Class I

Understanding social class and poverty

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What is social class?

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Marx, capitalism and class

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Taking a Weberian approach

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Understanding class in Britain

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This module focuses on the distinction between social differences and divisions and considers conservative and ‘radical’ points of resistance to these divisions.

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In this lecture we examine class differences (the stratification of people identified by class), considering different perspective on whether class stratification is a social division, how this stratification might come about and how we can understand it

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In the next lecture we consider the ‘death of class’ and rise of cultural explanations, and review the effectiveness of these ideas for understanding poverty and exclusion in Britain

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Class is at the core of sociological explanations of social stratification

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Class is regarded as a structure that produces social patterns and influences human behaviour

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It is often conceived as the most important social division because of its effect on our life chances

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However, there is considerable debate around class, primarily - Is class determined by economic or cultural differences?

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Is class the most important factor for understanding social stratification?

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Is it possible to identify distinct class groupings?

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Is class a purely economic category and, if so, what is the role of capitalism in creating and maintaining class divisions?

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Is Marxism still a productive way of understanding class and stratification?

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What power do individuals have to overcome class structures?

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In discussing class we are attempting to understand inequality, for which there are numerous explanations ◦ Gender, ethnicity, culture

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In particular we focus on poverty and exclusion

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As a social division we consider points of resistance to this division, its functional capacity and factors that promote social cohesion

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The standard academic definition of class is as a form of stratification

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As a consequence of this stratification, class has a sense of inequality and perhaps injustice

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Class is a political issue

◦ Depending on our framework of explanation

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However, the common sense notion is that of a cultural identity e.g. This is a really classy pub

Fashion

Food

Consumption

Choice Work Ethic?

Language

Income

Employment

Structure Health

Exploitation?

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If class structures are created by the economy and determine our social positions and life chances, then social divisions are a result of economic injustice

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But, if class is an expression of culture, are individuals responsible for their own economic circumstances and social exclusion?

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Moreover, should responses to poverty focus on both cultural and economic dimensions? (The capability approach) 27951 and your message to +447624806527

Arrange yourselves on the stairs (two groups) from North to South depending on the location of your birth (South at the bottom)

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You will each receive a distribution of lollipops

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The aim of the game is to accumulate as many as possible of the same colour

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Be creative and use whatever means you feel will be effective or fair

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The winner will receive the prize

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Did those who started with the most end with the most?

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Was success a matter of individual effort or predetermined by class structure?

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What means of trading evolved?

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How would you classify the groups in terms of class?

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Does this reflect class in Britain?

Source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7054286.stm

Annual Income

Source -http://seekingalpha.com/article/310113-happythanksgiving-to-the-1-that-probably-means-you

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In the communist manifesto Marx argued that: “The history of all hitherto existing human society is the history of class struggles”

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He positioned class as the central dynamic of historical developments

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This dynamic is an antagonism, a contradiction within capitalism that drives social and political practices

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Human societies have always featured unequal structures and hierarchies

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These were often thought to be natural or god-given ◦ Slavery, caste systems, feudalism

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With the industrial revolution, the enlightenment and capitalism (modernity) came a new sense of individual freedom ◦ Inequality was something that could be overcome through hard work and risk taking

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Marx argued that class is determined by the economic structures established in capitalism

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These categories are objectively determined by the mode of production within capitalism ◦ The forces of production

◦ The relations of production

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Marx argued that the economy reflects the objective state of society

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That objective state is mediated through a superstructural apparatus that includes culture, ideology and state institutions

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There is considerable debate within Marxism around the feasibility of this model

In the social production of their existence, men inevitably enter into definite relations, which are independent of their will, namely relations of production appropriate to a given stage in the development of their material forces of production. The totality of these relations of production constitutes the economic structure of society, the real foundation, on which arises a legal and political superstructure and to which correspond definite forms of social consciousness 1859 Preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy 27951 and your message to +447624806527

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The purpose of capital is to sell commodities for a profit

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The ability to do so depends on the control of the forces of production and specific relations of production

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Marx argued that these relations are exploitative because of unequal access to productive resources

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As a consequence the relations of production were objectively divided into two ‘great classes’

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The bourgeoisie are those who control of production and thus have the ability to reproduce themselves outside of their own labour

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By contrast, the proletariat are those with nothing to sell but their labour (and bodies)

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For Marx owners were able to exploit workers because they have the power to pay less than the value that the worker produces

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They are able to do so because of the vulnerability of labour

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Workers are often born without assets (land or technology) and are thus forced the sell their bodies to work for those who control these resources ◦ Or come to have no means to reproduce themselves

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Workers can also be dispossessed through what Marx called ‘primitive accumulation’

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Primitive accumulation is vital to establishing class stratification

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Feudal societies were often categorised by extreme inequality of land ownership that continue today

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Imperial adventures often produced ‘accumulation by dispossession’ as local land and resources came under the control of empires

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Neo-liberal restructuring in the West and globally has produced wide scale transfer of assets from the public to private sector 27951 and your message to +447624806527

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Thinking about some part-time work you have done, do you feel that you were exploited, according to a Marxist defintion?

