2007 Azuero (Panama) Biological Corridor

A Bridg e Fo r B i o d i v e r s i t y A c o n c e p t u al Pla n f o r a B i o l o g i cal C o r r i d o r i n t h e S o u t h e r n A z u e r o P e n i n s u la , Pa n ama

Alicia Batista

Brandon Mansfield

Victoria Schroth

with contributions by Karen Chaffee

Conway School of Landscape Design The Azuero Foundation March 2007

Leslie Larson Trumpet tree (Roble)

The Azuero Foundation is a non-governmental organization that focuses on conservation issues pertaining to the Azuero Peninsula, Panama. The foundation facilitates activities that restore, maintain and promote biodiversity.

acknowledgements Leslie Larson

We would like to thank the Azuero Foundation for the opportunity to participate in this project, and a special thanks to Edwina von Gal, Mark Wishnie, Luis E. Varela, and Vernon Scholey for all their time and energy.

This report would not have been possible without the support and dedication of the professors and staff at the Conway School of Landscape Design, particularly Paul Cawood Hellmund, Ken Byrne, Mollie Babize, Kim Erslev, Ilze Meijers, David Nordstrom, and Nancy Braxton. In addition, we would like to acknowledge the many insightful contributions of the CSLD Class of 2007.

A special thanks to: Marianne Akers, George Angehr, Mark Ashton, Jerry Bauer, April Connelly, Ovidio Diaz, Fabrice De Clerck, Francisco Delgado, Darias Dominquez, Elizabeth Farnsworth, Christina Garibaldi, Eva Garen, Oliver Grantham, Bronson Griscom, Heather Griscom, Stanley Heckadon, Jefferson Hall, Jefferey Hopkins, Brian Houseal, Diogenes Ibarra, Muhammad Ibrahim, Bill and Sue Laurance, Brian Love, David Lynch, Emilio Mariscal, Luis Martinez, Shane Mathias, Jim Matlock, Reinhold Muschler, Nick Nickson, Robert Ridgely, Beatriz G. Schmitt, Ernesto Vergara, and the people of Pedasi.

Bananas

table of contents

Executive Summary

1

Barbas-Bremen-Cestillal Corridor

43-44

Maya Mountain Marine Corridor

45-46

3-4

CATIE Silvopastoral Project

47-48

5

Case Study Summary Chart

49

Conclusion

50

Section 1: Introduction

Foundations

Project Objective and Planning Process Section 2: Regional Context

The Azuero Peninsula

7-9

Section 3: Conservation Principles

List of Principles

Section 5: Azuero Maps

Topography

52

11

Rivers

53

Ecology (Principles 1-3)

12-17

54

18-23

Protected Areas

55

Participation (Principles 7-9)

24-29

Towns and Roads

56

30-32

Composite

57

Scale ( Principles 4-6) Design Strategy Summary

Section 4: Case Studies

Forested Areas

Section 6: References

Introduction

34

35-36

Appendix

Path of the Tapir

37-38

Talamanca-Caribe Corridor

39-40

Atlantic Forest Central Corridor

41-42

Mesoamerican Biological Corridor

Works Cited Additional Resources

59-60 62

executive summary

The landscape of the southern Azuero Peninsula, Panama, is defined by rolling hills and river valleys, and dominated by cattle pastures and small farms. Interspersed among the pastures and farms are isolated remnant forest patches, primarily along streams and on steep slopes.

The lack of connectivity among forest patches is cause for concern because the survival of at least some wildlife depends on large areas of interconnected habitat. One conservation strategy to combat habitat fragmentation is biological corridors. Corridors can act as “hallways� through which wildlife can move between habitat areas. Corridors can support migration and genetic exchange, as well as allow escape from degraded areas.

applicable to the development of a biological corridor in the southern Azuero.

Applying these conservation principles to the southern Azuero Peninsula leads to the development of specific design strategies for a biological corridor there. These strategies include targeting riparian corridors and existing forest blocks for preservation, restoration and expansion; the introduction of silvopastoral systems; reforestation; the expansion and diversification of living fence systems; the development of economic incentives for environmental services; and the development of educational programs with vocational components to foster awareness and stewardship of the environment.

The condition and potential of the landscape in the southern Azuero led the Azuero Foundation, a nongovernmental organization with conservation aims, to commission a feasibility study for a biological corridor in the region, with a focus on connecting the dry tropical forest at Achotines to the cloud forests of Cerro Hoya National Park to the west.

This study includes reviews of case studies of other biological corridors and related projects in Latin America. These case studies suggested strategies and methodologies that could be applied to a biological corridor protection effort in the southern Azuero. The case studies include the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor, Path of the Tapir (Costa Rica), Talamanca-Caribe Corridor (Costa Rica), Atlantic Forest Central Corridor (Brazil), Barbas-Bremen-Cestillal Corridor (Colombia), Maya Mountain Marine Corridor (Belize), and the CATIE Silvopastoral Project (Costa Rica, Colombia and Nicaragua).

From these case studies and other research, a series of nine conservation principles were developed to help guide corridor design.

The principles are divided into the categories of ecology, scale, and participation, with each category containing three principles that are

section 1: introduction

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Three million years ago, the Isthmus of Panama first emerged, forming a land bridge between North and South America, creating a connection between two previously isolated continents. As a result, the isthmus that is less than one percent of the world’s total landmass is home to a staggering eight percent of known species.

Increasingly, however, vital connectivity throughout Panama is being lost, causing species to become extinct or endangered at an accelerated rate. By re-establishing ecological connections throughout the landscape, the biological health of this extraordinary country could be restored and protected.

Currently, there are hundreds of plant and animal species officially recognized as endangered or threatened in Panama, and many of them are not found anywhere else in the world.

The main forces that push these species toward extinction are habitat loss and fragmentation. Settlement expansion and unsustainable land use practices have led to the paving, plowing, burning, spraying, logging, and overgrazing of critical habitat areas. As a result, the various types of forest that once covered Panama now exist largely as isolated patches. These fragments are small, and limit

the opportunity for species to migrate, disperse, and exchange genetic material, increasing the vulnerability of species populations and hastening biodiversity loss. The problems of habitat fragmentation reflect the fundamental concept that life does not and cannot exist in isolation.

If thoughtful and immediate action is not taken to link isolated habitats, the effects could be abrupt and irreversible. Natural and agricultural resources could be the first to suffer. The extinction of insect populations could result in the devastation of crops that rely on them for pollination.

Surviving crops could be weakened from a lack of nutrients in the soil, and could perennially struggle with outbreaks of pest and disease. Freshwater supplies could become scarce and unreliable. Air pollution could increase. Swift and severe climate change could force even more species to the brink of extinction, while completely eradicating others.

Weather could become unforgiving and inhospitable. Productive lands could transform into barren wastelands, while deserts expand into surrounding landscapes. An increase in the occurrence and severity of respiratory and epidemic disease, natural disasters, and in particular, famine, could reduce life expectancy.

This somber picture, however, is only one possible forecast, but we now have an opportunity to avoid it.

introduction In recent years, a new strategy has emerged in conservation planning.

This strategy, focusing on connectivity, mitigates the ecological effects of deforestation, while allowing for population growth: by protecting existing biological corridors and creating new ones, vital connections between isolated populations can be re-established and maintained.

While corridors vary in form and degree of connectivity, the goal is the same: giving species access to larger habitat areas, facilitating migration (the seasonal round trip journeys of certain wildlife species) and dispersal (the one-way journey for the young of some wildlife species), and promoting genetic exchange between populations.

Corridors have been criticized, but the criticisms have often been based on a narrow definition of a corridor, rather than on a disagreement

Landscape corridor Linear corridor

Buffer zone

Stepping stone corridor

Core area

about the utility of connectivity. The most common concern has been the relationship between corridors and potentially negative edge effects.

Harmful edge effects can result from the juxtaposition of undisturbed ecosystems with disturbed or modified landscapes, like agricultural fields or urban developments. The negative consequences of edges can occur in many ways; soil quality can be decreased, interior areas can be desiccated, fire and disease can spread, or opportunistic invasive species can be allowed to thrive. Corridors create more edges, and therefore critics claim that they alter environmental conditions and threaten biodiversity. People are frequently under the impression that a corridor has to be a contiguous strip of vegetation across the landscape, but a corridor, or more precisely connectivity, can take many different forms.

For example, “stepping stone� corridors, consisting of discontinuous patches between habitat areas, can provide the conditions necessary for functional connectivity.

Edge effects can be minimized by making linear corridors as wide as possible and using existing natural corridors, such as riparian areas and ridge tops.

Biological corridors offer an opportunity to increase ecological connectivity, and therefore restore ecosystem health, and potentially improve socioeconomic conditions.

Corridor design can only be applied on a case by case basis.

Azuero howler monkey

Conceptual corridor diagram

introduction

Project Objective

Planning Process

Members of the Azuero Foundation, a conservation-minded nongovernmental organization that focuses on issues regarding the Azuero Peninsula, noticed marine degradation in the Achotines area due to runoff caused by deforestation. Recognizing the need for broad-scale environmental restoration, the foundation came up with the idea for a biological corridor that would preserve and connect key areas, as well help preserve natural resources.

The planning process focused on case studies of Latin American biological corridors and related conservation projects. The precedents studied range broadly in scope and scale. These case studies offer examples of successful methodologies, techniques and creative solutions to complex problems, similar to those facing the Azuero.

The key areas targeted in this study are the 120-hectare forest block surrounding the IATTC laboratory in Achotines and the 32,557-hectare Cerro Hoya National Park, which lies approximately fifty kilometers to the west.

Extensive further research must be conducted, and all players must be identified and involved in order for the corridor to become a reality.

The study has also explored topics related to biological corridors and their implementation, including agroforestry, biology, geology, natural resource management, landscape ecology, land use history, cultural history, and socioeconomics. An integral part of this research process has been speaking to and corresponding with scientists, local community members, and government officials. Geographic data resources such as digital data, aerial photos, topographical maps, land use maps, and photographs have been used to identify and illustrate existing landscape conditions and delineate focus areas for conservation and possible inclusion in a biological corridor.

section 2: regional context

regional context

the azuero peninsula Traveling to the Azuero Peninsula is often described as taking a journey back in time. The rural towns and villages of the region maintain Spanish colonial culture and traditions, and are said to look and feel very much like they did centuries ago. Horses are still used to travel the countryside, and cattle ranching, introduced by the Spanish during the seventeenth century, is still the main economic activity and a symbol of the cultural identity of the region.

