Tokayev is the head of state. The official languages are Kazakh and Russian, while the capital city is Nur-Sultan.

Kazakhstan declared its independence from the Soviet Union on 25th October, 1990, and became fully independent on 16th December, 1991. Kazakhstan became a member of the United Nations on 2nd March, 1992.

Under the presidency of Nursultan Nazarbayev, Kazakh politics continued to follow the moderate line of Kunayev.

Nazarbayev’s leadership was initially restrained, relative to the leadership of neighbouring Central Asian states. However, it gradually grew increasingly authoritarian. In 1994, the government decided to gradually transfer the national capital from Almaty, located in the country’s southeast, to Aqmola, located in the north-centre, over the following years. The capital was officially moved in 1997 and the city was renamed Astana in May 1998.

Kazakhstan possesses abundant natural resources. Its major exports include agricultural products, raw materials, chemical products and manufactured goods. The privatisation of state-owned industries was undertaken during the 1990s.

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Kyrgyzstan is a Central Asian country bordered by Kazakhstan to the northwest and north, China to the east and south and Tajikistan and Uzbekistan to the south and west.

The Kyrgyz Republic is a republic with one legislative house, the Supreme Council. The head of state is President Sadyr Japarov.

The official languages are Russian and Kyrgyz, while SADYR JAPAROV, the capital city is Bishkek.

PRESIDENT During the second half of the 20th century, economic progress and general modernisation didn’t manage to eradicate tensions between Russians and Kyrgyz. Among the Central Asian republics of the former Soviet Union, Kyrgyzstan was perhaps the most eager to gain full independence. After more than 1,000 years of disunity, statelessness and foreign subjugation, Kyrgyzstan joined the world’s independent countries on 31st August, 1991, and became a member of the United Nations on 2nd March, 1992.

The people of Kyrgyzstan have traditionally raised livestock and engaged in farming. By the late 20th century, the republic had become a source of nonferrous metals, notably antimony and mercury ores, and a producer of machinery, light industrial products, hydroelectric power and food products. Gold mining has increased in importance and Kyrgyzstan possesses substantial coal reserves and some petroleum and natural gas deposits. Hydroelectric power provides more than three quarters of the country’s electricity.

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OBSERVERS

MEXICO Mexico is a country of the southern North America. With the Pacific Ocean to the west and south and the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea to the east, it is bordered by the United States to the north and Guatemala and Belize to the southeast.

The United Mexican States is a federal republic with two legislative houses, the Chamber of DepuANDRÉS MANUEL LÓPEZ ties and Senate. The official OBRADOR, PRESIDENT language is Spanish and the capital city is Mexico City. The current head of state and government is President Andrés Manuel López Obrador.

Although the Spanish crown initially rejected O’Donojú’s recognition of Mexican independence, the date now recognised as that of separation from Old Spain is 24th August, 1821. The first Mexican Empire spanned only a short transitional period during which Mexico became an independent republic. Independence from the former mother country had been the only glue that bound republicans and monarchists, but once that elusive goal had been achieved, the intrinsic animosity between the two came to dominate the body politic.

Mexico joined the United Nations on 7th November, 1945.

Much of the country is too arid or mountainous for crops or grazing, and it is estimated that no more than a fifth of the land is potentially arable. Moreover, Mexico’s rapidly growing population has made the country a net importer of grain. In the early 21st century, agriculture accounted for a small and diminishing part of the country’s GDP, while the rural workforce was also shrinking rapidly, despite remaining significant.

MONTENEGRO Montenegro is a country located in the central section of the Western Balkans at the southern end of the Dinaric Alps. It is bordered by the Adriatic Sea, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia and Albania.

Montenegro is a multiparty republic with one legislative house, the Parliament. The capital city is Podgorica and the official language is Serbian. PresiMILO ĐUKANOVIĆ, dent Milo Đukanović is the PRESIDENT head of the country.

In a referendum held on 21st May, 2006, 55.5% of Montenegrins voted to end the federation of the Serbia & Montenegro State Union and it was on 3rd June the same year that Montenegro declared its independence, which was recognised by the Serbian National Assembly two days later. The principal feature of the first years of independence was the economic boom of 2006-08, with growth rates exceeding six per cent annually. The boom was followed, however, by a contraction of roughly the same percentage in 2009. Sharp declines in European bank credit, real estate sales (to Russians in particular) and foreign direct investment factors that had been partly responsible for the boom, accounted for the economic downturn.

Montenegro became a member of the United Nations on 28th June, 2006.

Although the country is endowed with only limited areas of suitable soil and climate, farming dominated Montenegro’s economy until the mid-20th century. Less than a tenth of the territory is farmed, with about two-fifths of that area devoted to grain crops. Montenegro’s economy is today dominated by tourism.

