History of Landscape Architecture - Sketchbook

LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE HISTORICAL PROJECTS

SKETCHBOOK Constanza Jara Herrera 814533

History of Landscape Architecture ABPL90265 Lecturer: Andrew Saniga|Tutor: Angela Hayes Master of Landscape Architecture University of Melbourne October 2018

Constanza Jara - History of Landscape Architecture - Sketchbook

Introduction

Table of Contents

The Landscape Architecture as a profession has its early origins in the second half of the 19th century, for the legacy of Humphry Repton catalysed by John Claudius Loudon in Europe and subsequently materialised by Fredrick Olmsted and Calvert Vaux in the United States1. Half a decade later, The American Society of Landscape Architects, the first professional body was formed in 1899, and at the same time, the first academic program was founded at Harvard, but was in 1948 when the professional field was consolidated through the foundation of the International Federation of Landscape Architects (IFLA)2. In spite of these milestones that shape a formal recognition for this officious, the formulation of its boundaries and scope is an open-end question.

Beyond these questions about the professional field, there is no doubt that the human, since remote times, transformed and shaped the landscape to create more liveable environments, reflecting its strategies for survival, particular ways to use the territory and resources, fulfilled of symbolism and cultural meaning. In observing by sketching, this work aims to open questions about who, what, why and how those spaces were transformed.

1. Australian aboriginal land. The Merri Creek parkland

Merri creek, Melbourne, Australia

2. Productive landscape. Balinese subak water system

Bali, Indonesia

3. Ancient road system. The Qhapaq Ñan Road

West coast of south America

4. Public land for Health. The Emerald Necklace

Boston, USA

REFERENCE LIST 1. Andrew Saniga, History of Landscape Architecture lecture, Melbourne, September 7, 2018 2. Charles Waldheim, “Introduction: landscape as architecture,” Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes, 34:3 (2014): 187-191, doi: 10.1080/14601176.2014.893140.

5. Landscape rehabilitation. Netherlands’ waterfront

The Netherlands

Constanza Jara - History of Landscape Architecture - Sketchbook

Fig 2. Clans in the surrounding area of Port Phillip Bay.

Fig 1. Three scarred Eucalyptus trees marking the confluence Merri-Yarra, Dights falls.

The three symbols are representing three ancestral clans: Nevins, Terricks and Wandins.

chapter 1

ABORIGINAL LAND

Wurundjeri Country 40.000 BP, Victoria, Australia

The landscape as a cultural construt appears when a certain land is perceived as a landscape by human acts in a specific way, thus nature and culture are deeply linked.1 At least 40.000 years ago and including more than 1.000 generations2, the Aboriginal landscape in Australia was shaped by communities through the Great Tradition, a cultural, social and religious order that define the relation between people and land, understanding ‘nature’ and ‘culture’ as the same concept.3 Through Victoria, there were more than thirty groups and languages, particularly in the current Melbourne area is the Wurundjeri/Woiwurrung people. The cultural narratives or ‘dreamings’ tell the story of how the great ancestors forged the land into a meaningful landscape, how life was conceived and should be lived.4 Creek valleys and rivers were the best settlement localities for not only for having shelter elements, food and another resources, but also for being travelling routes. Significant elements are evidence of this landscape occupation such as stone quarries, scarred trees, earth mounds and human burials.5 REFERENCE LIST 1. Richard Broome, “Changing Aboriginal landscapes of pastoral Victoria, 1830-1850” Studies in the history of gardens & designed landscapes (2011): 89-90.

2. “Indigenous cultural heritage and History within the Metropolitan Melbourne Investigation Area,” Shaun Canning and Frances Thiele, Australian Cultural Heritage Management, accessed October 10, 2018, http://www.veac.vic.gov.au/reports/Indigenous%20Cultural%20Heritage%20and%20 History%20within%20the%20VEAC%20Melbourne%20Metropolitan%20Investigation%20Area.pdf 3. Ilya Berelov, Mark Eccleston and David Frankel, “Excavations, Surveys and Heritage Management in Victoria” Colloquium (2012): 6.

4. Richard Broome, “Changing Aboriginal landscapes of pastoral Victoria, 1830-1850,” 89-90.

5. “Indigenous cultural heritage and History within the Metropolitan Melbourne Investigation Area,” Shaun Canning and Frances Thiele, Australian Cultural Heritage Management, accessed October 10, 2018, http://www.veac.vic.gov.au/reports/Indigenous%20Cultural%20 Heritage%20and%20History%20within%20the%20VEAC%20Melbourne%20Metropolitan%20 Investigation%20Area.pdf

Fig 3. Map of aboriginal clans in Victoria. Territory is defined by people, country and language, concepts that in aboriginal culture have no difference.