Though cattle pastures and agricultural lands have been here for centuries it is difficult to ignore the degradation that these land uses have caused. Many of the animal and plant species that once inhabited the region have either disappeared or have been reduced to low numbers.

hospitable climates for humans, many people settled in this part of Panama, eventually creating the current landscape of towns, pastures, farms and a few scattered forest fragments, mostly along the banks of the many rivers.

The largest forest fragments of any type in the Azuero are found on the western end of the peninsula, where the relatively wetter climates and steeper topography have limited human settlements. Cerro Hoya National Park, one of a handful of protected conservation areas in Azuero, is also on the western side of the peninsula (see Section 5: Maps: Topography, Protected Areas). However, even protected areas like Cerro Hoya are difficult to preserve because many people live and work the land within its boundaries.

Currently, the Azuero Peninsula supports thirteen percent of Panama’s total population. Although the Azuero is the most densely populated rural area in Panama, new residents continue to arrive. The land near Playa Venado, on the southeastern end of the peninsula, was cleared and populated in the last fifty years. More recently, tourists and foreign retirees are flocking to the peninsula, and land developers are building homes and resorts to accommodate them. Around the town of Pedasi there are reports of at least twenty new development projects in various stages of planning.

Panama (Azuero Peninsula in red)

When crossing the Rio Oria today, it is hard to imagine that the river was once so deep that people cut down tall trees to bridge the water.

Unchecked erosion over decades has resulted in large amounts of sediment being deposited in the rivers, which have grown shallower and wider in recent years.

Dry tropical forests, now among the rarest forest ecosystems in the world, once covered most of the eastern Azuero Peninsula. Because these forests were easy to clear, and provided valuable lumber and

Playa Venado, southern Azuero Peninsula

regional context The Azuero Peninsula supports a wealth of biodiversity, largely dependent on the survival of both dry and wet tropical forest ecosystems, both of which provide habitat for a wide range of species.

Deciduous forests range from sea level to 1000 meters in elevation and lose their leaves during the dry season, between December and March. Evergreen forests blanket the peninsula’s highest mountain range within Cerro Hoya National Park, which climbs to 1559 meters near the southwestern tip of the peninsula (see Section 5: Maps: Ecozones).

The climate of the Azuero Peninsula is the country’s second driest.

Historically, the region annually received an average of 1600 mm to 1700 mm of rainfall but recent patterns show this average to be decreasing. In 2002, the dry tropical forests in southern Los Santos Province received 1300 mm of rainfall, indicating a significant reduction in precipitation. Local residents have witnessed the dry season growing longer in recent generations and seen changes in the rivers. People express concern about wells running dry and a decrease in water quality.

Poor soil quality traditionally influenced populations on the Azuero to favor ranching over other agricultural land uses. Cattle pastures require seasonal burning and the use of herbicides that infiltrate the soil and water. Cattle compact the soil and destroy saplings, and their overgrazing contributes to erosion. A type of pasture grass now in use, pasto mejorado, requires less burning but extensive chemical use.

Until the 1950s, steep topography along the tip of the Azuero Peninsula prevented the clearing of forest for cattle pasture. Government policy requires tenant farmers to clear their land in order to show productive use and retain tenancy.

Typical cattle pasture on the Azuero Peninsula

Sarigua National Park, northeast Azuero Peninsula

regional context

Southern Azuero Peninsula

Archeological and historical research suggests that humans have been practicing slash and burn agriculture since pre-Columbian times. Over the centuries, the practice of pasture burning combined with heavy rainfall during the wet season has increased erosion and decreased the already poor land productivity.

Recent alternatives to cattle ranching include teak plantations.

Unfortunately, teak trees deplete nutrients from the soil and allow very little to grow in the understory. In addition, little or no training was provided to ranchers on how to grow teak, so many of the plantations will not produce harvestable timber.

Teak Plantation, Azuero Peninsula

section 3: conservation principles

conservation principles

list of principles The following nine conservation principles were developed to help guide the planning process of the Azuero Biological Corridor Project: Ecology 1. Plan for and support natural processes.

2. Promote the sustainable use of natural resources.

3. Identify and preserve priority areas and species.

Scale 4. Account for changes in the landscape over time.

5. Consider the landscape across multiple scales.

6. Use adaptive management techniques.

Participation 7. Engage stakeholder participation on all levels.

8. Develop economic incentives for biodiversity.

9. Provide relevant education and training.

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conservation principles

1. plan for and support natural processes Many natural processes, such as flooding and succession, are predictable, and with proper planning and forethought, their effect on ecological and socioeconomic systems can be positive.

Often, natural processes are not coordinated with human activities, such as development, causing exaggerated and harmful ecological and socioeconomic effects. Neglecting to account for natural processes during the planning of the biological corridor can have disastrous consequences from an ecological standpoint. For example, if the occurrence of flash flooding is not accounted for, and vegetation along riparian corridors is removed, then the severity of the flooding is likely to be much greater, due to the lack of natural buffers. From a socioeconomic standpoint, an increase in the severity of the flooding can cause greater damage to personal property and public resources.

Rio Oria River, southern Azuero Peninsula

The hydrologic cycle can be planned for and supported.

In the southern Azuero Peninsula, vegetation flanking streams and rivers filters pollution from runoff and prevents hazardous chemicals from reaching the water body. Riparian vegetation also functions to retain runoff which prevent large amounts of water from reaching the stream or river at the same time, causing flash flooding and erosion.

Furthermore, riparian vegetation serves to stabilize the banks along streams and rivers, mitigating the erosive effects of high water levels. In addition to being a critical part of the hydrologic cycle in the Azuero, riparian corridors are important wildlife habitat.

Riparian corridors in the southern Azuero Peninsula play an important ecological role and still remain largely forested, and therefore are critical points of connectivity for the future development of a biological corridor (see Section 5: Maps: Rivers).

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conservation principles

Riparian corridors in the southern Azuero Peninsula

Succession (the dynamic process by which one plant or animal community gives way to another) is another natural process that should be incorporated in conservation planning. Preventing succession from running its natural course jeopardizes ecosystem health by inhibiting its ability to respond to natural disturbances. By selectively managing for succession, natural communities can adapt according to their needs; therefore biodiversity can be preserved. Not accounting for succession will reduce water quality and the occurrence of disease is more prevalent when water quality is compromised. Allowing succession to occur can have socioeconomic benefits as well because a healthy ecosystem can protect water quality.

Succession can benefit the corridor by The Maya Mountain Marine increasing vegetative Corridor (MMMC) in Belize includes land cover in the region that encompasses seven intact watersheds. and lessening the The rivers that comprise these watersheds expanse of the bring critical nutrients from upland forests pastoral matrix. The to one of the most important coastal successional process ecosystems in the Caribbean, where they by which the forest provide sustenance for both plant and animal begins to infringe life.

When developing a comprehensive upon the pastoral conservation plan for the region, The Nature matrix is halted on Conservancy and the Toledo Institute for an annual basis by Development and Environment (TIDE) burning practices. recognized the importance of the role that As the forests began these watersheds play in the health of the to creep back into coastal ecosystem and sought to protect pasture areas, plant them. This conservation plan demonstrates an communities could understanding of the process by which distant increase in number ecosystems are often intricately linked through and diversity if the natural processes. burning of pastures was reduced. As regrowth began, the vegetation could be preserved and fostered, and perhaps managed as forage for cattle as well as providing a sustainable source of lumber.

In addition, this successional process could be assisted through reforestation efforts by planting native tree species that are beneficial to plant and animal communities as well as land users/owners.

Supporting natural processes, such as succession and the function of riparian habitats, could greatly benefit the effort to establish a biological corridor in the southern Azuero Peninsula.

Early forest succession, southern Azuero Peninsula, Panama

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conservation principles

2. promote the sustainable use of natural resources Limited natural resources are vital to human survival, and therefore should be used in a manner that protects ecological stability and the needs of future generations.

The protection and preservation of natural resources, such as water and plant and animal communities, is critical in maintaining ecological health, as well as the health and prosperity of human communities, which rely on the natural environment for food, water, shelter and materials. The increased needs of humanity caused by exploding populations worldwide endanger the overall health of the environment.

A fundamental part of fostering the sustainable use of natural resources is recognizing their finite quantity and ecological roles, which illustrates our relationship with the natural world.

pasture boundaries. In the Azuero, living fences are usually composed of one tree species; the fences are coppiced (the practice of removing all of the branches from a tree to stimulate growth) every year preventing the trees from reaching their natural height and form, decreasing their value as a lumber resource. These fences do not provide the habitat diversity required by many organisms, and therefore limit the number and diversity of species residing within and near the fences. The coppiced branches are planted to extend the living fences.

Living fence, southern Azuero Peninsula

People can make use of natural resources in more sustainable ways.

Expanding and diversifying living fences on the Azuero Peninsula could promote the sustainable use of natural resources and allow for the desired connectivity of a biological corridor. Living fences, rows of trees at the edge of pastures, are strung with barbed wire and delineate

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An alternative approach would be to expand the width and function of the living fences by using diverse and beneficial native tree species.

Minimizing coppicing could help trees achieve their growth potential, attract wildlife and increase their value as a lumber resource. A diversity of tree species could provide better forage and shade for cattle, while providing lumber and fruit to land users/owners. Instead of coppicing the living fences, ranchers could go into the forest to get the branches they need to extend their fences. Using the forest as a resource for living fence material would increase the diversity of the fences and stimulate new growth of trees in the forest, thereby increasing the health of the forest and the pastures. Living fences with increased width and height could serve as valuable links between forest fragments and become part of a biological corridor.

conservation principles

The treatment of soils in the southern Azuero also pertains to the sustainable use of natural resources. As a result of the topography in this region, cattle are often grazed on very steep slopes, causing terracing and erosion during the rainy season. Additionally, future pastures are treated with herbicides to kill existing vegetation before they can be planted with pasture grass.