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To what extent do you believe that economic success in Britain is determined by your economic status at birth?

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Capitalism and modern societies rely on the idea of individual reward for working hard

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Marxists’ argue that economic wealth is more accurately predicted by starting position

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This starting position is historically determined

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As a consequence of this injustice, it is in workers interests to rise up against the system that exploits them

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The goals of the classes are in direct conflict: profit vs. wages.

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As a consequence society is riven by the contradiction between these motivations

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Class struggle becomes the motor behind social change – historical materialism

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However, workers may not be aware of the objectivity of their class position 27951 and your message to +447624806527

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Marx argued that the working classes must become conscious of their position as a class

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Once they became aware of this position they could overthrow their masters and live in a classless society

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Class is always class struggle, a point of resistance to a social division

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This resistance relies on both structural and individual factors

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Does sport act to bind a class together and form an identity against their employers, or to forget about their woes?

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Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions.

It is the opium of the people.

Marx: A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right;

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Marx had predicted that capitalism would collapse under the weight of its own contradictions as the working classes became conscious of their position

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Why has this not occurred?

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The rise of the middle classes Progressive social reforms Complexity of class structures The loss of identity of the working class Marx was wrong about capitalism

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There have been numerous attempts to supplement Marx’s work

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These often rejected ‘historical materialism’ and ‘economic determinism’

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They have responded to the increasing complexity of capitalism and class positions

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Focused on the functional appeals of capitalism 27951 and your message to +447624806527

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By contrast to Marx’s conflict based approach, some functionalists have argued that class differentiation is part of a cohesive society ◦ Inequality provides motivation ◦ Welfare dependency

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Different kinds of production require different classes of people

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These distributions are just provided that there is sufficient social mobility

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Classes form social bonds and engage in similar cultural practices to maintain this cohesion

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How convinced are you about the value of Marxist explanations of class and inequality?

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Do you think they are still relevant?

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Max Weber, writing after Marx, argued for a more multidimensional understanding of class

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Instead Weber posited a three-way interactive structure of class ◦ Economic inequality

◦ Power or authority ◦ Status 

This has resonated strongly with governments, inspiring the concept of socio-economic status (SES)

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Power is the ability of an individual to express their will, particularly against others ◦ Can you tell others what to do?

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The ability to command resources is a vital element of power

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This power includes charisma and domination

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Power can be an economic factor

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Possession of property and resources

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Income and labour skills

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Weber challenged the idea that classes possess a single consciousness and thus rejected Marx’s revolutionary theory

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Economic position is important, but it interacts with other factors

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By contrast to class groups, status is relative to communities

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Status is derived from relative prestige within a community

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What is valued as status may change depending on community

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Status is not always an economic concept 27951 and your message to +447624806527

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Class is still defined by work, this time by the notion of occupation

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Occupation takes into account income, ability to command authority and social conceptions of status

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The Weberian model of SES has become popular because it is able to reflect increased stratification and changing work patterns in the West

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Higher managerial and professional occupations Lower managerial and professional occupations Intermediate occupations (clerical, sales, service) Small employers and own account workers Lower supervisory and technical occupations Semi-routine occupations Routine occupations Never worked and long-term unemployed

http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/guide-method/classifications/current-standard classifications/soc2010/soc2010-volume-3-ns-sec--rebased-on-soc2010-user-manual/index.html

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Class is becoming harder to represent as traditional categories merge

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Class is becoming less important as a form of identity

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Does this mean that we live in a classless society? ◦ What is the motivation for this kind of statement?

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Why would governments seek to map class in this way?

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How would you describe your class position? Is it economically or culturally determined? Is it an important part of how you think about yourself?

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Why would sociologists, and governments be so concerned with mapping social class (and divisions)?

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Does the concept of socio-economic status render Marxism redudant?

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Class is one of the primary modes of social stratification and division

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Marxist notions of class struggle are some of the most influential…

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…but have come under strong critique

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Weberian ideas around status and authority have more official appeal

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The way we conceptualise class very important for directing responses to poverty and inequality

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Next week we will focus on class as a cultural concept and the importance of this for understanding poverty and debates about welfare

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We will consider the causes behind the apparent change in the importance of class

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In addition we will evaluate debates around class

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Remember to read: Jones, O. (2012) Chavs: The Demonization of the Working Class (Introduction) London: Verso.