Dividing the future

Now featuring a course review!



Global divides: climate change and global warming



Digital divides and exclusion



Course review



Final questions



Climate change refers to significant climatic changes and can include localised effects



Global warming is the specific process by which global temperatures are increasing through the accumulation of ‘greenhouse’ gases in the atmosphere



The trapping of these gases holds a greater proportion of the sun’s heat, thus increasing surface temperatures



Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas (absorbs heat in the atmosphere)



We are burning lots of carbon in fossil fuels (approx. 70% of all carbon emissions), creating carbon dioxide

◦ According to the latest IPCC report (2007) CO2 has risen from 280ppm in 1850 to 388ppm in 2007



The average temperature of the planet is rising



This creates a number of material and geo-political effects that are unevenly experienced across the world

◦ It has risen by between .7 - .8 degrees since 1850

See: No-Nonsense Guide to Climate Change, Chivers, D. (2010)



Climate change will not end the world, but has immense, and uneven, effects upon humanity



Climatic changes are making it difficult to live in some areas of the world, mainly because of the effects of increases in temperature



This increase in temperature reduces water supply and decreases food production, as well as rising sea levels



Food is a globally traded commodity; decreases in the supply of food increases prices



Wealthier nations have a greater capacity purchase commodities at higher prices



A lack of supply of food is likely to lead to increased conflict and population movements



Will likely produce a range of dividing mechanisms



The information age, now often referred to as the digital age, is the shift from the industrial economy to an economy based on the creation and exchange of information



Through the internet and digital technology, commonly called Information Communication Technology (ICT), our economies and cultural practices have been redefined



Technological innovation has allowed computers to take over the majority of automated work



Digital economies require highly skilled workers, educated in the development and use of ICT



There is unequal access to both this technology and the benefits of the information age



This inequality is known as digital exclusion or the digital divide

ď ˝

Digital exclusion is both a lack of access to ICT as well as capacity to use this technology

ď ˝

The digital divide is the inequality between groups in regards to ICT



As with all social divisions, the digital divide is uneven across groups, particularly in regards to; ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦

Class Ethnicity Gender Age Geography (urban/rural, West/rest)

See Rowena Cullen, (2001),"Addressing the digital divide", Online Information Review, Vol. 25 Iss: 5 pp. 311 -

Who is more likely to suffer from digital exclusion?



Digital exclusion is a significant concern for governments as it disconnects citizens from the information economy



Consequently many governments have focused on developing digital infrastructure and increasing ‘digital literacy’



Digital literacy is the ability to effectively use ICT

ď ˝

Digital exclusion is strongly related to social exclusion, both in terms of economic and employment prospects, but community connections

ď ˝

12% of men in Britain and 17% of women in Britain have never used the internet

Source: ONS, Internet Access Quarterly Update, 2012 Q3

80.0

70.0

60.0

50.0

Male

40.0

Female 30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0 16-24

25-34

35-44

45-54

55-64

65-74

75+

7.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0

Source: ONS, Internet Access Quarterly Update, 2012 Q3

ď ˝

Whilst most people have access to some form of digital technology, this access is highly differentiated and linked to material deprivation (Longley and Singleton, 2008)

ď ˝

Eynon and Helsper (2011) note that whilst potential access to internet was thought to increase participation in higher education, particularly in regards to distance learning, an inability to use this technology may limit the benefits



The core of higher education is the creation and critique of information



Digital technology has revolutionised higher education, both in terms of learning technology such as presentation software and VLE’s, but information resources like journal databases and software applications



Whilst it potentially offers substantial advances in bridging distances between populations, this potential is threatened by unequal access, use of and ability to use ICT



Limits to accessing information, whether because of a lack of skills or resources, have a major impact on students



Because of this inequality some groups of students have unequal access to some courses



Moreover, this inequality is extended during their study



A lack of digital literacy impacts upon efforts to extend widening participation initiatives



Those institutions with greater capacity to fund ICT provide strong advantages for students



Universities are increasingly moving towards online and virtual learning



This learning offers the potential for much lower costs and enhanced participation from often excluded groups