Practices that are currently used to maintain cattle on pasture lands in the region have harmful effects on the environment by causing erosion and soil and water contamination. In addition, burning pastures on an annual or biennial basis introduces fire into an ecosystem where it does not naturally occur.

Increasing awareness about the vitality of soils and the negative effects of some current practices would be the first step toward improving land use practices in the southern Azuero Peninsula.

The Path of the Tapir Biological Corridor (PTBC), in Costa Rica, is a conservation project that has implemented Rapid Ecological Assessment (REA) as a tool to highlight the importance of the conservation effort. Rapid Ecological Assessment (REA) is a methodology developed by The Nature Conservancy to provide reliable comprehensive information about biodiversity resources in situations where time and financial resources are limited. The use of this tool (REA) in the development of the Path of the Tapir Biological Corridor illustrates the need to identify critical areas for biodiversity conservation.

Cattle pasture with pasto mejorado in foreground

The adoption of a new type of pasture grass, pasto mejorado (improved pasture) further degrades the soil through the use of herbicides to stop forest succession and maintain pastures. Because pasto mejorado grows more vigorously compared to the traditional pasture grass, herbicides are applied about every other year to kill the grass before the pastures can be burned. The advantage of this grass is that fields do not have to be burned every year as with the older variety, decreasing labor required to maintain the land for cattle grazing.

Cattle grazing on the banks of the Rio Oria

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conservation principles

3. identify and preserve priority areas and species Due to their pivotal role in healthy ecosystems, critical locations and populations need to be targeted for priority conservation during the planning phase of the biological corridor project.

Key areas could be places where whole ecosystems have been left relatively intact, or areas that are vulnerable or highly threatened. These areas often contain healthy populations of important species, and their residency there often reflects the intact state of the ecosystem. Large forest blocks in an otherwise heavily deforested landscape, for example, might contain important habitat and harbor sensitive species that are unable to survive in degraded areas.

them less adaptable to drastic changes in their respective habitats.

Some of these sensitive species, known as keystone species (species on which other species in an ecosystem depend, whose removal or decline would greatly impact overall ecosystem health) are generally the larger, more charismatic, mammals, birds and reptiles. However, all species, ranging from large mammals to soil microorganisms serve an important role because diversity is the lifeblood that allows all life on earth to flourish. Areas that represent healthy ecosystems should form the backbone of the biological corridor effort, whereby these areas can be preserved and expanded to improve future ecosystem function and support biodiversity.

In the Azuero Peninsula, key areas can be instrumental in preserving the overall quality of the ecosystem and increasing connectivity between other important areas. Due to their scarcity, large forest remnants in the southern Azuero should be conserved, no matter how compromised or isolated.

One key area to consider is the forest surrounding the IATTC Laboratory at Achotines Bay. This 120-hectare dry tropical forest serves to mitigate erosion and protect the fragile marine environment.

Habitat areas for important species should be identified.

It is important to protect certain species because of their roles in healthy ecosystem function. These species often occupy specialized niches, carrying out integral duties in healthy ecosystems. Specialized species are more sensitive to disruption within the ecosystem, making

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Achotines Bay, southern Azuero Peninsula

conservation principles

Another key area to consider is the mangrove forest at the mouth of the Rio Oria where it meets the Pacific Ocean. A severely deforested landscape surrounds this isolated patch of forest. Creating a connection, through reforestation, between this mangrove forest and other remnant patches could benefit ecosystem health.

The Azuero howler monkey deserves special attention during the planning process. This species is found only in the Azuero Peninsula, where it inhabits existing patches of dry tropical forest. Despite their current healthy population, the Azuero howler will become increasingly at risk if further widespread habitat degradation continues to occur in the southern Azuero.

The mouth of the Rio Oria

One objective of the Talamanca-Caribe Corridor is to increase organic crop diversity among stakeholders farming within the corridor. The implementation of agroforestry techniques led shade grown cocoa farmers to increase their annual yield from 200 kg/hectare to 400 kg/hectare over a six-year period, while minimizing the expansion of traditional cocoa cultivation methods that require chemical input. Agroforestry techniques allow shadegrown cocoa to be cultivated with diverse cover and understory, increasing wildlife habitat and enhancing biodiversity. These efforts, made on behalf of the Talamanca-Caribe Corridor initiative, demonstrate an understanding of the need to use natural resources in a more creative and sustainable way.

Azuero howler monkey

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conservation principles

4. account for changes in the landscape over time Recognizing and planning for the evolving nature of the landscape results in a conservation plan that can adapt to both human and natural disturbances.

evolved. Geologists, biologists and other scientists may be able to assess some of the trends, such as shifts in species composition and diversity, soil quality, and hydrology. Scientists, for example, could show how reforestation efforts can be adapted to observed climate changes in the corridor region.

By recognizing current trends in population growth, a corridor plan can accommodate expanding human settlement without compromising critical habitat areas.

One way that a corridor can account for future disturbances in the Azuero is by preserving mangrove forests. These forests may help buffer coastal areas from hurricanes and other storms. In the case of dramatic global climate change, mangrove forests could mitigate the effects of rising sea levels.

Beachfront development in Azuero

Buffer zones can help prevent developments from encroaching on sensitive areas.

A well-planned biological corridor needs to account for trends and patterns in the environment in order to remain effective into the future.

While many changes in the landscape are unpredictable, some can be foreseen and therefore incorporated into a corridor design.

Examining the natural history of an area can provide clues to its future, and help in planning a biological corridor. The natural history of a landscape can also illustrate some of the ways in which the land has

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conservation principles

Reforestation efforts in the Azuero can incorporate more drought tolerant tree species in order to account for a longer dry season.

A strong conservation plan not only looks at natural history and ecological processes, but also describes and records important changes for future generations. Accurate monitoring is especially crucial because some of the changes caused by human land use are not immediately evident and may take decades or more to become visible.

A strong conservation plan not only looks at natural history and ecological processes, but also describes and records important changes for future generations. Accurate monitoring is especially crucial because some of the changes caused by human land use are not immediately evident and may take decades or more to become visible.

One noticeable and predictable human influence on the landscape is development. In places experiencing increasing population and development pressures, like the Azuero Peninsula, vegetated buffer zones around critical habitats might help protect these areas from future development. Creating a buffer zone around the forest at Achotines Bay would not only expand the vegetated area, but could also help protect the species inhabiting this forest.

PRORENA reforestation site

The Maya Mountain Marine Corridor (MMMC) in the southernmost Toledo District of Belize encompasses approximately 405,000 hectares. Because the government of Belize is in the process of upgrading and expanding the Southern Highway, which is in the Toledo District between Belize and Guatemala, lands within the MMMC will be increasingly threatened by development and agriculture. Due to these threats, the Toledo Institute of Development and Environment (TIDE), who manages the MMMC, has responded with efforts to purchase and conserve strategic parcels of land using funds from the Adopt-a-Rainforest Program. This response by TIDE to conserve threatened lands demonstrates an understanding of the need to respond to future changes in the landscape.

Conceptual buffer zones around critical areas

The necessary buffer widths around critical habitats will vary, so a well-planned corridor will incorporate into its design scientific research about the sensitivity of these habitats to human encroachment, in order to help determine appropriate buffer widths.

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conservation principles

5. consider the landscape across multiple scales The landscape is a dynamic interrelationship of forces and components that function on multiple spatial levels.

Looking at the larger system can explain some of the issues affecting local components, and provide possible solutions. In addition, patterns occurring on a larger scale may not be visible at the local level, but can be recognized and if necessary, incorporated into the corridor design.

One corridor design strategy could be to plan land uses in highland areas in order to minimize erosion and runoff and avoid mudslides, floods, and other potential problems which could severely affect the lowlands.

Taking a closer look at the landscape can reveal many hidden components.

Land uses affecting the corridor area should be planned and carried out with the understanding that local actions can have far-reaching effects.

Ignoring that seemingly isolated parts of a region are connected to a larger ecological system could be detrimental to the entire landscape.

Landscape profile illustrating the pastoral matrix on the Azuero Peninsula.

Rio Oria River, southern Azuero Peninsula

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In the Azuero Peninsula, changes in land uses and land use management can be planned to avoid contaminating the rivers and groundwater with herbicides and other pollutants. Understanding that what happens in the larger watershed system affects the health of the individual rivers and streams – and vice versa – can help corridor designers protect water quality and river ecosystems across the region by recommending appropriate actions at both the local and regional level.

conservation principles

By definition, a biological corridor connects discrete parts of a landscape, and sometimes creates connections between widely different ecosystems. A new corridor in the Azuero could restore connections that have not existed in many years. Planning and management strategies could incorporate scientific research not only about the individual land components of the corridor area, but also of the potential benefits, or even disadvantages, of creating or recreating connectivity between different ecosystems.

Rio Oria River, Azuero Peninsula

The Mesoamerican Biological Corridor (MBC), an ambitious corridor project in Central America, aims to create a multi-national corridor system that includes protected land within the region’s most northern locations in the Maya forests of southern Mexico, Belize and Guatemala through the countries of Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica to the Darien Gap of Panama, along the border of Colombia. This multi-national project is based on a need for continuity of natural environments throughout Central America in order for the rich biodiversity of the region to be preserved: the Central American isthmus includes between twenty-two and thirty distinct ecoregions and supports approximately seven percent of the world’s biodiversity. This effort seeks to increase connectivity and preserve biological resources on a local, regional, national and international level, exemplifying the range of scales at which conservation projects need to work in order to be successful.

Rio Oria River valley

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conservation principles

6. use adaptive management techniques Unexpected changes in climate, policy and land ownership and use will occur; therefore corridor strategies must be flexible.

The corridor design and management plan should be flexible in order to efficiently adapt to shifts in the socioeconomic climate of the region.

The Azuero Peninsula faces a period of potentially dramatic and, in many ways, unpredictable change. In addition to the normally expected increases in population from within, the region has become a newly discovered destination for tourists and retirees from other countries.

Consequently, there is growing interest among local and foreign developers to build homes and resorts in the area.

Monitoring conservation plans can allow them to be adaptable.

