Ocean State Report 2 Summary - Copernicus Marine Service

Copernicus Marine Service

OCEAN STATE REPORT

SUMMARY

TRIM SIZE: 215 X 280 mm

OCEAN STATE REPORT

#2

ISSUE 2, 2018

COPERNICUS MARINE SERVICE

OCEAN STATE REPORT Journal of Operational Oceanography Volume 11, Supplement 1

Issue 2, 2018 Journal of Operational Oceanography Volume 11, Supplement 1

Implemented by

14/08/18 9:22 PM

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ABOUT THE OCEAN STATE REPORT Written by more than 100 scientific experts from more than 30 European institutions, the Copernicus Marine Service Ocean State Report provides a comprehensive and state-of-theart assessment of the current state, natural variations, and changes in the global ocean and European regional seas. It is meant to act as a reference document for the ocean scientific community, business community, policy and decision-makers as well as the general public.

The Ocean State Report draws on expert analysis and provides a 4-D view (reanalysis systems), from above (through satellite remote sensing data) and directly from the interior (in situ measurements) of the blue (hydrography, currents), white (sea ice) and green (e.g. chlorophyll) ocean.

Scientific integrity is assured through a process of independent peer review in collaboration with the Journal of Operational Oceanography. This summary highlights a few selected results of the report.

ABOUT THE COPERNICUS MARINE SERVICE The Copernicus Marine Service (also referred to as CMEMS) is dedicated to ocean observation and monitoring. Funded by the European Union and implemented by Mercator Ocean International, a center for global ocean analysis and forecasting, the Copernicus Marine Services is one of six services of the EU Copernicus Programme.

It provides regular and systematic core reference information on the state of the physical oceans and European regional seas. It is designed to serve commercial sectors and scientific communities as well as to support major EU policies that can contribute to: combating pollution, protection of marine species, maritime safety and routing, sustainable exploitation of ocean resources, marine energy resources, climate monitoring and weather forecasting. It also aims to increase awareness amongst the general public by providing European and global citizens with information about ocean-related issues.

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Global

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NWS

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Med Sea

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Arctic

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IBI

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Black Sea

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Baltic

BLUE OCEAN MERIDIONAL OVERTURNING CIRCULATION (MOC) The Meridional Overturning Circulation (MOC) can be thought of as the conveyor belt of ocean currents.

This global process is responsible for transporting enormous amounts of water and heat around the Earth, and serves to connect the atmosphere, ocean surface, and the deep sea. This in turn contributes to the climate we experience today. It is driven by the differences in temperature and salt content (generally, cold salty water sinks and fresh warmer water rises) and also by wind. In the Atlantic, the Atlantic MOC (AMOC) affects global and European climate at decadal and longer time scales as well as the formation of new water masses. It is thus vital to monitor variations and changes in the AMOC.

Wa r

SPECIAL FOCUS IN THE OCEAN STATE REPORT ON THE NORTH ATLANTIC : A KEY REGION FOR THE EUROPEAN AND GLOBAL CLIMATE • The AMOC showed considerable variability over the period 1993-2016. Its strength has weakened since about 2005, which is driven by long-term variability rather than an ongoing trend.

• Over the past 25 years, the Gulf Stream has decelerated.

• There was a cold event that started in 2014 and persisted to 2016 in the North Atlantic that stood out in contrast to the warmer ocean temperatures observed in the global ocean. This event was characterized by deep penetrating (more than 1000 meters) cold temperatures and low salinity in the subpolar area. However, similar conditions were observed from 1993 to 1997. Inverse conditions (warm and high salinity) are reported from 2004 to 2009 in this same area.

m s u r f a c e fl o w Cold subsurface flow

BLUE OCEAN EARTH’S ENERGY IMBALANCE

Nearly 0.5 to 1.0 Watts per square meter of excess heat from human activities is trapped in the Earth system and is driving global warming. About 93% of that excess heat is absorbed by the ocean. As a consequence, the global ocean and regional European seas are warming.

~ 3%

Incoming solar radiation

Emitted infrared radiation

of the excess energy is warming the land and atmosphere

Human influence

~ 4% ~93%

of the excess energy is melting ice

of the excess energy is absorbed by the ocean

SEA LEVEL RISE

Sea level rise can seriously effect human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems. Global mean and regional sea level is affected by natural climate variability, as well as by human-induced changes. Because of ocean warming and land ice mass loss, the sea level rises. Water expands when heated and about 30% of contemporary sea level rise can be attributed to this thermal expansion (i.e. thermosteric sea level).

