Sex, Gender and Sexuality

Sex, Gender and Sexuality

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From biological differences to social divisions

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Feminism and the turn to gender

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Identity politics and the possibility of progress

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Limits – biological, economic or political?

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Normative sexuality and resistance

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Thus far we have considered class and ethnicity as forms of social division

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Biological sex (or gender?) is perhaps the most noticeable social difference

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Whilst this has an obvious physical element, sociologists argue that sex (gender) is socially constructed

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This involves both individual constructions and social determination

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Whilst divisions are readily apparent, there appears to be some progress in relation to gender and sexual equality

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This progress contrasts with both economic and ethnic inequalities (or does it?)

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Nonetheless, gender and homosexuality remain one of the only areas in which active discrimination is legally and socially accepted

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Biological assumptions, particularly in relation to masculinity and power, remain extremely common

Sex: Biological differences, male vs. female

Gender: Cultural differences, masculinity vs. femininity

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How society understands the links between sex and gender significantly effects social and political responses to differences and divisions

Biology • Functional cohesion • Women’s roles

Social constructions • Feminism • Power inequality

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Differences between men and women are often considered to be natural

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The idea of the natural instincts of the human animal remain part of common sense assumptions

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This is often celebrated in regards to sexuality (but remains subject to strict prohibitions) but rejected in relation to gender equality

Biology

Society

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To what extent does biology determine individual gender identity and social gender roles?

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Why does the masculine position dominate power relations in Western societies?

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Is sexuality something we are ‘born with’ or is it socially constructed, and does it matter?

To what extent is gender determined by biology? ?

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Different gender roles allow an ‘organic’ solidarity and social cohesion

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Men and women might have different positions within society, but this is a reflection of natural differences

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Durkheim: “Further, we have seen that in all the countries of the world women commit suicide much less than men.

They are also much less educated. Fundamentally traditionalist by nature, they govern their conduct by fixed beliefs and have no great intellectual needs”. Suicide, p.121

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Humans are just another animal species

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The animal kingdom is marked by significant distinctions in ‘gender roles’

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These biological distinctions are reflected in social gender roles ◦ Men and women are ‘separate but equal’

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This concept helps to naturalise divisions between genders…

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…and stigmatise ‘unnatural’ sexual practices

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But has an intuitive grip on our understandings?

“By one of nature's cruel ironies, facially challenged chaps are most likely to get a hard time from their wives at the time of the month when she is most fertile, according to a scientific study in the US. As if this weren't bad enough, women whose husbands are less sexy also tend to be more attracted to other men at that time.

Researchers at the University of California found women whose partners were low in sexual desirability become more distant, more critical, and less tolerant during high-fertility. This goes back to when the needs of women to get good mates, and therefore healthy children, were paramount�

Source: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/looks-arent-everythingbut-heres-the-ugly-truth-8229436.html

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On working mothers “Many women have told me, and surveys have shown, that they find it easier, more ‘professionally’ gratifying, and certainly more socially affirming, to work outside the home than to give up their careers to take care of their children.”

— From “It Takes a Family”

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On stay-at-home mothers “Respect for stay-at-home mothers has been poisoned by a

toxic combination of the village elders’ war on the traditional family and radical feminism’s misogynistic crusade to make working outside the home the only marker of social value and self-respect.’’

— From “It Takes a Family”

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Gender had not been considered a social category until introduced in the 1950s by controversial psychologist John Money

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The social construction of gender did not come into widespread use in sociology until the 1970s ◦ Masculinity vs. Femininity rather than Male vs. Female

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This framework suggested that divides between the masculine and the feminine were socially determined and fluid

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Biology does not ‘determine’ gender – it is an ‘inadequate explanation’

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Humans are social and culture creatures; our biology is not simply expressed but constructed through social norms and institutional structures

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Normative constraints on gender and sexuality are particularly determining, a process that begins in the womb

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Gender is a verb – something that is done or performed

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Social conceptions of gender remain constraining, even if they are self-constructed

What attributes make up feminine and masculine categories?

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Nurturing

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Powerful

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Slim

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Logical

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Gentle

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Muscular

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Sensitive

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Sexual

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Communicative

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Violent

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These divisions have tended to represent an extension of private roles

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Feminist’s have argued both that ‘women’s work’ in the home is undervalued and that certain tasks are considered to be women’s work

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The idea of ‘women’s work’ has been extended in public roles

Divide these occupations by gender Masculine?

Feminine?