Sometimes management strategies need to be adjusted to account for factors that were already present but not clearly evident at the start of the project.

Conservation plans should be monitored regularly, and their strategies adjusted as necessary. In order to most effectively monitor a plan, the design strategy needs to develop quantitative and qualitative criteria to measure “success.� If the plan does not work as originally intended, changes can be quickly and easily incorporated.

Monitoring rainfall

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conservation principles

One way that the Azuero Biological Corridor planning process can be made flexible would be to immediately train and create a team of people who could systematically monitor and record important data in the corridor area. Therefore, if the desired goals are not being met, appropriate actions can be taken.

Identifying focal species and monitoring their population numbers will help to determine whether the corridor is functioning effectively. In addition, measuring the growth and numbers of plant species can inform stakeholders about the overall health of the ecosystems.

The Path of the Tapir Biological Corridor (PTBC) in Costa Rica involved a number of stakeholders, with a variety of perspectives. Stakeholder perspective is important because it is useful to determine their needs and expectations of the conservation initiative. Due to a change in stakeholder demographics in the region where the PTBC exists, the Association of Friends of Nature of the Pacific Central & South (ASANA), the local NGO who manages the corridor, implemented a strategy to monitor the changes in stakeholder perspective due to the shift in demographics. Noticing and adapting to these changes, on the part of ASANA, illustrates a management technique that is sensitive to stakeholders and vital to the long-term success of the project.

This team could include scientists as well as landowners, all of whom would be involved with the project from the very beginning.

This diverse group of individuals would not only provide the most reliable information for those managing the corridor, but also have the additional function of creating awareness about the project among various types of stakeholders, including the local community. This function is crucial because this type of conservation plan takes a long time to implement, and with increasing development pressures, requires immediate and ongoing monitoring. Involved local stakeholders might be more likely to resist the lure of development profits and be more invested in the success of the corridor.

Monitoring tree growth

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conservation principles

7. engage stakeholder participation on all levels Long-term success of conservation efforts often depends on the participation of multiple players, including local communities, government agencies and private organizations.

Because it is their lives and livelihoods that will be most directly affected by any changes in land use and policy, local communities are positioned to enforce adherence and encourage participation in the corridor project. Furthermore, individuals living in the area can provide the project staff with critical firsthand knowledge of the local environment, economy and social climate.

Involve governments, communities and individuals during all phases of a conservation project

Government agencies can create the legal framework that supports sustainable land use practices and protects critical habitat areas.

International organizations can provide funding, scientific information and human resources which might be limited in the local area.

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Meeting with a local rancher in the southern Azuero.

conservation principles

All levels of stakeholder involvement are crucial to the success of a biological corridor of this scale and local communities and individuals are essential to the process. On the Azuero Peninsula many people live in the rural areas that surround larger towns like Pedasi and Los Santos.

In addition, many people lack a means of ready transportation, which further complicates the scheduling of meetings.

It is important to recognize and involve the distinct communities that would participate in this project. While many of the people on the Azuero make their living from cattle ranching, the different provinces have different needs and different characteristics. As a result, community meetings and planning sessions regarding a biological corridor on the peninsula must be held in multiple places and at times when cattle ranchers would be most likely to attend. Also, inform people of the meetings through signs posted in local markets or places where people gather and talk. Arrange for meetings to be held in both large towns and in rural areas throughout the countryside. If possible, speak with individuals privately so that they are comfortable and uninhibited when discussing their questions, concerns, goals, and experiences regarding the project.

The Azuero Biological Corridor could have a better chance of success if steps are taken to ensure that all levels of stakeholders are given an opportunity to become involved in the project.

The Toledo Institute for Development and Environment (TIDE) and the Nature Conservancy have successfully engaged many stakeholders in the Maya Mountain Marine Corridor in Belize.

The corridor project involved both national and international governments through the orchestration of a deal in which the United States forgave half of Belize’s debt in exchange for the conservation of 23,000 acres of critical forest. TIDE encourages community involvement by naming local residents to their board of advisors, including farmers, fishermen, tour guide operators, teachers, and members of the local labor force.

Stakeholder meeting in Pedasi

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8. develop economic incentives Providing profitable alternatives to development and intensive agriculture can make conservation a viable option for land owners and local communities.

for biodiversity

the most sustainable use of land, and may be at least as destructive as other historical land uses like intensive cattle grazing. In recent years, many alternatives have been proposed and tried by conservation organizations around the world. For example, some conservation projects emphasize the use of ecotourism (responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people). However, using ecotourism as a primary economic incentive could undermine conservation efforts with the increased influx of people into fragile ecosystems.

Another relatively new economic incentive for conservation is payment for environmental services such as carbon sequestration, which is the removal of carbon from the atmosphere into carbon sinks such as forests. A well-established Payment for Environmental Services (PES) program is currently in use by the government of Costa Rica and could serve as a model for Panama. Forests that serve as carbon sinks can be part of the biological corridor, and PES programs could provide economic benefits to the communities affected by the corridor.

Biodiversity conservation can be profitable for landowners/users.

Biodiversity conservation is not generally viewed as a profitable use of land by all communities in Panama. Often, land users may oppose conservation efforts because they fear that their livelihoods could be jeopardized in order to preserve biodiversity. If landowners need to sell their land for any reason, selling it to developers is usually seen as their most profitable option. Unfortunately, development is often not

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Reforestation of a former pasture, southern Azuero Peninsula.

conservation principles

On an international scale, Debt for Nature agreements provide debt forgiveness to developing countries in exchange for conservation.

Although enforcement or monitoring of the promised conservation efforts is sometimes difficult, this type of economic incentive can have far-reaching effects on an international scale. The Nature Conservancy has already facilitated an agreement between Panama and the United States in which the US forgave 10 million dollars of Panama’s debt in exchange for 10 million dollars in conservation projects in the Chagres River Basin, to be carried out over fourteen years and paid for by Panama’s government. A similar agreement may be possible in the Azuero Peninsula and using a well-known facilitator like The Nature Conservancy could strengthen the chances of success.

In the Azuero, a silvopastoral approach could provide the most appropriate economic incentive to conservation on a local scale because residents rely upon cattle ranching, the most prevalent land use in the region. A silvopastoral approach is the

The Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education Center (CATIE) developed a system to quantify land improvements and compensate farmers accordingly. The results of this project have been profound. In Costa Rica alone, participating farmers have reduced the area of degraded pasture by sixty percent and increased the amount of pasture trees by five times.

Since the inception of the project, over 25,000 tons of carbon has been removed from the atmosphere and over 500 species of birds (a quarter of which are threatened or endangered) have been observed feeding and nesting on participating farms. The financial benefits for the ranchers involved have been tangible as well, with each farm receiving an average payment of U.S. $500 a year.

Silvopastoral system in action.

introduction of trees into cattle pastures. The trees not only improve the soil, but they can provide habitat for wildlife, lumber, as well as food for cattle or humans.

Silvopastoral practices are attractive to cattle ranchers because they can support more cattle and the land does not have to be removed from production. While the initial investment for the rancher may seem high, silvopastoral practices pay off in the long run because they increase productivity without risking conservation efforts. In addition, ranchers can sometimes receive payment for ecological services.

Ranchers continue to profit from their land at the same time that conservation goals are met.

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conservation principles

9. provide relevant education and training Studies indicate that access to information is essential for successful stakeholder involvement in the design, implementation, and maintenance of conservation projects such as biological corridors.

if properly trained, are able to monitor the area closely and report important changes or events. In addition, communities in the corridor area may already have a desire or need to change unsustainable land use practices that are in conflict with conservation efforts, but they may not know how to make changes or what alternatives are available.

For example, landowners who want to participate in reforestation efforts may not realize that planting a single species, such as teak, does not create the best wildlife habitat and can harm overall ecosystem health. They may also not realize the benefits of planting native species.

Programs that provide scientific and practical information relevant to the biological corridor can greatly increase the chances of its long-term success.

The education of an individual can lead to the education of many.

Providing proper education and training seems especially important for a corridor project because such a linear conservation area can encompass many miles and include widely dispersed communities that may not be in regular contact with each other, which limits the possibility of information being informally shared.

Public access to information is necessary because knowledgeable scientists and other researchers work in a corridor area for a relatively brief period, but the people who reside permanently in the region,

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Children planting native trees.

conservation principles

Scientific research has been conducted in the Azuero for decades, so a great deal of information pertinent to the creation of a biological corridor already exists. One way to make some of this information available is to collaborate with some of the many existing organizations and agencies. Some of these organizations provide training and education, and the corridor project could make use of these established programs. The corridor project should also take scientific research and transform it into relevant educational materials and incorporate it into new programs.

There are many ways in which corridor projects have provided environmental education and sustainable land use training to local communities. The directors of the Talamanca-Caribe Corridor project built a training center where 2,000 people a year receive classes in agriculture, health, conservation, and leadership. The Path of the Tapir project has an environmental education program for youth which consists of interactive workshops for the students of schools in the corridor. These workshops are then followed by films on biodiversity and the Central American coasts to strengthen the children’s connection to their environment. The project’s directors have also organized beach clean up days, and posted signs on roads which have pictures of animals from the corridor that also use the roads. In the Talamanca-Caribe Corridor researchers from The Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education Center (CATIE) trained local farmers in agroforestry techniques. The experts helped farmers decide which tree species to plant based on the land and economic needs of the individual.

Farmers were also given instructions about how to care for the trees.

For example, the non-profit Native Species Reforestation Project known as PRORENA, which is affiliated with the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, and the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, has been generating reliable scientific data about the Azuero that can be used to educate ranchers and other landowners who may be interested in reforesting land that could become part of the corridor.

PRORENA project site

Training and education programs should be aimed at both adults and children. While children may not be landowners, what they learn can greatly influence their future actions. For example, if children plant trees, they may be less likely to cut them down as adults.

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conservation principles

Design Strategy Summary This list summarizes some of the initial strategies developed for the design of a biological corridor in the southern Azuero Peninsula.

• Protect and expand riparian corridors and remnant forest patches.

• Provide payments to land owners/users for environmental services such as carbon sequestration.

• Expand and diversify living fence systems.