OCEAN HEAT CONTENT is the total amount of heat stored in the ocean (from top to bottom). A warming ocean causes thermal expansion and contributes to contemporary sea level rise. Thermal stress can contribute to coral bleaching and infectious diseases, changes in ocean water layers, currents, and increased sea ice melt. Moreover, a warming ocean alters ocean currents and modifies air-sea interactions, affecting weather and climate patterns from local to global scales.

Figure source: modified after von Schuckmann et al., 2016, Nature Climate Change, (DOI: 10.1038/NCLIMATE2876 https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate2876)

IN THE LAST QUARTER OF A CENTURY

GLOBAL THERMOSTERIC SEA LEVEL IS RISING

+1.2 mm PER YEAR

Trend from 2005 to 2016 Depth layer 0-2000 meters.

Uncertainty: ± 0.2 mm/year

Sea level rise is mainly due to melting ice & thermal expansion (water expands when heated), a phenomena referred to as thermosteric rise.

About 30% of contemporary sea level rise can be attributed to this thermal expansion.

GLOBAL SEA LEVEL IS RISING GLOBAL SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE HAS INCREASED

3.3 mm

Units: °C/year - Trend from 1993-2016

PER YEAR

+0.04 + -

+2.7

0.004

+- 0.9

Trend from 1993-2016 Units: mm/yr Uncertainty: ± 0.5 mm/yr

+3.3 +- 0.5

°C/YEAR MEDITERRANEAN SEA

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

+0.08 +- 0.008

BLACK SEA

+0.03 +- 0.007

NORTH WEST SHELF

+4.0

+0.03 +- 0.007

+- 2.9

+2.6

BALTIC SEA

NORTH WEST SHELF

BALTIC SEA

+- 0.8

GLOBAL OCEAN HEAT CONTENT HAS INCREASED

+0.8 Watts PER SQUARE METER

+1.3 +- 0.2

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

+0.9 +- 0.4

IBERIAN BISCAY IRISH SEA

Trend from 1993-2016 Depth layer: 0-700 meters Units : W/m² / Uncertainty : 0.1 W/m²

+0.7

+0.6

NORTH WEST SHELF

ARCTIC OCEAN

+ 0.8 -

+- 0.1

IBERIAN BISCAY IRISH SEA

+2.8 +- 2.5

BLACK SEA

BLUE OCEAN EXTREME VARIABILITY IN EUROPE

Over the last decades the sea level has risen, which may lead to storms (especially extreme storms) having a stronger impact on coasts (storm surge) through coastal flooding and ensuing damage to coastal infrastructures.

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1 Record-breaking wave heights are observed along the European coast at two monitoring stations in the northwest of Great Britain, particularly during the years 2009, 2013, and 2014. For example, in 2013, the buoy in the north of the British Isles showed the highest-ever significant wave height recorded by such an instrument, reaching 19 meters.

2 Extreme wave heights are lower than average in the Canary Islands, south of Spain, English Channel, Irish Sea, Mediterranean and Baltic Seas during 2016.

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3 In Europe, the most extreme warm conditions were observed in the Gulf of Cadiz.

4 In 2016, there are anomalously low sea levels along the southeastern coast of Sweden (as much as 10 cm lower than the last 2 decades).

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5 The lowest coastal sea level and significant wave height is observed in the Baltic Sea, which is possibly related to lower levels of storminess.

OVER THE PAST QUARTER OF A CENTURY

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LEGEND Heat loss from the ocean into the atmosphere

Figure modified after Pinardi et al. (2006). Pinardi, N., M. Zavatarelli, E. Arneri, A. Crise, M. Ravaioli, 2006: The physical, sedimentary and ecological structure and variability of shelf areas in the Mediterranean Sea. In Robinson, A.R., K. H. Brink: The global ocean interdisciplinary regional studies and syntheses.

Harvard University Press Cambridge, MA and London.

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SPECIAL FOCUS ON THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA: MONITORING MAJOR OCEANIC PROCESSES WITH IMPACT ON EUROPEAN CLIMATE The Mediterranean Sea is an engine transforming fresh and warm Atlantic water into saltier and cooler Mediterranean waters, which eventually outflows to the Atlantic. Any alterations in this overturning circulation can have a strong impact on the European weather and climate. One of the most important processes driving this circulation is the formation of deep and intermediate water masses through convection. These processes do not occur regularly, however their strength and characteristics can drastically change the overturning circulation in the Mediterranean Sea. For this reason, the Copernicus Marine Service has implemented constant monitoring of open ocean deep convection. Below are years that such convection events took place in key areas.