Teacher

Nurse

Lecturer

Architect

Account manager

Visual Effects (film)

Accountant

Personal Assistant

Lawyer

Builder

Plumber

Retail (fashion)

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‘Feminine’ occupations tend to follow wife/mother nurturing roles Wife/receptionist

Mother/Teacher

Female Jobs

% Women

Male Jobs

% Women

Neutral Jobs

% Women

Sales Assistants

73

Taxi Driver

8

Lawyer

42

Waiters & Waitresses

73

Security Guard

12

Shelf Filler

48

Cleaners / Domestics

79

Software Engineer

14

Chef

49

Primary Teachers

86

Sales Manager

25

Secondary Teacher

55

Pamela Abbott (2006) Gender, p90

Girls’ Subjects

Boys’ Subjects

Not Gendered

A Level

Degree

A Level

Degree

A Level

Degree

Biology

BioSciences

Physics

Physical Sciences

Geography

Medicine

Psychology

Social Sciences

Computer Studies

Computer Science

History

Humanities

Media, Film & TV

Teacher Training

Economics

Planning

Business Studies

Art & Design

Pamela Abbott (2006) Gender, p78

Why are women over-represented in certain occupations?

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Feminism, and feminist theory, seeks to understand and contest gender inequality ◦ Tends to be based around the idea of gender inequality and the subsequent need to promote women’s issues

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Feminist sociologists argue ‘that it is necessary to reconceptualise sociology, not just add women, but to develop adequate theories for explaining the exploitation and subordination of women’ (Abbott, 2006: 71)

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By arguing that distinctions between men and women are socially constructed rather than biologically given, feminist theory provided resources to challenge social divisions

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The rise of feminism has been part of a significant shift within Leftist politics from the politics of class struggle to ‘identity politics’

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Rather than being economically defined by the position of white, working class males, Leftism opened up to include a number of social movements

Identity Politics‌ 1)

Societies are marked by inequalities, divisions and relations of power (eg: sexual orientation, gender, ethnicity, class)

2)

No one inequality is privileged over any other

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Argued that political institutions are not ‘value neutral’ , nor are discourses of shared identity e.g. Nationalism

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These identities are founded upon the exclusion of non-members

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Identity politics is the battle for inclusion of previously marginalised groupings (Sandra Harding, 1991)

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“Girls have outperformed boys in the proportion achieving an A grade [in A-Levels) since 1998” ◦ http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2010/aug/19/a-levelresults-2010-subjects (GSCE’s)

http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/datablog+education/gcses

Why are girls outachieving boys n education?

Should measures be taken to improve boys’ performance?

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Whilst there appears to have been significant progress, strong limits remain, particularly in relation to; ◦ The control of power in the public domain ◦ The representation of femininity ◦ The normalisation of certain sexual practices

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These limits have been the subject of strong feminist critique

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There have also been conservative reactions, particularly around the ‘crisis’ of masculinity

From feminism to feminisms 

Liberal feminism

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Radical feminism

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Marxist feminism

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Liberal feminism has focused on ensuring formal and cultural equality between men and women

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This can be limited to ensuring equal pay for equal jobs or equal opportunities

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Alternatively, liberal feminists have attempted to tackle more institutional forms of gendered discrimination

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The demands of childcare often coincide with normalised periods of career progression

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Women are often expected to take on domestic ‘responsibilities’ as well as paid employment

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There exists a cultural bias towards masculine characteristics within public life

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The ‘Equal Pay Act’ was passed in 1970

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In 2010, research by the Chartered Management Institute (CMI) suggested that the gender pay gap in the UK would not be bridged until 2067

http://www.leftfootforward.org/2010/03/gender-inequality-women-still-earn-20-lessthan-men

What factors contribute to this pay gap?

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Radical feminists such as Simone de Beauviour argue that a ‘patriarchal’ system of power ensures male supremacy

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Masculine positions are normative, forcing women take on these roles

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Radical feminism is a structural perspective that risks essentialism by reducing women and men to an ‘essence’

Source: http://jezebel.com/uk-gender-inequality/

Can you be feminine and powerful?