• Develop educational programs focused on environmental awareness and sustainable land use.

• Initiate reforestation efforts.

• Introduce silvopastoral systems and agroforestry.

• Selectively manage for forest succession in the pastoral matrix.

• Involve stakeholders during all phases of the conservation project, from planning to implementation.

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conservation principles

Potential Connections

Forest Fragment

The landscape of the southern Azuero Peninsula is dominated by cattle pastures and interspersed with remnant forest patches and vegetated riparian corridors.

The riparian corridors, if protected and expanded, provide an opportunity to increase connectivity between forest patches. Increased connectivity could be gained by expanding living fence systems, reforestation efforts, and the introduction of silvopastoral systems.

Riparian Corridors

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Potential Corridor zone A biological corridor from the 120 hectare forest at the IATTC laboratory in Achotines to Cerro Hoya National Park would likely follow the Rio Oria River near Achotines and then traverse riparian corridors and forested ridgetops in the higher elevation areas before connecting with the national park. A primary goal of the corridor is to connect existing forest fragments between Achotines and Cerro Hoya. In addition, this corridor could also have many branches to connect fragmented areas that are not bisected by a primary corridor.

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section 4: case studies

case studies

Introduction The Azuero Peninsula has a distinctive cultural and ecological history, but it faces some of the same kinds of problems that confront many Latin American countries: vast biodiversity but rampant deforestation, persevering citizens but underfunded governments, struggling economies, but endless possibilities. A number of Latin American countries, despite the challenges facing them, have developed biological corridor programs. The following descriptions of their attempts to plan, implement, and maintain corridors may inform efforts on the Azuero Peninsula.

Many of the following case studies are relatively recent, so while they provide examples for various approaches, their success is not yet certain. The information provided by these case studies is a small sample of the enormous range of possible approaches for a successful biological corridor in the Azuero Peninsula.

• Mesoamerican Biological Corridor • Path of the Tapir Biological Corridor • Talamanca-Caribbean Biological Corridor • Atlantic Forest Central Corridor • Barabas-Bremen-Cestillal Corridor • Maya Mountain Marine Corridor • CATIE Silvopastoral Project

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case studies The Mesoamerican Biological Corridor (MBC) is a region-wide plan to protect key biodiversity sites and connect them with corridors which would enable the movement and dispersal of animals and plants.

The plan proposes to conserve biological and ecosystem diversity while also, in order to be socially equitable and culturally sensitive, fostering sustainable social and economic development in and around the corridor areas.

An ambitious and innovative project that was first conceived in 1990, and took seven years to initiate, the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor aims to purchase and incorporate 900 square kilometers into the multi-national corridor system. The corridor now includes protected land within the region’s most northern locations in the Maya forests of southern Mexico, Belize, and Guatemala through the countries of Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica to the Darien Gap of Panama, along the border of Colombia.

Current trends in population density combined with land use practices have led to problems with water pollution, soil erosion, deforestation and general depletion of natural resources. As of 1993, an estimated 13 million hectares of forest in Central America had been cleared and an average of 418,000 hectares of these forests were removed on an annual basis. Unfortunately such land was not viable for agriculture, and corporations or populations who have used the land for farming and ranching have suffered economically as a result. In 2001 the World Resources Institute (WRI) reported half of Central America’s population to be living below the poverty line. Many people lack access to health care, potable water, and education. The same report revealed that the population had been steadily increasing by two percent annually from 1995 to 2000. To this day, the majority of people in Central America inhabit rural areas and depend on agriculture and natural resources for subsistence living. It is this degree of threat and the associated depletion of forested areas that serves as the primary motivating force driving those involved with the corridor project.

Founders and supporters include the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) and the Caribbean Conservation Corporation (CCC). In its early years, the project was largely funded by the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). Today the World Bank serves as the largest donor, having provided an estimated $160 million to support the project.

www.biomeso.net

The Mesoamerican Biological Corridor began its life as the Path of the Panther project. The project earned its name from the Florida panther, which ranges through every continental state of North, Central and South America and symbolizes the need for continuity of natural environments throughout Central America. The primary mission of the stakeholders involved in the project focuses on the conservation of the region’s distinct and rich biodiversity. The Central American isthmus includes twenty-two to thirty distinct eco-regions and supports approximately seven percent of the world’s biodiversity. Within 368 separate protected areas, 7,951,000 hectares of land had been targeted throughout the region, by 2000, the majority of which are not physically linked and range widely in size from 18,400 to 100,000 hectares.

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case studies Four different “Land-Use Zones� were designated within the potential corridor areas: 1. Core Zones contain legally protected lands that often include: 1) river headwaters, important sources for drinking water, agriculture, irrigation and industry; 2) wetlands that are critical to fisheries or soil quality; 3) wild species as resources for food, medicine and materials; 4) valuable scenery; 5) historically significant sites.

2. Buffer Zones are geographic areas that surround protected areas and serve as rings of land and water around the Core Zones; they are managed to filter or absorb negative effects operating in either direction.

3. Corridor (Connectivity) Zones provide pathways, of either land or water, that connect Core Zones and support passage of animals and dispersal of plants, thus permitting adaptation to climate change and altered habitats.

4. Multiple Use Zones are areas of human settlement and land management within which people practice sustainable agriculture or other forms of land use that do not have a negative effect on the local ecosystems.

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A significant challenge to the corridor has involved maintaining collaboration between the countries involved in the project. The establishment of ecotourism has proven to be difficult to manage and unstable within certain nations that have poor infrastructure. Landless migrants and indigenous populations sometimes feel threatened by the delineation of protected areas due to the perception (and potential reality) that access to the protected land will be limited. Currently, a majority of the most biologically diverse areas within Central America lack any form of protection. If the goals of the founders and supporters of the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor are to be met and sustained for future generations, it is essential that all stakeholders, including governmental bodies, conservation organizations, communities and individuals, are collaborating effectively to meet economic and ecological needs.

www.biomeso.net

Supporters of the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor are aware that its success depends upon establishing economic incentives for rural communities that rely on the land and its resources for subsistence. A recent effort has been made to incorporate sustainable development projects to support or even enhance ecosystems within the corridor.

An example is tree plantations and shade-grown coffee, which might provide a stable alternative to traditional development patterns. It is possible that shade-grown coffee plantations may actually function as small-scale biological corridors by providing habitat to over 400 bird species, a greater diversity than is supported by traditional crops that require full sun. Commercially valuable tree plantations have been shown to be a somewhat controversial means to provide temporary

habitat. Even though some tree species may not be native, they do provide shelter and serve as a food source for a variety of mammal and bird species. Ecotourism is another form of development that has been encouraged in the region. Supporters of the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor hope to improve economic conditions within Central America and establish a pattern of development that could improve ecological conditions and lead to the expansion of the corridor.

case studies The Path of the Tapir Biological Corridor (PTBC) is a locallybased initiative to connect forest fragments along approximately 100 km on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica from Corcovado National Park up to Manuel Antonio National Park and Los Santos Forest Reserve. Part of the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor, the PTBC is the only portion of that multinational corridor to extend to the Pacific coast of Central America.

endangered and endemic species.

The PTBC aims to connect the dry forests of the northeast and the wet forests of the Osa Peninsula, a path that includes nineteen rivers and ranges in elevation from sea level to 1100 meters. Three life zones are represented within the corridor: tropical wet forest, tropical wet forest transition to premontane, and tropical rainforest premontane. All of these zones are known to include a number of endemic and endangered species.

ASANA’s conservation strategy is to keep targeted land in private ownership and develop or implement economic incentives for landowners to keep their land forested, or in some cases, participate in reforestation efforts. For example, landowners are encouraged to participate in the Payment for Environmental Services (PES) program, a Costa Rican initiative which pays owners of forested land for such ecological services as carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation, watershed maintenance, and landscape beautification. Landowners are thus given the option to keep their land instead of selling it for development or conservation. ASANA also emphasizes the potential economic benefits of ecotourism.

The primary goal of the PTBC project is to create a network of interconnected forests and wildlife reserves that may eventually bring back many of the animals that once inhabited the area, including the jaguar, Baird’s tapir, peccary, scarlet macaw, giant anteater, hawksbill, and leatherback sea turtles.

ASANA thus began with a sound scientific basis for its goals, developed strong stakeholder support on several community and political levels, emphasized economic incentives and environmental education for corridor creation and maintenance, and has taken other action as necessary.

The Association of Friends of Nature of the Pacific Central and South (ASANA) is the local NGO behind the creation of the PTBC. The idea for the corridor initially arose in 1987 in reaction to the degradation of wildlife habitats and important watersheds, primarily caused by extensive deforestation brought about by local agricultural practices and increased development. Growing cities and the tourism industry were seen as major causes of the habitat fragmentation created by development. www.asana.co.cr

Initially, a Rapid Ecological Assessment (REA) was carried out to obtain reliable information about biodiversity resources in the corridor area.

An REA is a method developed by The Nature Conservancy (TNC) to obtain biological information that can be used for conservation planning. The PTBC area was found to include habitat for a number of

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case studies

Finally, in collaboration with other organizations, ASANA provides environmental education programs across the region, for both children and adults. Recent workshops have addressed topics such as the problems of trash, how to be a friend of the community, why we should plant trees, the importance of biological corridors, organic gardens, and the importance of water and problems associated with it.

Tapir

www.asana.co.cr

Much of the success of the PTBC in getting local stakeholders involved in the corridor has been credited to the project’s focus on water conservation, since water quality and quantity are major concerns in the region. The corridor seeks to protect the watersheds of various rivers in the region that serve as drinking and agricultural water sources for the local communities. The corridor design protects forested areas in the highlands in order to protect water resources for local users as well as those in the lowland and coastal areas. Additionally, ASANA has reached out and sought the participation of all communities in the region, including individual landowners and organizations.

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case studies The Talamanca-Caribbean Corridor (CBTC) in the Talamanca region of southeastern Costa Rica has successfully incorporated economic incentives through sustainable agriculture projects supporting ecological integrity. The Talamanca initiative was established over twenty years ago, and aims to support biodiversity, ecosystem conservation, socioeconomic development, and community development in the Talamanca region of southeastern Costa Rica.