This figure shows the overturning circulation in the Mediterranean Sea. At surface and intermediate water layers, the circulation is forced by exchanges at Gibraltar and water mass formation in the northern Levantine basin. In the eastern Mediterranean Sea, the vertical circulation is forced by deep water mass formation in the southern Adriatic and Aegean Seas. In the western Mediterranean Sea, the meridional circulation is forced by water mass formation in the Gulf of Lion. The spirals indicate areas where ocean/atmosphere conditions favor water mass processes during winter time. The box areas indicate the areas where CMEMS monitoring is performed.

LEGEND Symbols in RED signify a higher than average anomaly (higher than average quantity/amount) Symbols in BLUE signify a lower than average anomaly (lower than average quantity/amount)

Salinity Sea level Temperature

Significant wave height Ocean transport

1 The Straight of Gibraltar is the last gateway for water following out of the Mediterranean Sea into the Atlantic Ocean, which shows a warming and increased salinity trend over the past decade.

2 The Sicily Channel is the main passage connecting the western and eastern Mediterranean Sea. Over the past 30 years there has been a warming and increased salinity trend in the intermediate waters passing through this gateway.

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3 Water mass formation in the Gulf of Lion for the western Mediterranean deep waters: 1987, 1988, 1991, 1992, 1999, 2005, 2006, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 4 Water mass formation in the south Adriatic Pit for the eastern Mediterranean deep waters: 1988-1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1999, 2006, 2013

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5 Water mass formation in the Cretan Sea/Aegean Sea for intermediate and deep waters; 1989-1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 2006-2008, 2012 6 Water mass formation in the Rhodes Gyre area for Levantine Intermediate and deep waters: 1987, 1989, 1990, 1992, 1993, 2003, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2012, 2015

Dates in bold signify particularly strong convection events

WHITE OCEAN Over the past quarter of a century sea ice volume and extent have drastically changed across the southern and northern hemisphere polar regions and the Baltic Sea. In 2016, global sea ice melted at a pace far faster than ever observed since our earliest records dating back to the 1980s.

NORTHERN HEMISPHERE

ARCTIC

-780 000 km 2

- 6.2%

sea ice extent loss at a rate per decade (1993-2016)

per decade of sea ice extent loss (1993-2016) Uncertainty: ± 70 000 km²/decade

Northern Hemisphere Sea Ice Extent Average by Year

Ten of the lowest Arctic summer sea ice extent values took place in the last ten years.* * Ever observed on record by satellites

The figure shows the annual mean sea ice extent (1993 to 2016) averaged over the northern hemisphere as expressed in kilometers squared (km2). Evaluated from ocean reanalyses. Source: CMEMS Ocean Monitoring Indicators (OMI) marine. copernicus.eu/science-learning/oceanmonitoring-indicators/catalogue

Since 1993, there has been an accelerated sea ice extent loss of nearly 780 000 km² per decade (with an uncertainty of 70 000 km²/decade) due to contemporary global warming.

Over the past quarter of a century, the Arctic has lost sea ice volume at a rate of 15.4% per decade. Accordingly, the Arctic Ocean freshwater content has increased since the mid-1990s and shows a record high in 2016. The record decrease of sea ice extent and volume reported in 2016 is related to a combination of above average ocean heat exchange through the Fram and Bering straits into the Arctic region and global warming. The summer of 2012 still has the lowest levels of sea ice extent on record since the beginning of satellite observations.

The figure shows the September average (from 1993-2014) and September average for the years 2012 and 2016 of sea ice extent in the Arctic Ocean. Evaluated from ocean reanalyses.

Sea ice extent at record lows in 2016 in both poles.

SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE

ANTARCTIC

+1.6 %

+200 000 km2

sea ice extent gain per decade trend (1993-2016)

per decade of sea ice extent gain (1993-2016) Uncertainty: ¹ 100 000 km²/decade

Southern Hemisphere Sea Ice Extent Average by Year

There was a record low sea ice extent in the Antarctic in 2016.* * Ever observed on record by satellites

The figure shows the annual mean sea ice extent (1993 to 2016) averaged over the southern hemisphere as expressed in kilometers squared (km2). Evaluated from ocean reanalyses. Source: CMEMS Ocean Monitoring Indicators (OMI) marine. copernicus.eu/sciencelearning/ocean-monitoringindicators/catalogue

Aside from the large sea ice extent drop in 2016, the Antarctic sea ice extent had been slowly but steadily expanding, with a record high in 2014 that lasted several months. Over the past decades the Antarctic has been growing at a rate of 1.6% sea ice extent increase per decade and by 8.8% sea ice volume increase per decade from 1993 to 2016. Possible reasons for the large contemporary variations of sea ice gains and losses in the Antarctic Ocean can include, for example, changes in ocean hydrography and variations at the air-sea-interface such as wind-driven processes. Understanding the precise role and interplay between these different processes remains an area of active research.