Conversely, as Carr-Chelman (2005) suggests, this is likely to strongly favour those with stronger digital literacy and further increase the elitism of higher education



Because of the importance of ICT for university study, those currently excluded will be more likely to be excluded from society



Modern economies require the production of workers skilled in the use of ICT for the job market



Digital exclusion further extends existing forms of social exclusion and stratification

ď ˝

Digital exclusion goes beyond the opportunity for access, but requires technical ability and information literacy, which are often established well before entry to university (Selwyn, 2004)

ď ˝

Ricardo Sabates (2008) found that 14-years from socially disadvantaged backgrounds were often unable to use ICT at home and thus struggled to use school technology

In what ways would the ‘digital divide’ or ‘digital exclusion’ affect Brunel University and it’s students?

ď ˝

Carr-Chelman, Alison A ed (2005) Global perspectives on elearning. Sage: London Eynon, R. and Helsper, E. (2011) Adults learning online: Digital choice and/or digital exclusion? New Media Society, 12: 534 Longley, P and Singleton, A. (2008) Linking Social Deprivation and Digital Exclusion in England. Urban Studies, 46 (7)

ď ˝

Neil Selwyn (2004) Reconsidering Political and Popular Understandings of the Digital Divide. New Media & Society June 2004 vol. 6 no. 3 341-362

Week 1 2 3 4

Date 1st Oct 8th Oct 15th Oct 22nd Oct

5 6 7 8

29th Oct 5th Nov 12th Nov 19th Nov

9 10 11 12

26th Nov 3rd Dec 10th Dec 17th Dec

Topic From Unity to Exclusions: Understanding social divisions It’s the economy, stupid! Understanding class and poverty Chavs and Toffs: Social class and cultural identity Can’t we all just get along? Understanding race and ethnicity Doing what comes natural? Sex, gender and sexuality Health, Illness and Disability ASK Week Imagined communities: Citizenship, nationhood and exclusion Controlling ‘freaks’: Power, ideology and violence God save the Queen: Religion, community and identity Dividing the future: Information, economy and environment Seen examination: 1-3pm



Why do social differences become social divisions? ◦ A social division occurs when a grouping is disadvantaged in relation to other groupings



Are these divisions ‘natural’, or socially constructed?



How does society react to these divisions? ◦ Social cohesion ◦ Resistance and struggle



Class is at the core of sociological explanations of social stratification



Class is regarded as a structure that produces social patterns and influences human behaviour



It is often conceived as the most important social division because of its effect on our life chances



However, there is considerable debate around class, primarily - Is class determined by economic or cultural differences?



Marx argued that class stratification was determined by the economic mode of production, dividing people into the ‘bourgeoisie and the proletariat’



Conversely, have economic structures become too complex for this divide, and is class purely economic?



Weber argued that class stratification includes power/authority and status as well as income



This approach is known as socio-economic status (SES) and produces concepts like ‘upper-class’ and ‘middle-class’



Alternatively, in an ‘identity’ based society, class is only one element of social structure



Moreover, class is often considered to be culturally constructed through socialisation



Class is not structurally determining, but is something we do



Is the ‘underclass’ produced through economic structures or cultural socialisation?



What are the likely future impacts of fee increases? What evidence do you have for these claims?



What is class stratification and social exclusion?



On the basis of your definition of class, how will the likely impacts of higher fees change class stratification in Britain?

Remember:  Is class a cultural social difference, or an economic social divide?  Provide supporting evidence



What are the main dimensions of the over-representation? ◦ Public school= Fee paying independent schools ◦ Oxbridge = Oxford and Cambridge



Are class, gender or ethnicity involved?



Is it active discrimination, or social practices?



Consider the relevant social divisions (with supporting evidence) and discuss whether these are ‘natural’ or socially constructed?



Is race a fixed, biological, social difference…



…or a socially constructed division (ethnicity)?



Why does it have such an effect on the life chances of ethnic groups?



How does ethnicity interact with other social divisions such as class and gender?