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PARAGUAY

TAJIKISTAN

Paraguay is a landlocked country of south-central South America that is bordered by Bolivia to the northwest and north, Brazil to the northeast and east, and Argentina to the southeast, south and west. The capital city of Asunción is located on the east bank of the Paraguay River, opposite the mouth of its primary MARIO ABDO BENÍTEZ, western tributary, the Pilcomayo River.

PRESIDENT The Republic of Paraguay is a multiparty republic with two legislative houses, the Chamber of Senators and Chamber of Deputies. The head of state and government is President Mario Abdo Benítez and the official languages are Guarani and Spanish.

Paraguay was the centre of Jesuit missions in South America, but their expulsion led to the territory losing much of its significance. However, when the Spanish governor sought assistance in defending the colony against further attacks from Buenos Aires, he underestimated the nationalist spirit of the Paraguayans. Under the leadership of militia captains Pedro Juan Cabellero and Fulgencio Yegros, they promptly deposed the governor and declared their independence from Spain on 14th May, 1811. Paraguay became a member of the United Nations on 24th October, 1945.

Agriculture is one of the most important economic activities in Paraguay, employing about a quarter of the workforce and accounting for about a fifth of GDP and the vast majority of exports. Important cash crops include soybeans, corn, wheat, rice, rapeseed, sesame, sugarcane, peanuts and cassava.

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Tajikistan is country that lies at the heart of Central Asia, bordered by Kyrgyzstan to the north, China to the east, Afghanistan to the south and Uzbekistan to the west and northwest.

The Republic of Tajikistan has two legislative bodies, the House of Representatives and National Assembly. The capital city is Dushanbe and the official language is Tajik. President Emomali Rahmon is the curEMOMALI RAHMON, rent head of the state.

PRESIDENT The 1991 disintegration of the Soviet Union led to Tajikistan somewhat reluctantly declaring its full independence on 9th September, 1991. Once independence was achieved, turmoil—degenerating into civil war—plagued the new country, with communists fighting to retain power in the face of rising opposition from an alliance of Islamic and democratic forces. The presidential election of November 1991 was won by Tajikistan’s former communist strongman, Rahman Nabiyev, and in March 1992 massive nonviolent demonstrations protesting his dismissal of opposition elements began in Dushanbe. After government forces opened fire on the demonstrators in April, violence soon spread to the southern city of Kŭlob and elsewhere.

Opposition forces drove Nabiyev from office in September and briefly took power, but by November a government led by Emomali Rahmonov (from March 2007, Emomali Rahmon) and backed by Russian troops had regained control, ending the first phase of the civil war. A mass exodus to Afghanistan followed. Sporadic fighting continued as the Islamic fundamentalist forces and their allies, now based in Afghanistan, continued to launch attacks on the Russian and Tajik troops guarding the border.

Tajikistan became a state member of the United Nations on 2nd March, 1992. Tajikistan’s economy is dependent on agriculture and services, with each employing more than two-fifths of the labour force. The civil war that followed Tajikistan’s independence had a devastating impact on agriculture and industry in the republic.

Tajikistan possesses rich mineral deposits, with its important ores including iron, lead, zinc, antimony, mercury, gold, tin and tungsten.

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OBSERVERS

UKRAINE Ukraine is the second largest country on the continent after Russia. It is bordered by Belarus, Russia, the Sea of Azov, the Black Sea, Moldova, Romania, Hungary, Slovakia and Poland.

Ukraine is a unitary multiparty republic with a single legislative house, Verkhovna Rada. The head of state is President VoloVOLODYMYR ZELENSKY, dymyr Zelensky. The capital city is Kyiv and the offiPRESIDENT cial language is Ukrainian.

The population of Ukraine voted overwhelmingly for independence in the referendum of 1st December, 1991.

(About 84 per cent of eligible voters turned out for the referendum, with about 90 per cent of them endorsed independence.)

In an election coinciding with the referendum, Kravchuk was chosen as president. By this time, several important developments had taken place in Ukraine, including the dissolution of the Communist Party and the development (under newly appointed Defence Minister Kostiantyn Morozov) of the infrastructure for separate Ukrainian armed forces. Ukraine had already become a member of the United Nations on 24th October, 1945.

Thanks partly to rich soils and a favourable climate, Ukraine’s crop production is highly developed. Its output of grain and potatoes is among the highest in Europe, while it is among the world’s largest producers of sugar beets and sunflower oil. Ukraine’s livestock sector lags behind the crop sector, but its total output is still considerably larger than that of most other European countries.

URUGUAY Uruguay is country located on the south-eastern coast of South America.