Unexpectedly, the sea ice extent in the Antarctic Ocean decreased dramatically during the last months of 2016 with the lowest values observed compared to the past two decades. This low Antarctic sea ice extent in 2016 is associated with unusually warm air temperatures and thinning sea ice driven by winds. This resulted in record low values of sea ice extent. The unusual loss in sea ice extent in December 2016 was nearly 2.8 million square kilometers below average, far outside previously reported changes.

The figure shows the December average (from 1993-2014) and the December average for the year 2016 of sea ice extent in the Antarctic Ocean. Evaluated from ocean reanalyses.

GREEN OCEAN CARBON CARBON CYCLE COMPONENTS

Phytoplankton is a single-celled algae found in both fresh and salty waters. It makes up the base of the marine food chain and plays an important role in the Earth’s carbon cycle. It grows through photosynthesis and requires nutrients.

Physical Carbon Pump

Organic Carbon Pump

Two mechanisms drive the physical carbon pump:

In order to grow, phytoplankton use sunlight, consume dissolved CO2 as well as nutrients, and release oxygen during photosynthesis. CO2, vital for the creation of life, is then transformed into organic carbon, building the phytoplankton cells. As this organic matter is processed by bacteria, zooplankton and their consumers, a fraction of it ends up as dead organic and fecal material that sinks into deeper ocean layers.

1) At high latitudes (e.g. subpolar ocean) ocean temperatures are cold.

As a consequence, the solubility of CO2 is higher and ingassing of CO2 from the atmosphere into the ocean occurs. Carbon is then pulled into the deep ocean through convection and formation of deep water (see Blue Ocean) and is stored there and redistributed by ocean currents.

2) At low latitudes (e.g. tropics), ocean surface temperatures are high, and consequently the solubility of CO2 is lower. Additionally, winddriven ocean upwelling brings up stored carbon from the deep ocean layers to the surface, and outgassing occurs from the ocean into the atmosphere.

Bacteria decompose part of this sinking organic matter, using oxygen, and releasing CO2 and nutrients as part of a more general process called remineralization. The CO2 escapes back into the atmosphere (outgassing) or is reused or redistributed through ocean currents, along with the rereleased nutrients. Some of the dead organisms (organic carbon) sink into the deep ocean bottom layer, trapping carbon there for sometimes thousands of years.

Wind displaces surface waters allowing cold deep waters to upwell

Atmosphere CO₂

Ingassing

Atmosphere

CO₂

DEPTH

Carbon dissolved

Deep convection

Photosynthesis takes place at the ocean surface

Outgassing

Phytoplankton + consumers

Upwelling

CO₂

Outgassing

CO₂

+ nutrients

Remineralization

Carbon dissolved in deep waters

High lattitudes

CO₂

Ingassing

Sinking organic material

Low lattitudes

A fraction of the dead matter (organic carbon) can be trapped at ocean floor for thousands of years

Increase in temperature

THE OCEAN IS ABSORBING CO 2

CO2 Sea-to-Air Exchange

About 1/4 of human-induced CO2 in the atmosphere is stored in the ocean through carbon uptake. However, the price we pay for this buffering is the acidification of the ocean.

PgC.yr-1

Ocean State Report results show that during the 1990s there is a relatively stable carbon uptake in the global ocean and a sharp increase in the ocean’s uptake of carbon since the beginning of the 2000s. These results are consistent with previous findings.

This figure shows a negative CO2 Sea-to-Air Exchange over time, which means that the ocean is absorbing atmospheric CO2. The red line shows a CMEMS negative value of sea-to-air flux as expressed in petagrams of carbon per year (PgC.yr-1). The dashed lines show similar results from other scientific studies.

CO2 is leaving the atmosphere and going into the ocean.

CHLOROPHYLL-a (Chl-a) Ocean Colour, as measured by satellites, is a proxy for the measurement of chlorophyll-a in the ocean, the pigment produced by green plants like phytoplankton. Phytoplankton in the ocean is vital for the uptake of atmospheric CO2.

