Imagined Communities

IMAGINED COMMUNITIES

Citizenship and Nationhood

Today 

Seen examination discussion (and reassurance?)

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Modular movements: from division to cohesion

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National identity and nationalism

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Managing belonging

Exam review format 

Select two questions from seven options

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Two hours

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Under standard exam conditions

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One A4 page of notes allowed (both sides)

Purpose 

This is not a memory test!

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The basis of your discussion should be a demonstration of your understanding of the core themes of the course

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Try to integrate knowledge from different lectures

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Link this understanding to the world around you

Expectations 

Demonstrate your understanding of the link between social differences and social divisions

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Evaluate the causes of social divisions and the possibilities for political resistance

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Consider how social cohesion is achieved

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Use evidence to support your ideas   

http://www.hefce.ac.uk/ http://www.ucas.co.uk/ http://www.offa.org.uk/

Question One 

Critically discuss the future impacts of increases in university fees upon class stratification and social exclusion in Britain. (Lectures 2,3 and 4) 

What are the likely future impacts of fee increases?

What evidence is there for this?  What is the importance of university education? 



How do you define class and social exclusion? 



Marx, Weber and social mobility

How will the impact of fee increases influence upon this structure?

Question Two 

Why might some ethnicities in Britain be less likely to study science at university? (Lectures 2, 3 and 4)  Are

some ethnicities less likely to study science?

Why  Biology?

(explain the distinction between race and ethnicity)  Culture? (what factors are relevant – family, class?)

Question Three 

To what extent would it be justifiable to promote ‘affirmation action’ policies to encourage more men to participate in British higher education? (Lectures 4, 9 & 10) What is the difference in participation rates between genders and what is the context for this difference?  Why might this have occurred? Introduce distinction between sex and gender  What is affirmative action (positive action/discrimination) and why would it be justified?  Are there other factors to be considered? 

Question Four 

Discuss the factors that influence the proportional over-representation of former ‘public school’ pupils at Oxbridge universities (Lectures 2,3 and 4)  Is

there an over-representation of public school pupils at Oxbridge?  Why are these inequalities reproduced? (class, ethnicity)  Is it a matter of (generational) meritocracy, or discrimination?

Question Five 

Critically discuss what it would mean for universities to treat disabled students ‘less favourably’ (Lectures 6, 9 and 10)  What

does ‘less favourably’ and equality mean in regards to disability?

 When

is positive action justifiable?

Question Six 

Why would governments seek to promote wider participation in higher education? (Lectures 9, 10 and 11)  What

is widening participation?  Are there inequalities in access to universities?  What is the importance of education for mobility?  Why would governments seek to achieve social cohesion and minimise inequalities?

Question Seven 

Critically discuss the impact of digital exclusion upon higher education in the 21st century (Lecture 11)  What

is ‘digital exclusion’?  Why is it importance in regards to higher education?  Inequality or social  Is class relevant?

mobility?

Modular movements Social Differences

Social Divisions

Solidarity and Cohesion 

Identities and societies are distinguished by social differences, but these differences often produce divisions

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These divisions are political rather than natural

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Why, and how, are they reproduced so consistently?

Our Question 

What are the mechanisms through which social cohesion is achieved?  National

 State

identity (Week 8)

control (Week 9)

 Community

identification (Week 10)

Initial Responses What are the primary mechanisms through which social cohesion is reproduced in Britain?

Turning to the nation 

Social divisions are flattened when members identify with a (limited) larger cause

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These identifications are often passionate and provide a sense of belonging

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But they also define who belongs and who is excluded

Defining the nation 

‘Nations’ are a people with a shared identity

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Nations differs from ethnic groups because they seek political autonomy as well as cultural unity

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Nations produce social solidarity through belonging and identification

A sense of belonging 

The question of nationhood is one of belonging

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Who is part of the nation and why?  ‘Blood

links’ and shared history?

 Geographical

proximity?

 Commitment

to shared values?

Not belonging 

Any understanding of belonging is also one of exclusion  Who

is excluded from the nation (or the state)?

 How

is this exclusion managed politically (by the state) and justified culturally?