This wedge-shaped country is bordered by Brazil to the north and east, the Atlantic Ocean to the southeast, and the River Plate estuary to the south, while the Uruguay River serves as its western boundary with Argentina.

The Oriental Republic of Uruguay is a republic LUIS LACALLE POU, with two legislative houses, PRESIDENT the Senate and House of Representatives. President Luis Lacalle Pou is the head of state and government. The capital city is Montevideo and the official language is Spanish.

The “Brazilianization” of the country was resisted within the Banda Oriental and by Uruguayan exiles. Argentines felt increasingly threatened by the Brazilian presence and their government was compelled to support Juan Antonio Lavalleja, one of Artigas’s exiled officers, and his “33 orientales” when they crossed the river to free their homeland in 1825. The ensuing war was a stalemate, but British diplomats mediated a settlement in 1827, and in 1828 a treaty was ratified creating Uruguay as a separate state and a buffer between Brazil and Argentina. The nation’s strategic location also served British interests by guaranteeing that the Rio de la Plata would remain an international waterway.

Uruguay became a state member of the United Nations on 18th December, 1945.

Sheep and cattle farming are two of Uruguay’s most important economic activities. Wool and beef, as well as livestock, livestock products and skins and hides, account for about two-fifths of Uruguay’s export income, although agriculture makes up less than a tenth of its GDP.

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NATIONAL TOURISM ORGANISATION OF SERBIA

TOP 5 MUST-SEE

Places In Serbia Serbia is a veritable treasure trove of amazing places.

It’s undeniably difficult to pinpoint just five of them, but here’s a shortlist of places that need to be seen by anyone visiting Serbia for the first time

BELGRADE The capital of Serbia is a melting pot of the contemporary and the ancient. With its highlight, the Belgrade Fortress, its architecture is an eclectic mixture of various historical eras and the city is a perfect starting point to explore Serbia. Belgrade has many must-sees, like the Temple of Saint Sava, the pedestrianised Knez Mihailova Street, the National Museum, the Skadarlija bohemian quarter, the Museum of Contemporary Art, Ada Ciganlija lakeside resort, Avala Mountain and many more.

Kopaonik Mountain Photo: Andrej Nihil

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NOVI SAD There is good reason why Novi Sad is Serbia’s European Capital of Culture for 2022 and it is yours to discover this

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Novi Sad, Photo: Aleksandar Milutinović

delightful city. Your starting point to explore Novi Sad should be Petrovaradin Fortress, home to one of Europe’s largest music festivals – the Exit Festival.

Don’t skip a visit to the main pedestrian area, starting at Liberty Square and the city’s landmark Roman Catholic Parish Church, “ The Name of Mary”. The Vojvodina capital’s central pedestrian area continues on to Zmaj Jovina and Dunavska streets and Danube Park, which are as picturesque and charming as can be. Don’t miss the Matica Srpska Gallery, Synagogue, Pavle Beljanski Gallery... Just a few kilometres from Novi Sad, there is also the museum-like town of Sremski Karlovci. Apart from being famous for its outstanding architecture, Karlovci is also well-known for its winemaking tradition.

VRNJAČKA BANJA Dubbed the Queen of Serbian Spas, Vrnjačka Banja is a place that you need to see while you’re in Serbia.

It is a place for anyone how wants to enjoy high-quality wellness and spa facilities, but also a place where you

can disconnect from the world. Goč Mountain, which rises above Vrnjačka Banja and has the majestic Selište Lake as its highlight, is the perfect place to unwind in beautiful natural surroundings and perhaps enjoy some adrenaline-boosting activities like hiking and mountain-biking.

KOPAONIK MOUNTAIN Kopaonik Mountain, which is home to its own national park and Serbia’s most famous ski resort, is a must-see

destination. Although this place traditionally lures crowds of tourists in the winter months, it is worth visiting during any season. Springtime will leave you in awe, with the splendid nature and a list of exciting activities, like hiking, cycling, bob sledding etc. During the summer, Kopaonik is the perfect place to escape the heat, while in the autumn it offers a simply amazing colour palette.

THE DANUBE The Danube stretches through Serbia for a distance of 588 kilometres and it is along its course through our country that this mighty river reaches its widest, narrowest and deepest points.

Both Belgrade and Novi Sad are on the banks of the Danube, with Belgrade also being the spot where another major European river – the Sava – flows into the Danube. There are as many as seven medieval fortresses on the banks of Danube in Serbia: Bač, Petrovaradin, Belgrade, Smederevo, Ram, Golubac and Fetislam Fortress. These banks were even home to two prehistoric cultures, Vinča and the Lepenski Vir, which still puzzle us with the remarkable stories of our prehistoric ancestors.

The Danube Photo: Luka Šarac

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