Phytoplankton is at the base of the marine food web and nearly half of the production on Earth of organic matter takes place in the ocean. All ocean life depends on this. Phytoplankton photosynthesis contributes to more than half of the oxygen content in the Earth’s atmosphere and it consumes an enormous amount of carbon. Consequently, any changes in phytoplankton concentration must be closely monitored.

CHL-a TRENDS

Chl-a increase

Trends in Chlorophyll-a from September 1997-December 2016

Chl-a decrease

This figure shows the spatial chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) trends from remote sensing data.

This shows significant trends over the past 2 decades, expressed as the percentage per year.

Over the past 2 decades there have been notable changes in Chl-a. In high latitudes Chl-a has increased. In tropical areas Chl-a has decreased.

EUROPEAN SEAS, THE NORTH ATLANTIC AND THE ARCTIC OCEANS Regional Time Series of Chlorophyll-a Concentration

by Sea from 1997-2016

The figure shows chlorophyll-a as expressed in milligrams per cubic meters (mg m-3). The black dots represent the daily regional average and the red line is the trend.

As reported in the Ocean State Report, there is an increase in the average chlorophyll-a concentrations in the European Seas, with the exception of the Black Sea. There is also an increase in the North Atlantic and Arctic Ocean.

Chl-a increase

Black Sea

North Atlantic Ocean

Baltic Sea

Mediterranean Sea

Arctic Ocean

GREEN OCEAN OCEAN OXYGEN (O 2 ) Oxygen (O2) is a vital element for life and is critical to the health of the planet. The oceans provide nearly half of the world’s oxygen. As a result of mainly human activities, deoxygenation of the ocean has been observed over the last decades. It is thus essential to monitor the changes and distribution of oxygen in the ocean.

World’s Ocean Minimum Oxygen Distribution...

…and the Depths at which these Minimums Occur

The figure shows the minimum amount of oxygen found in the water column as expressed in micromoles per kilogram (µ mol/kg). The data is averaged over about 2 decades.

The figure shows the depth (in meters) where the oxygen minimum is found in the water column (shown in the figure to the left) as expressed in micromoles per kilogram (µ mol/kg). Shown are only the depth values where the oxygen minimum is < 90 μ mol/kg). The rest is not shown (seen in white in the figure).

OXYGEN MINIMUM ZONES (OMZ) Oxygen Minimum Zone (OMZ) distribution is controlled by ocean circulation as well as local biogeochemical and physical processes. Oxygen Minimum Zones with O2 concentrations reaching the suboxic threshold (low levels of O2) are predominantly found in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. In the Atlantic Ocean, areas with intense O2 minimums are found close to eastern coastal regions.

EUTROPHICATION

Large areas of low oxygen levels are formed when there is a large O2 demand such as in coastal upwelling systems where there is a high level of primary productivity. Low O2 levels can have a devastating impact on the ecosystem. This can include nitrogen loss, pH imbalances, carbon outgassing and even the production of toxic gases, resulting in the mortality of marine life. Over the recent decades, OMZs have expanded due to a warming induced decrease in O2 solubility and changes in ocean ventilation and circulation.

Eutrophication

Coastal Hypoxia

Agricultural run-off and other pollutants (which contain nutrients) are flushed into the ocean by rains or drainage.

3 This bloom can block sunlight from penetrating into the water

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3 2

Phosphorus Nitrogen

Block sunlight

Algal bloom + Phytoplankton

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2 These nutrients can cause phytoplankton and algae to grow rapidly on the surface and reduce water quality.

4 This inhibits photosynthesis of the phytoplankton and other plant life below, killing them.

5 The algae bloom dies and sinks to the bottom of the shallow ocean. Bacteria decompose this dead organic matter, a process that consumes oxygen.

6 This process leaves the shallow water layer with very little oxygen (a state of hypoxia). This is devastating to the ecosystem and in some cases the zones can become nearly lifeless.

DEOXYGENATION IN THE BLACK SEA

ANOXIC LAYER

OXIC LAYER

Ventilation of water O₂

O₂ -70 m

-140 m

The Black Sea is entirely anoxic (has little oxygen) except for a thin ventilated oxic layer (oxygen from the atmosphere disolves in the ocean) on the surface , which is about 10% of the Black Sea’s volume.

O₂ from the atmosphere enters the ocean and the oxygen-enriched surface waters are brought to depth.