 People

can be formally included but still divided

Nationalism 

A patriotic identification with the nation over other forms of identity  ‘We

are all English’

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Nationalism is a powerful tool for achieving social solidarity and mediating against social divisions

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Appeals to nationalism and unity are a common political device, particularly when social cohesion is threatened

Types of Nationalism 

Nationalism is the desire of a people to assert their autonomy, identity and unity

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There is no fixed sense of nationalism – it can be attached to other political ideologies  Conservative/primordial

 Liberal/constructed

National Instinct 

Primordialism suggests that nations are rooted in biological similarities

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Primordial nations are based on shared geography, languages and heritage

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Often constructed around founding myths and traditions that have bound together the ‘people’

Our shared heritage 

The primordial perspective is conservative in the sense that it identifies an ‘essence’ to identity

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This essence is fixed and naturally excludes those who do not fit – often violently

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In large scale societies, this homogeneity is difficult to achieve and the politics of conservative nationalism are generally retrospective

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Politicians often seek to return to this time 

British citizenship tests

An imagined community 

Benedict Anderson (1991) argued that the nation was an ‘imagined community’



National identities are not based on biological similarity but on a socially constructed image – nations are built, not born

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They are ‘imagined’ on the basis of identification with national symbols

Symbols of imagination

Constructing Imagination 

Whilst our national imaginations are based on shared symbols and ideas, they cannot be fixed



Instead national identity is always an ideological point of struggle  What

defines ‘us’ from ‘them’?  What does it mean to belong to this nation?  These struggles are often passionately expressed

Why are we so passionate about nationhood, but not other aspects of our identity?

Should this be encouraged?

A limited imagination 

Our sense of nationhood is defined by its distinction from other nations

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We know who ‘we’ are because we are not ‘them’

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Whilst nationhood ‘flattens’ differences between members, it sharply defines those who belong

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These distinctions are established through the state

Nations and states 

Nations might be imagined, but they are also built

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Modern nations are generally coupled with states (the nation-state)

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Nations are cultural constructions, states are political institutions

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We will focus on the state next week, but…

Introducing the State 

States are primarily defined by their monopoly over physical force within a given territory based on a centralised authority

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Weber: ‘A human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory’ (Pierson, p.7)

The state of national identity 

The role of the state is to manage the political affairs of the nation

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In regards to our discussion, this is a matter of managing differences and divisions between groups  Those

who seek to move beyond the boundaries of identity  Social divisions within the nation.

Managing struggle 

Western nation-states have sought to manage these struggles by;  Fostering

national identity

 Defining the

rights and obligations of those who

belong  Encouraging

formal equality of participation

Fostering Identity 

National identification is actively developed through education, a primary mode of socialisation

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Nationalism is most prominently displayed during sporting events

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But is also encouraged through the arts and media

Do you think that nationstates should actively seek to develop national identity?

Liberal Nationalism 

Liberal nationalism suggests that national identity is based on an identification with shared values rather than any fixed essene

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These values allow for a more inclusive sense of nationalism 

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“Britishness is about a mongrel identity"

This is the hegemonic position in the Western world English Defence League  Heritage foundation 

Inclusive Britishness 

The notion of ‘inclusive nation identities has emerged in response to increasing cultural diversity

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A broader sense of national identity allows for an increased sense of belonging amongst minority groups

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‘Minority shaped’ British identity

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Do we see this more in ‘world’ cities rather than states?

Citizenship 

Citizenship binds together the shared values of the imagined community into a legal framework

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A citizen is a full member of a political community

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Citizens have both rights and formal equality

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Citizens are obligated to the state

Formal inclusion, social exclusion 

Whilst citizenship allows for formal equality, this status ignores social inequalities

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We may have the same rights, but not the same opportunities

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Those who reside within the nation but do not have citizenship rights are excluded

We’re all in this together 

National identification can become strained when groups reject national unity  Vertical

inequality  Horizon divisions 

To avoid open struggle or division, governments make economic and cultural concession

Relief of the poor 

‘Poor relief’ emerged in the earliest stages of the industrial revolution, although often beyond the formal grip of the state