Traversing a range of ecozones, the corridor encompasses 31,565 hectares of land stretching from the country’s highest point, in the central mountain range, to the Caribbean coast bordering Panama. Due to its large size, the corridor includes a wide variety of unique habitats and supports ninety percent of the country’s plant and animal species, and the country’s highest number of endemic species. The corridor includes areas within the Amistad International Peace Park, which is shared with Panama, and extends south to Panama’s Bastimentos National Park.

The collaborating organizations of the Talamanca Initiative have developed the following Five Guiding Talamanca Initiative Core beliefs: 1. If communities and nations are to thrive, development and conservation must take place together.

2. The best stewards of the tropical lowlands are the campesino and Indian farmers who have dedicated their lives to these lands.

3. All natural tropical areas that are not protected will be radically altered during our lifetime. These areas need to be preserved for future generations to enjoy.

4. The natural forest and other unique primary ecosystems are Talamanca’s most economically valuable asset.

5. A successful strategy must integrate environmental, social, economic and organizational needs.

The Talamanca region faces the most dramatic degree of forest fragmentation in the nation and is home to Costa Rica’s poorest populations, most of whom work as landless cattle farmers or practice subsistence agriculture. The corridor is also home to half of the country’s indigenous populations.

Over twenty community-based organizations, small-scale producers, and the Costa Rican Ministry of the Environment have collaborated to establish effective economic incentives to support the corridor’s tremendous wealth of biodiversity. The APPTA (Asociacion de Pequenos Productores de Talamanca), the CBTC (Corredor Biologico TalamancaCaribe) and Asociacion ANAI have provided support and leadership on a range of projects. These three partner organizations, each with its own program and specific objectives, all share the common goal of improving quality of life in Talamanca through the preservation and environmentally ethical use of its outstanding biodiversity and unique ecosystems.

Talamanca-Caribbean Corridor

Costa Rica

Panama

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case studies Based on these core beliefs, a range of projects addressing socioeconomic and ecological protection have been initiated within the corridor. Local communities got involved in mapping core habitats and developing standards for road construction that serve to reduce further forest fragmentation. Priority species and habitats were identified and monitored. Some of these habitats include regional rivers that support populations of manatees. Coastal areas that provide essential nesting habitat for leatherback turtles and nursery habitat for fish were also identified as key locations for preservation efforts. One of the few raptor migration monitoring programs in Central America functions as a living lab for education and ecotourism initiatives.

In response to socioeconomic issues, a range of “green” economic incentives encouraged local participation and strengthened support of the corridor. Carbon-offset payments serve as one type of successful financial incentive for the restoration of degraded land. One hundred and fifteen small farmers in the corridor area have received carbonoffset payments for conserving over 6,000 hectares of their forests.

In the 1980s organic crop diversification became a main focus of the stakeholders’ collaborative efforts.

During 2004 and 2005, the Initiative’s collaborators showed cattle ranchers how planting native trees species on their land can increase agricultural performance. For example, the incorporation of agroforestry techniques led shade cocoa farmers to double their annual yields from an average of 200 kg/hectare in the traditional system to 400 kg/hectare in six years and have prevented the expansion of cultivation systems that require agrochemicals. Since cocoa can be grown under a diverse canopy and with an abundant understory, these plantations provide wildlife habitat, while improving the livelihoods of farmers. Project collaborators provide funding for micro-enterprises, including livestock and crop production and the development of ecotourist lodges. This funding also includes supplying farmers with equipment, materials and training. Business training in accounting, basic management and commercialization provides the support for the development of sustainable business projects.

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The Talamanca-Caribbean Corridor serves as a powerful example of a Central American biological corridor that has incorporated participation from a wide range of stakeholders ranging from the individual to small local communities, NGOs, cross-cultural collaborations, and governmental parties.

case studies

In 1998, the Brazilian Ministry of Environment proposed creating a biological corridor to protect connectivity and therefore protect the biodiversity of the region. The Ministry had six initial goals for the corridor: to formulate alternative strategies to maintain and/or increase forest ecosystem connectivity; to develop and implement innovative and replicable models for biodiversity conservation on private land; to develop technical, economic, legal and institutional tools to help secure the integrity of the ecosystems and promote the restoration of ecosystems in priority areas; to strengthen cooperative biodiversity

Atlantic Forest Central Corridor

Minas Gerais

Fore s

t Ce

ntra

l Cor

ridor

Bahia

ntic

The Atlantic Forest Biome, which once covered 1.3 million square kilometers, or approximately fifteen percent of Brazil, now covers less than 100,000 square kilometers. There are 20,000 species of vascular plants identified in the region, 6,000 of which are only found in this forest. The area also provides habitat for 1,300 species of vertebrates, of which more than 500 are endemic to the Atlantic Forest. According to a study in a private nature reserve in Bahia, 454 distinct tree species were found in a single hectare, the greatest recorded tree species diversity in the world. Furthermore, the forest regulates water runoff, and as a result prevents soil erosion. Unfortunately, due to human settlement growth, industrial activities, and agricultural expansion, this region has been severely deforested, causing habitat fragmentation.

conservation actions between public agencies, the private sector and civil society; to develop and promote the adoption of incentives that encourage sustainable use in private and public economic sectors; and to promote the integration of conservation strategies and economic development policies.

Atla

The Atlantic Forest Central Corridor is a biological corridor along the Atlantic coast of Brazil. It traverses a number of states, extending through north-central Espiritu Santo, a portion of northeastern Minas Gerais and southern Bahia, running north to south for 1,200 kilometers. Its 86,000 square kilometers are regarded as the sixth most important biodiversity area in the world. The goal of the corridor is to conserve the biodiversity of the Atlantic Forest through re-establishing connectivity and creating a participatory socioenvironmental management program. The corridor crosses two diverse ecoregions, the coastal Atlantic Forest and the interior Atlantic Forest, and ranges in elevation from sea level up to 1,800 meters. Despite the fact that the southern Bahia portion of the corridor includes four national parks, only five percent of the Atlantic Forest Central Corridor is currently protected.

Espirito Santo

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case studies The Ministry created four main components to organize the structure of the project. The first element is a general coordination unit which manages the relations between the agencies responsible for implementation. The management committees, the second element, assess and monitor project implementation. The third element, the coordination units, provide functional support to the implementing agencies and the management committees. The final element comprises local parties which include civil organizations, the private sector, municipalities, and other stakeholders.

The project began in 2002 with the development of a management plan to identify the strategies, actions, and resources needed for the implementation of the biological corridor. The management plan included several key requirements: creating a functional proposal at the bioregional scale for the conservation of the entire project area; identifying processes and tools that ensure the sustainability of the focus areas; supplying socioeconomic development strategies for areas not under protection in order to ensure the sustainable use of natural resources; specifying productive activities that are congruent with biodiversity conservation and restoration; constructing an environmental, social, economic and institutional information system that allows for the periodic updating of data; developing a monitoring system that produces the information necessary to create appropriate management measures; and finally, identifying priority areas for the development of a corridor.

In 2003, The Nature Conservancy and the Institute for Social and Environmental Studies in Southern Bahia (IESB) purchased 977 hectares of Atlantic Forest along the Brazilian coast to help with the implementation of the Atlantic Forest Central Corridor. The purchase was funded by a $600,000 donation given to The Nature Conservancy by the 3M Corporation. The strip of land will be owned and managed by IESB in order to protect it against environmental threats, and will also serve as a carbon monitoring station where scientific research can be done. In addition, the Instituto BioAtlantico provided large landowners in the area with information, both scientific and legal, regarding the role of individuals in the development of a biological corridor by creating

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private reserves on their land. As of 2003, the two largest land owners were participating in the project.

case studies The Barbas-Bremen-Cestillal Corridor project is a multifaceted effort to protect the vast biodiversity of the Colombian Andes by reestablishing forests between existing remnant patches. The corridor system seeks to link the Bremen Forest Reserve, the Barbas River Canyon, and the Cestillal Canyon, which lie in the Central Andes Western Watershed subregion. Together they cover 1,833 hectares of critical habitat for endangered and endemic species as well as the area’s source of quality water. The Barbas River Canyon and its surrounding area contains a 790-hectare block of forest that has been protected because of steep topography. The Bremen Forest Reserve, one kilometer south of the Barbas River, was protected in the 1970s to ensure the quality of the watershed. It includes 747 hectares of native forest, the only protected sub-Andean forest in the Quindio region.

Along the northern portion of the Cestillal Canyon another large forest covers 296 hectares of prime habitat. The goal of the project is to increase the connectivity of the region, both physically and functionally, and to ensure future protection.

With over thirty million people living in this mountain system, critical habitat has been altered and fragmented. In the Central Mountain Range only ten percent of the original forest cover remains, making it the most deforested area of Colombia. The restrictions of steep topography on human activity led to the extensive deforestation of areas between 1,500 and 2,500 meters in elevation. Unfortunately, these areas are also the most biologically diverse. The sub-Andes, now covered by pastures and plantations, encompass only seven percent of the total land, but historically provided habitat for fifty-four percent of the currently threatened bird species. The Barbas watershed provides a source of quality water for over 175,000 people in eight municipalities. Within this watershed, only .38 percent of original forest cover remains, posing a serious threat to the reliability of future water quality. Furthermore, recent studies showed that twenty percent of Bremen’s bird species have been lost due to the reserve’s isolation from surrounding habitats.

Many of the bird species, however, are still found in Barbas, and could be reintroduced to Bremen through improved connectivity. In addition, the Quindio region of Colombia is the second most important tourist destination in the country, and improved forest cover could enhance

the region’s aesthetic appeal. In light of these conditions, the Instituto Humboldt, part of the larger Global Environment Fund/Netherlands Embassy/Colombian government project, proposed a plan, which was further developed in 1999, to strengthen the connectivity of the area. It was supported by local and regional environmental authorities.