O₂

O₂

O₂

O₂

O₂

COLD DENSE WATER FORMATION WITH NORMAL CONDITIONS

Each winter the ocean temperatures fall. This allows cold, oxygen-rich surface waters on the shelf to sink and ventilate the lower part of the oxic later.

OXYCLINE IN THE 1950s

An oxygen-rich ocean layer expanding from the surface down to the oxycline.

COLD DENSE WATER FORMATION WITH GLOBAL WARMING

Because of warming, the cold water formation in the winter is less pronounced. Consequently, less cold dense water formation occurs, meaning there is less oxygen ventilation.

OXYCLINE TODAY

OXIC LAYER

In the last 60 years there has been a decrease in the amount of oxygen in the Black Sea. This oxygenated layer has narrowed from about 140 meters (m) to about 70m, which is linked to reduced deep winter ventilation as a consequence of global warming.

ANOXIC LAYER

An oxygen-poor ocean layer expanding from the oxycline down to the bottom of the ocean.

DEOXYGENATION IN THE BLACK SEA SINCE THE 1950s

OXYCLINE

An ocean layer separating the oxic and anoxic layers.

Data collected from ships

Data from Argo profiling floats that dive

The figure shows the oxygen inventory (the amount of oxygen in the water column) from 1955 to 2016 in black as expressed in moles per meters squared (mol/m²). The red represents the downward trend. There is a separte data set in 2010 shown in blue.

BALTIC SEA According to a recent HELCOM (Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission) assessment, the Baltic Sea is classified as an eutrophicated marine area. This eutrophication is caused by a combination of human-induced over-enrichment of nutrients and climate change.

The Ocean State Report shows the presence of summer bloom events in the Baltic Sea over the past 20 years. In the last two decades eutrophication effects have been documented every summer, which varied in extent and strength from year to year. For example, particularly strong events were observed in 2005 and 2008, while the blooms in 1998 and 2012 were less severe.

The figure shows a time series of the average Baltic Sea summer blooms from 1998 to 2016. The spatiotemporal coverage is expressed in kilometers squared per day (day·km²). Red: surface bloom; blue: subsurface bloom.

Summer Chlorophyll-a Bloom Coverage: Monitoring of Eutrophication in the Baltic Sea by Year

ANOMALIES 2016 NORTH WEST SHELF

BALTIC SEA

2016 SELECTED ANOMALIES EUROPEAN REGIONAL SEAS

BLACK SEA

IBERIA BISCAY IRISH

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

* Larger icons represent basin-wide changes.

2016 SELECTED ANOMALIES GLOBAL OCEANS

PACIFIC

ATLANTIC

LEGEND Symbols in RED signify a higher than average anomaly (higher than average quantity/amount)

Ocean surface currents

Symbols in BLUE signify a lower than average anomaly (lower than average quantity/amount)

Salinity

Carbon dioxide sea-to-air exchange

Temperature

Amount of oxygen

Convection

Chl-a – Chlorophyll-a

Sea level

Significant wave height

Ocean transport Ocean freshwater content

Ocean heat content Extreme variability Sea ice extent

ANOMALIES In this report “anomaly” is defined as the difference of a measurement when compared to an average over a long time period. For example, the sea surface temperature in 2016 (in some areas) was higher than the sea surface temperature averaged over 1993 to 2014 in those same areas.

ARCTIC OCEAN

PACIFIC

INDIAN OCEAN

ANTARCTIC

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The Ocean State Report is a supplement of the Journal of Operational Oceanography (JOO), an official Publication of the Institute of Marine Engineering, Science & Technology (IMarEST), published by Taylor & Francis Group.

In accordance with the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Non-Commercial-No Derivatives License, this summary properly cites and does not alter nor transform the original work.

Journal of Operational Oceanography ISSN 1755-876X (Print) 1755-8778 (Online)

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Citation: von Schuckmann, K., P.-Y. Le Traon, N. Smith, A. Pascual, P. Brasseur, K. Fennel, S. Djavidnia (2018) Copernicus Marine Service Ocean State Report, Issue 2, Journal of Operational Oceanography, 11:sup1, s1–s142, DOI: 10.1080/1755876X.2018.1489208 Link to full Ocean State Report: https://www.tandfonline.com/ doi/full/10.1080/1755876X.2018.1489208 Disclaimer: This summary is written in collaboration with both scientists and communications professionals and it is intended to provide some context and basic scientific explanation surrounding the key findings of the Ocean State Report.

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