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Against these institutional boundaries, it is argued that women have been reduced to a shadow of masculinity

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In order to compete, women have to ‘act’ like men

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Youth culture, drinking and sex (and the city)

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This process has been encouraged within capitalism

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The focus of Western capitalism has shifted from production to consumption

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Women and sexual minorities have been encouraged into the market place

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This shift has included the loss of working class ‘masculine’ manual labour in favour of service orientated roles

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Consumer culture celebrates the feminine shopper

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Much as with the proletariat within capitalism, Marxist feminists have argued that men control women’s domestic labour

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Capitalism has encouraged the entry of women into the job market, increasing the supply of labour

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However, capitalist dynamics continue to determine the value of this labour e.g. Finance capitalists are more valuable than hospice nurses

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The rise of feminine perspectives and reduction in working class status has challenged ‘what it means to be a man’

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There has been considerable fretting about systematic biases in the education system…

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…and ‘discrimination’ against (white) men through progressive programmes

No.10 Learn to talk the talk No.5 Forget the past No.9 Get the news

No.4 Don't write anything

No.8 Develop your voice

No.3 Drink hard

No.7 Hit the gym

No.2 Shake with authority

No.6 Foot the bill

No.1 Look 'em in the eye

http://uk.askmen.com/top_10/dating/top-10-ways-to-be-a-real-man_10.html

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Part of the ‘crisis’ of masculinity is the notion that society has moved away from its ‘natural’ state by encouraging more relativist conceptions

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This concern returns us to question of socialised biology

To what extent can we ‘choose’ our gender?

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Of all the divisions we have thus far examined, only prejudice against sexual minorities in enshrined in law

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Moreover, whilst these discriminations are gradually being reduced there exists strong ‘moral’ and normative prejudice against non-normative sexual practices

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Again, these concerns are dominated by ‘naturalist’ agendas

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Are forms of sexuality natural to the human body, or are they socially constructed?

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Are the meanings and status attached to labels such as homosexual and heterosexual based on fixed and enduring characteristics and understandings?

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Why does progressive sexual reform provoke such a strong emotional reaction?

1533 - Buggery Act 1533 Henry VIII, male-male sexual activity punishable by death 1836 - Last recorded execution for sodomy in Great Britain 1861 - Offences Against the Person Act 1861 replaces death for sodomy with 10 years prison 1886 - Criminal Law Amendment Act 1895 - outlaws male-male sex 1895 - Oscar Wilde sentenced to two years jail Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 1930 - Denmark first European country to decriminalise homosexuality 1967 - Sexual Offences Act 1967 - decriminalises male homosexual acts involving two men in private aged 21+ in England/Wales 1973 - American Psychiatric Association - removes homosexuality from DSM 1988 - Sweden first country to legally protect rights of lesbian women and homosexual men in social services, taxes, and inheritance 1992 - World Health Organisation removes homosexuality from psychiatric disorders 1995 - Sweden legalises same-sex partnerships 2000 - Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act 2000 reduces age of consent for male-male sex from 18 to 16 (16 for female-male sex) 2000 – Homosexual men / lesbian women can serve in UK armed services 2001 - The Netherlands legalises same sex marriages 2004 - Civil Partnership Act 2004 - allows same-sex couples in UK to register and receive same rights as married couples 2005 – Gender Recognition Act 2004 – Allows legal gender change 2007– Sexual Orientation Regulations – Prevents discrimination against buyers on the basis of sexual orientation 2012 – Scottish parliament announces plans to legalise gay marriage

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Whilst legal progress has been made in relation to sexual discrimination, a social privileging of ‘natural’ heterosexuality orientated towards marriage and reproduction is still hegemonic Biological Essentialism ‘Reduces sexuality to reproduction, [so] only heterosexual sex can be fully ‘natural’, Hence its implications are heterosexist as well as sexist’ (Scott & Jackson, 2006: 237) Privileging & Institutionalisation - Marriage ‘As an institution, heterosexuality is not just about sex, it is as much about who washes the sheets as what goes on between them [e.g. gender equality]’ (van Every, 1996, cited in Scott & Jackson, 2006: 245)

Should ‘natural’ human behaviour be regarded as ‘normal’?

Trans-gender politics 1)

Challenges need to list sex on birth certificate and other documents

Civil partnerships 1)

Heterosexual marriage as natural model?

2) Challenges impact of sex 2) Civil partnerships and gender in other areas as substitute of (access to IVF, parenting, hetero-sexualised education etc.) ‘real thing’?

3)

Reinforces privileges of marriage over other forms of partnership?

Social Equalities 1) Promotes neoliberal consumer hedonism?

2) Dissolves gay/lesbian identities?

3) Reproduces heterosexuality as normative position??

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Which is the more influential within contemporary British society, in terms of determining? ◦ Education ◦ Income ◦ Status

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Do these factors interact to reproduce social divisions?

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Whilst significant progress has been made in the West, persistent divisions remain

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These divisions are often reproduced through biological assumptions

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Sociological and political feminism(s) have challenged biological essentialism

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These assumptions and subsequent discriminations continue to have resonant strongly

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Disability, Health and Illness – Special guest, Prof. Steven Wainwright!

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Please read Chapters 11 (Disability) and 14 (Health)