Panama

Venezuela

Quindio Ecuador

Brazil

Peru Barbas-Bremen-Cestillal Corridor

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case studies In 2001, after socioeconomic studies identified a willingness of local people to be involved in conservation efforts, the implementation of an ecological network began. Private landowners, the municipal government of Filandia, regional autonomous corporations, two logging companies, and local communities are the major players in this corridor project; however, neighboring municipalities and environmental organizations will also benefit from the initiative. There were several key actions in this process. First, participants gathered information on the existing biological and socioeconomic conditions. Then they turned their efforts to local communities, establishing communication and encouraging participation. From speaking with locals they gained an understanding of their economic needs, and then analyzed the information to determine the feasibility of financial incentives. As a result, they decided to reduce the intensity of agricultural systems on private lands. In some areas, however, the corridor project bought land, took it out of agricultural production, and reforested it with native trees in order to attract fauna. Fences were constructed around forests to prevent damage by livestock. In addition, new elements were created in the landscape, like hedgerows and windbreaks, to improve the connectivity of the area. A wildlife tunnel was constructed under a highway to facilitate wildlife movement. The project coordinators applied adaptive management techniques, monitoring focal species and the vegetative cover within the corridor.

Various potential corridor routes have now been identified. The first proposed route involves the creation of five corridors approximately 100 meters wide between Bremen and Barbas forests, with two more corridors of the same width connecting Barbas and Cestillal. The second proposed route connects Barbas and Bremen with a 500-meter wide corridor, and Barbas and Cestillal with another corridor of the same length. While the latter proposal would be easier to establish and monitor, and would have less edge effect, the final decision will be largely the result of the negotiations with local land owners.

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case studies

A compilation of protected areas, that account for sixty-two percent of the total land in conservation, the corridor includes seven intact watersheds, which provide critical nutrients to one of the most important coastal habitats in the Caribbean. Conversely, forty-eight percent of the land in the MMMC is not currently protected and remains at threat. The corridor encompasses diverse ecosystems including upland forests (tropical rain forests), coastal plain pine savannas, coastal plain broadleaf forests, riparian forests, mangrove forests (ten percent of Belize’s total), coral reefs, and more than one hundred offshore cays. The protected areas included in the MMMC are Bladen Nature Reserve, Maya Mountain Forest Reserve, Payne’s Creek National Park, Sapodilla Cayes Marine Reserve, and the Port Honduras Marine Reserve. Because of this broad range of ecosystems, the MMMC is home to a vast array of plant and animal life as well, including 220 tree species and 350 species of birds. In addition, the corridor is home to healthy populations of endangered species, such as jaguar, ocelot, marguay, Baird’s tapir, scarlet macaw, Morelet’s crocodile, and West Indian manatee.

more than twelve feet of rainfall annually, have remained largely intact, making this area a prime site for conservation efforts. Despite the historical isolation of this region, the Belizian government is currently in the process of upgrading the Southern Highway between Belize and Guatemala, which will introduce new threats to biodiversity in this region. The upgrade of the Southern Highway will allow for rapid population growth and development, increasing potential threats from logging and agricultural expansion. Additionally, the floodplains between the mountains and Caribbean Sea are already experiencing the negative effects caused by land clearing for large single-owner banana plantations, which are manned by migrant laborers from Honduras and produce seventy-six percent of the bananas grown in Belize.

Mexico

Belize Guatemala

The Maya Mountain Marine Corridor (MMMC), located in Belize’s southernmost district of Toledo, is an ambitious, regional scale conservation effort. Belize, a country slightly smaller than Massachusetts, is ninety-three percent covered by rain forest and is home to the second largest barrier reef in the world (184 km long), which was designated as a World Heritage Site in 1996. Part of The Nature Conservancy’s Ridges to Reefs conservation approach, the corridor encompasses approximately 405,000 hectares (one million acres) and links the ridge of the Maya Mountains to the Belize Barrier Reef through a series of smaller corridors linking larger protected areas.

MMMC

The Toledo District, where the MMMC is located, has a low population density of 6.2 people per square kilometer, and is mostly populated

by Mayan Indians living in small villages who are descendents of the former Mayan civilization, as well as populations of the Garifuna people, who came to the region from Africa. Separated from the rest of Belize by a long unpaved road, the ecosystems of this region, which receives

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case studies The Toledo Institute for Development and Environment (TIDE) is a local NGO that works in conjunction with The Nature Conservancy, and is responsible for managing a large portion of the protected lands within the MMMC. In a landmark deal with the U.S. government in 2001, which was orchestrated by The Nature Conservancy, the government of Belize was forgiven half of their debt to the U.S. in exchange for the conservation of 23,000 acres of vulnerable forest within the MMMC. Under the agreement, the U.S. government provided about $5.5 million dollars to conserve the 23,000 acres under the Tropical Forest Conservation Act (TFCA). With the help of The Nature Conservancy, TIDE has recently developed a comprehensive management plan for the corridor, and works closely with local communities to create environmental and vocational education programs to insure that they benefit from conservation efforts in the area. Additionally, with the impending threat of development and unsustainble land use, TIDE has begun a land purchase and preservation program, using funds from the Adopt-A-Rainforest program to add strategically important parcels of land to the corridor.

TIDE has formed cooperative relationships with government officials and the academic community in Belize and elsewhere, and also builds partnerships with the private sector through its own for-profit tourism arm, TIDE Tours. In working with local communities, TIDE has developed a number of programs that foster stewardship of the land and sea within the corridor. TIDE encourages community involvement by naming local residents to their board of advisors, including farmers, fishermen, tour guide operators, teachers, and members of the local labor force, representing every major ethnic group in the area.

In addition to having its bureaucratic body aligned with the local communities, TIDE is also responsible for a number of outreach programs aimed at more sustainable natural resource use. For instance, TIDE trains local people to act as kayak, fly-fishing, and nature guides.

These vocations provide them with substantial income where they would have otherwise been supporting themselves with illegal fishing.

A Net Exchange program has also been instituted to eliminate the use of destructive gill nets, whereby nets are exchanged for funds to invest

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in more sustainable methods of fishing. There is also a program in which tuition money is given to the children of farmers and fishermen in exchange for a pledge to not partake in gill-net fishing or slash-andburn agriculture. These programs have seen a notable increase in local biodiversity and the killing of manatees has come to a halt.

Outreach programs that focus on management of the MMMC include poaching patrols by locals in the Port Honduras Reserve, to insure that legal fishing methods are being used, water quality monitoring and visual underwater sea-life inventories of lobster and conch.

The innovative approach by TIDE to include all stakeholders in the natural resource management within the MMMC and to disseminate vast amounts of information to local communities about the importance of biodiversity conservation and sustainability has contributed to its great success and created a sense of ownership of the precious natural resources found in the area. The success of TIDE’s programs are so widespread that the organization has received requests from other nations, such as Costa Rica, Honduras and Guatemala, to help them implement similar programs.

case studies Livestock production is the second largest land use in Latin America, and is largely responsible for the widespread deforestation of the area. Historically, public policy encouraged the deforestation of large areas through land ownership laws that required farmers and ranchers to clear forests in order to demonstrate productive use of the land.

Over the last forty years, forest cover in Central America has been reduced by approximately forty percent, and cattle populations and pasture land have increased accordingly. Typically, roads are cut through the forest, providing access to commercial and subsistence farmers, who proceed to clear the forest by slash and burn. The land is farmed until the soil has been depleted, and then livestock production takes over. This cycle has massively destructive environmental effects. The clearing and burning of forests releases huge amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and is also responsible for biodiversity loss, soil degradation, and water pollution throughout Latin America and elsewhere in the world.

In 2002, The Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education Center (CATIE), based in Turrialba, Costa Rica, initiated the Integrated Silvopastoral Approaches to Ecosystem Management Project, which is managed by Dr. Muhammad Ibrahim. The project is a broad-scale effort in Central and South America to demonstrate how a transition from traditional livestock production to more sustainable land-use and livestock production systems can occur if ranchers are compensated for environmental services that they provide through the implementation of silvopastoral systems on their land. Silvopastoral systems are cattle lands that are heavily vegetated through the planting of trees, and result in a number of benefits including sequestering carbon and maintaining a greater variety of plant species to promote biodiversity.

conducted to identify which parcels of land had changed the land use profile through increased vegetation. Based on the adjusted index value for that parcel of land, the total number of points for that farm were recalculated and the farmer paid for each incremental point.

The project is being carried out on approximately 370 small-to-medium sized livestock production farms covering some 9,150 hectares in the regions of Esparza, Costa Rica; Quindio, Colombia; and Matiguas, Nicaragua. The main objectives of the project are to test if payment for environmental services will tip the scales for the adoption of silvopastoral systems, to develop a methodology to monitor and pay for environmental services, to monitor the impacts of silvopastoral systems on biodiversity and water resources, and to develop and promote policies for sustainable livestock husbandry. Additionally, the project seeks to apply these practices on national and regional levels in order to have a wide impact on the sustainability of livestock production systems and natural resource conservation.

The results of this project have been profound. In Costa Rica alone, participating farmers have reduced the area of degraded pasture by sixty percent and increased the amount of pasture trees by five times.

Since the inception of the project, over 25,000 tons of carbon has been removed from the atmosphere and over 500 species of birds (a quarter of which are threatened or endangered) have been observed feeding and nesting on participating farms. The financial benefits for the ranchers involved have been tangible as well, with each farm receiving an average payment of U.S. $500 a year.

Twenty-eight existing land use types were identified, ranging from degraded pasture to mature forest. Each of these was assigned an index value from zero to one for both diversity and carbon sequestration.

A system to calculate payments and monitor progress was devised, in which a baseline land use and index value were assigned to every parcel of land involved in the study. During each following year, a survey was

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case studies Funding for the project comes from the Global Environmental Facility (GEF), supported by the World Bank and the Livestock, Environment and Development Initiative (LEAD), which is affiliated with the United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Initial funding for the project was U.S. $4.5 million. CATIE collaborates with the Center for Research on Sustainable Agricultural Production Systems (CIPAV) in Colombia and the Nitlapan Institute for Research and Development in Nicaragua.

Silvopastoral System Schematic

Forage

Shade Organic material

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Shrubs

Case studies: Summary chart

CORRIDOR

LOCATION

DESCRIPTION

METHODOLOGY

RESOURCES

Mesoamerican Biological Corridor (MBC)

Central America

Multinational corridor effort from southern Mexico to the Darien Gap of Panama.