Are there differences in studying (natural) sciences in British universities? ◦ What are the main characteristics? (base on evidence)

Why might this occur? (evidence required) 

 

Natural, racial, factors? e.g. “Asians are better at science” Socialisation? Some ethnic groups encourage an interest in science Class? Wealthier students tend to study science and wealthier students tend to be of certain ethnicities



Is ‘sex’ a biological social difference? ◦ Or bodies are different, which leads to different social roles



Or is ‘gender’ socially constructed such that social divisions between genders are a result of social practices and structures?



Feminist sociologists have examined the causes of these social divisions and questioned the ‘naturality’ of gender inequalities



What differences exist in participation rates in education for men and women? How has this changed over time? ◦ What are the main characteristics of these differences? e.g. Is gender the only factor



Is it related to natural differences or social factors?



Should ‘something’ be done about these differences?



Are there other factors, such as differences in employment, to be considered?



Positive action, often used together with ‘positive discrimination’ and ‘affirmative action’, are policies and practices that advantage previously disadvantaged groups so as to ‘even the playing field’



The aim is to produce greater equality of opportunity by focusing on equality of outcome in some areas



Does it discriminate against ‘majority’ groups or ignore the main causes of inequality?



Is a group discriminated against?



Could policies or practices that advantage this group overcome this discrimination?



Would this positive action/discrimination be advantageous to society?



To what extent can health, illness and disability be explained by biological factors?



Is disability a medical difference between people?



Or do social factors dis-able those with medical disadvantages?



What is meant by ‘less favourably’?



What kind of actions are required by universities to produce equality for the disabled?

◦ This is a question of positive action ◦ Would positive action discriminate against non-disabled populations? ◦ Would it be effective in achieving equality for disabled students?



Are there other factors to be considered? Do class, ethnicity or gender play a role? ◦ Remember to use evidence



The second half of the course predominately considered the structural practices that produce social cohesion despite these divisions

We discussed;   

The nation The state The community



Social divisions tend to be flattened through an identification with a larger cause



Identification with the nation provides a sense of belonging



But to produce this belonging, some must be excluded



Exclusion from the nation needs to be administratively managed



That management falls to the state, which produces social control



This control is produced through popular participation, ideological mechanisms of and inclusion



The state also requires a monopoly over violence, although this violence does not need to be openly expressed



Religious belief is a social difference that often leads to enduring and passionate social divisions



Whilst religiosity is falling in the West, it remains strong globally – particularly in areas of economic insecurity



Religion is an example of a community or group - Are social divisions often just a matter of group dynamics?



The main focus here is governments and social control



The question asks why governments would support positive action measures such as widening participation (WP)

◦ Education being a particularly important aspect of socialisation and social mobility



Why should they care about social mobility?

◦ Ideological support? ◦ Economic factors – employment (particularly post-industrial) and welfare costs? Does WP improve social mobility and employment? ◦ Maintaining control? Does WP reduce crime? ◦ Remember to use evidence, but social contract theory, Marxism and functionalism are valuable here



The global effects of climate change are unevenly distributed and produce significant humanitarian and security concerns for the future



Digital divides and exclusion in regards to the use of ICT are a major issue for governments and universities



A lack of access or ‘digital literacy’ threatens participation in higher education and the possibility of technological advances



This threat is structured by a number of social divisions



What is digital exclusion and the digital divide?



Why is it important for higher education, either in Britain or globally?



How does students’ lack of digital literacy or access impact on higher education?



What social divides are relevant here? (use evidence)



Social differences are an essential element of the human experience – differences make us unique



By categorising these differences, however, we can see clear divides within society whereby those with certain differences suffer substantial disadvantage



Despite the regular reproduction of these divides, society generally manages to remain cohesive and ordered



Answer the question: provide a thesis statement



Address the core elements of each question



Support your answers with evidence ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦

Theoretical positions Academic research Official statistics Note the source of this information



Think carefully about your notes



Write legibly and concisely

Useful sources of information http://www.hefce.ac.uk http://www.ucas.co.uk/ http://www.offa.org.uk/ http://www.ons.gov.uk/ http://www.statistics.gov .uk/



Bring your ID – the test will be sat under exam conditions



Bring with you one A4 sheet of notes (your choice)



My office is unavailable for a short period – I will be in MJ133



I want you to pass! Good luck