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This mediated against the strongest demands of the poor and maintained order

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But also involved struggle over who deserved the support of the state

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This struggle continues today within the ‘Welfare state’

Welfare 

The formal welfare state emerged in response to unrest caused by the cycles of the industrial revolution and the growing prominence of the labour movement

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The ‘nanny state’ had a responsibility to its citizens’ different needs, which required different responses from the state

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Citizenship welfare has focused on the obligations of the citizen to the state ‘workfare’

Affirmative Action 

‘Positive Discrimination’ is to select someone on the basis of their social characteristic and is illegal in the UK

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‘Positive action’, or targeted encouragement to special groups, became legal in April 2011

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These measures focus on equality of outcome rather than equality of opportunity

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But the ultimate aim to is to produce equality of opportunity for social mobility

Active Discrimination “Positive discrimination is the process of giving preferential treatment, especially in employment, to minority groups of society that have been prejudiced against in the past. It should be noted that ‘preferential treatment’ does not mean that these individuals will automatically be preferred to another candidate, but rather should two candidates be deemed a similar level, the individual from the minority group will be preferred” http://www.findlaw.co.uk/law/employment/discrimination/500553.html

Brunel and Disability 

Brunel University will: “Interview all applicants with a disability who meet the essential (minimum) criterion for a job vacancy and consider them on their abilities.”

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Law Society example: “A family law department has a NQ vacancy. The entire department is female. Two trainees interview for the role. Both have spent 6 months working in the family team and have had excellent appraisals throughout their traineeship. They both completed their LPCs at the College of Law and hold the same class of degree. The department decides to recruit the male trainee as men are under-represented in the family law team.”

For and against 

Generally produces ‘positive’ results, but…

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Discrimination is discrimination

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Doesn’t change the causes of under representation

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Encourage prejudices against supported groupings and reinforces power dynamics

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Will result in resentment and political backlash from the ‘discriminated’ against majority

Under what conditions could ‘positive’ action or discrimination be justified ?

Positive Discrimination at University 

Widening participation: Targeted activities and programmes to encourage participation in higher education

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Universities are able to charge maximum fees if they target underrepresented groups on the basis of social mobility

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“Access without support is not opportunity” (Engstorm and Tinto)

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The Office for Fair Access (OFFA) is an independent, nondepartmental public body. Our role is to promote and safeguard fair access to higher education for lower income and other underrepresented groups following the introduction of higher tuition fees in 2006-07.

Why are governments concerned with widening participation?

Multi-culturalism 

Multi-culturalism is the (un) official recognition of the equal right to express differences

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Citizens have equal rights, but within a united framework that allows for cultural and political expression of difference 

There are significantly differences between nations

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Nonetheless, this framework is itself culturally weighted

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If so, do we need to encourage the ‘celebration’ of difference?

State multi-culturalism 

Multi-culturalism focuses on difference rather than the sameness that defines national identity

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Consequently, the patriotic binds that hold together divided societies are likely to become weakness

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Indeed, some of those divisions begin to be ‘celebrated’

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The fear is that difference will get out of hand and the state will lose its powers of coercion (sharia law being the prime example of this law)

Does multi-culturalism make it harder to maintain a coherent national identity?

Wither, national identity? 

Does it matter if minority cultures do not identify with the normative majority?  At

what point does multi-culturalism become segregation?

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To what extent does multi-culturalism require the integration of cultures, or can national culture itself be multi-cultural?  ‘clear

sense of identity open to everyone’.

But, is there a limit?

Yes. The illegal immigrant

Present, but excluded 

Illegal immigrants, asylum seekers and refugees

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Excluded from the political community, yet they still hold a part within it – a ‘part with no part’

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Often held within detention centres without formal rights

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Produce an anxiety within the national community 

‘Flood of asylum seekers’

Important Points 

Nation identity is a strong source of social cohesion and belonging

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Yet, belonging is defined by exclusion

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Nationalism can take a number of modes

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These modes have different ways of managing the boundaries between inclusion and exclusion

Next Week 

Turning to the state – and the control of violence

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The reading (Pierson – The Modern State) is on Blackboard in the ‘Reading List’ section