A model for other corridor efforts.

- International collaboration - Broad scale

www.biomeso.net www.wcs.org www.cccturtle.org www.usaid.gov www.worldbank.org www.afn.org/wcsfl/pp.html

Path of the Tapir Biological Corridor (PTBC)

Costa Rica

Project to establish a biological corridor on the Pacific coast, and the only portion of the MBC that extends to the Pacific coast of Central America.

-

www.asana.co.cr www.haciendabaru.com

Talamanca-Caribe Biological Corridor

Costa Rica

A biological corridor in the southeastern Talamanca region, extending from the central mountain range to the Caribbean coast bordering Panama.

- Carbon offset payments - Organic crop diversification - Agroforestry - Training for land owners - Funding for micro-enterprises - Business training - Higher education facility

www.anaicr.org www.appta.org www.corredortalamanca.org www.minae.go.cr www.fao.org

Barbas-Bremen Cestillal Biological Corridor (BBC)

Colombia

Effort to establish a corridor system linking the Bremen Forest Reserve, Barbas River Canyon and Cestillal Canyon, in the central Andes.

- Preserves watersheds - Windbreaks and hedgerows - Faunal tunnel - Fences around forests to protect against livestock

www.humboldt.org.co www.globalenvironmentfund.com

Atlantic Forest Central Biological Corridor

Brazil

A biological corridor on the Atlantic coast of Brazil, traversing the states of Espiritu Santo, Minas Gerais and Bahia, running northsouth for 1,200 km.

- Connects two ecozones - International and national government involvement - Private land reserves - Carbon monitoring station

www.iesb.org.br www.nature.org www.clima.org.br

Maya Mountain Marine Corridor (MMMC)

Belize

An ambitious, landscape-scale conservation effort to link the Maya Mountains to the Belize Barrier Reef, including a diversity of ecosystems.

- Incorporating local communities in the conservation effort, fostering a sense of responsibility towards the environment

www.tidebelize.org www.nature.org www.rainforest-alliance.org

CATIE Integrated Silvopastoral Approach to Ecosystem Management Project

Costa Rica, Colombia and Nicaragua

Effort to demonstrate how a transition from traditional livestock production to silvopastoral systems can occur if ranchers are compensated for environmental services.

- Payment to ranchers for environmental services, such as carbon sequestration and biodiversity preservation.

www.catie.ac.cr www.gefweb.org www.worldbank.org

Rapid Ecological Assessment Payment for Environmental Services Ecotourism Environmental education programs Sustainable use of natural resources

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Case studies

COnclusion Reflecting the history of the Isthmus of Panama, the creation of a biological corridor provides an opportunity for a bridge across the Azuero that would restore the ecological balance of this region of global importance. By establishing a connection between socioeconomic and ecological gains, the Azuero Peninsula stands to have not only a much brighter future, but a greener one as well.

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section 5: Azuero maps

Azuero maps

Topography

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azuero maps

rivers

53

Azuero maps

Forested Areas

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azuero maps

Protected Areas

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azuero maps

Towns and Roads

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Azuero maps

Composite

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section 6: references

References Works Cited: Burnett, J. (1998). “Controversial Bio-Corridor Seen As a Way To Preserve Central American Environment.” Sustainable Development Reporting Project, NPR. Retrieved March 22, 2007, from http://lanic. utexas.edu/project/sdrp/corridor.html.

Capra, F. (1997). The Web of Life : A New Scientific Understanding of Living Systems. New York, N.Y., Anchor Books.

Coates, A. G. ed. (1997). Central America : A Natural and Cultural History.

New Haven, Yale University Press.

Griscom, H. P. (2004). “Rehabilitation of a dry tropical forest ecosystem in a cattle pasture matrix on the Azuero Peninsula, Panama.” Yale University. PhD thesis.

Griscom, H. P., Griscom, B.W., & M.S. Ashton (2006). “Pattern and process of forest succession within experimental trials of a dry tropical pasture, Azuero Peninsula, Panama.” Journal of Tropical Ecology.

Griscom, H. P., B. W. Griscom, et al. (2006). “Pattern and process of forest succession within experimental treatments of a pasture in a dry tropical region, Azuero Peninsula, Panama.”

Heckadon Moreno, S., A. McKay, et al. (1982). Colonización y Destrucción de Bosques en Panama : Ensayos Sobre un Grave Problema Ecológico.

Panamá, Asociación Panameña de Antropología.

Heckadon-Moreno, S. (1984). “Panamas Expanding Cattle Front: The Santaneo Campesinos and the Colonization of the Forests.” University of Essex, England. PhD thesis.

Newcomer, Q. (2002). “Path of the Tapir: Integrating biological corridors, ecosystem management, and Socioeconomic Development in Costa Rica.” Endangered Species Update 19(4): 186.

Wilson, E. O., F. M. Peter, et al. (1988). Biodiversity. Washington, D.C., National Academy Press.

Web Resources Cited: Mesoamerican Biological Corridor www.biomeso.net Wildlife Conservation Society www.wcs.org Caribbean Conservation Corporation (CCC) www.cccturtle.org World Research Institute www.wri.org Talamanca-Caribe Corridor www.corredortalamanca.org Association of Small Producers of Talamanca (APPTA) www.appta.org ANAI Association www.anaicr.org Global Environment Fund www.globalenvironmentfund.com

Hellmund, P. C. and D. S. Smith (2006). Designing Greenways: Sustainable Landscapes for Nature and People. Washington, Island Press.

Global Environmental Facility (GEF) www.gefweb.org

Hilty, J. A., W. Z. Lidicker, et al. (2006). Corridor Ecology: The Science and Practice of Linking Landscapes for Biodiversity Conservation. Washington, DC, Island Press, pp. 104-106.

The World Bank www.worldbank.org

Miller, K., E. Chang, et al. (2001). “Defining common ground for the Mesoamerican biological corridor.” Washington, D.C., World Resources Institute.

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References Global Environment Fund www.globalenvironmentfund.com

The World Bank www.worldbank.org

Humboldt Institute www.humboldt.org.co

Livestock, Environment and Development www.virtualcentre.orgFood and Agriculture Organization (UN) www.fao.org

Center for Research on Sustainable Agricultural Production Systems (CIPAV) www.cipav.org

Adopt-a-Rainforest www.rainforest-alliance.org The Nature Conservancy www.nature.org Toledo Institute of Development and Environment (TIDE) www.tidebelize.org

Toledo Institute of Development and Environment www.tidebelize.org

www.eco-index.org

U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization www.fao.org

United States Agency for International Development (USAID) www.usaid.gov

U.N. Development Program www.undp.org

The World Bank www.worldbank.org

CATIE www.catie.ac.cr

Hacienda BarĂş National Wildlife Refuge www.haciendabaru.com/conservation.htm

Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute www.stri.org

Association of Friends of Nature of the Pacific Central & South (ASANA) www.asana.co.cr

ANAM www.anam.gob.pa

Ministry of the Environment and Energy (MINAE) www.minae.go.cr

www1.lanic.utexas.edu/la/ca/panama/

www.mongabay.com

Institute of Socioambientais Studies of the South of the Bahia (IESB) www.iesb.org.br

www.afn.org/wcsfl/pp.htm

Bioatlantic Institute www.clima.org.br

www.ecosystemmarketplace.com

Tropical Research and Higher Education Center (CATIE) www.catie.ac.cr

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www.virtualcentre.org

www.ecoworld.com

appendix

appendix additional references Anderson, A. B. and C. N. Jenkins (2006). Applying Nature’s Design Corridors as a Strategy for Biodiversity Conservation. New York, Columbia University Press.

Bennett, A. F., International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources., et al. (1999). Linkages in the landscape : the role of corridors and connectivity in wildlife conservation. Gland, Switzerland, IUCN--the World Conservation Union.

Bennett, G. (2004). Linkages in Practice: a Review of Their Conservation Value. Gland/Cambridge, IUCN. Bennett, G. and K. J. Mulongoy (2006). “Review of Experience with Ecological Networks, Corridors and Buffer Zones.” Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity Technical Series No. 23: 100 pages.

Craven, D., D. Braden, et al. (2007). “Between and within-site comparisons of structural and physiological characteristics and foliar nutrient content of 14 tree species at a wet, fertile site and a dry, infertile site in Panama.” Forest Ecology and Management 238(1-3): 335346.

Dramstad, W. E., J. D. Olson, et al. (1996). Landscape Ecology Principles in Landscape Architecture and Land-Use Planning. Washington, DC, Harvard University Graduate School of Design; Island Press; American Society of Landscape Architects.

Forman, R. T. T. (1995). Land mosaics : The Ecology of Landscapes and Regions. Cambridge ; New York, Cambridge University Press.

Laurance, S. and W. Laurance (1999). “Tropical wildlife corridors: use of linear rainforest remnants by arboreal mammals.” Biological Conservation 91: 231–239.

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Laurance, W. F. and R. O. Bierregaard (1997). Tropical Forest Remnants: Ecology, Management, and Conservation of Fragmented Communities.

Chicago, University of Chicago Press.

Legal Tools and Incentives for Private Lands Conservation in Latin America: Building Models for Success, S. and E. L. I. (www.elistore.org).

Network, W. B. L. P. (1998). “Land Issues in Central America.” from http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/Networks/ES. Pagiola, S., P. Agostini, et al. (2004). “Paying for Biodiversity Conservation in Agricultural Landscapes”. Environment Department Paper 96.

Washington DC: World Bank.

Redondo-Brenes, Alvaro. (2007). “Implementation of Conservation Approaches in Human-Dominated Landscapes: The Path of the Tapir Biological Corridor Case Study, Costa Rica.” (manuscript submitted by PhD Candidate at the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University).

Welch, R. M., D. K. Ray, et al. (2005). “Impact of deforestation on the proposed Mesoamerican Biological Corridor in Central America.”

World Bank. 2002. “Colombia, C. R., and Nicaragua Regional Integrated Silvopastoral Approaches to Ecosystem Management Project: Project Appraisal Document.” R. No.21869-LAC., et al.

World Resources Institute. 2000. “ World Resources 2000-2001: People and Ecosystems”. Washington, D. W.