Constanza Jara - History of Landscape Architecture - Sketchbook

Oven refuse

Refuse silt and clay

1

Silt and clay +Food + ashes and clay +Damp native grasses

Ashes and clay

Damp native grasses

Swampy area

Borrow pit

Fire

Hot ashes and clay

Cooking pit

Fig 5.

Stages in the construction of a mound.

600m3 of total volume, 240m3 is burnt material

Silt added to increase volume and height

2

Start of a mound

3

Fig 4. Operation of a cooking oven 1. A Fire took place in the pit base, hot clay and ashes were removed.

2. Food was cooked on a moistened grass and hot ashes into the pit, covered with earth until the food was cooked.

3. The pit cleaning starts a new mound, or increase a old one.

Earth-oven cooking Mounds were not places to permanently live but related where aboriginal people lived for long periods, usually on floodplains near creeks. They were an accumulation of a mix of clay, charcoal, shell, bones and burnt material used as a base for food resources in flood seasons.6 One of its former functions was associated with cooking food such as the bullrush (Typha sp.), possum, echidna, platypus and kangaroo.

The analysis of a mound behind its volumetric proportions among clay and burnt material suggests that about 4.286 cooking events occur in this mound and the major part of the bulk was built up periodically during non-flood seasons to be used as a safe place for food during flood seasons.8 REFERENCE LIST 6. Coutts, Henderson & Fullagar, “A Preliminary Investigation of Aboriginal Mounds in NorthWestern Victoria” Records of the Victorian Archeological Survey (1979): 4.

7. Coutts, Henderson & Fullagar, “A Preliminary Investigation of Aboriginal Mounds in NorthWestern Victoria,” 76-79.

Fig 6.

Archeological survey profiles of a Victorian mound possibly 3500 to 600 years B.P.

Constanza Jara - History of Landscape Architecture - Sketchbook

Fig 8. Merri Creek in spring. Birds and insects interacting near the river. CERES entry is the transition to the urban area and the bike trail its connection.

Fig 7. Batman’s treaty with aborigines at Merri Creek. 6th June, 1835.

The Merri creek parkland

Fig 9. Aboriginal people camping and fishing on Merri Creek, 1865.

The Merri Creek is a place of high significance for the Woiwurrung people, containing the memories of routes, landmarks and destinations within songlines. On its banks took place gatherings and ceremonies such as the Welcome to Country or tanderrum, farewell celebrations or gaggip, and inter-clan dancing ceremonies.8 The Merri Creek was also the site where the Melbourne Treaty took place at 1835, agreement that recognises Aboriginal title to the land.9 Nowadays several attempts for integrate and recognise the aboriginal culture begin to have place, such as the integration of the TEK (Traditional Ecological Knowledge)10, the creation of Merri Creek Management Committee and the initiatives of the Community Environmental Park (CERES), which includes a walking track ‘Aboriginal Trail’ and sharing places.11

REFERENCE LIST 8. Alexander Parmington et at., “Partnership and Indigenous Cultural Values recording within Victoria: the Merri Creek Cultural Values Project,” Excavations, Surveys and Heritage Management in Victoria vol 1 (2012): 57-62.

9. Meyer Eidelson, Melbourne dreaming: a guide to important places of the past and the future.

(Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press, 2014), 74.

10. Parmington et at., “Partnership and Indigenous Cultural Values recording within Victoria: the Merri Creek Cultural Values Project,” 58.

11. “Indigenous cultural heritage and History within the Metropolitan Melbourne Investigation Area,” Shaun Canning and Frances Thiele, Australian Cultural Heritage Management, accessed October 10, 2018, http://www.veac.vic.gov.au/reports/Indigenous%20Cultural%20Heritage%20 and%20History%20within%20the%20VEAC%20Melbourne%20Metropolitan%20Investigation%20 Area.pdf

Constanza Jara - History of Landscape Architecture - Sketchbook

CHAPTER 1 ABORIGINAL LAND

Wurundjeri Country

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FIGURE LIST

BOOKS AND ACADEMIC JOURNALS

Fig 1. “Merri Yarra Biik: strengthening the Merri-Yarra confluence environmentally and culturally” Yarra City Council, accessed October 20, 2018, https://www.yarracity.vic.gov.au/-/media/files/about-us/ grants/case-study--partnering-for-sustainability--merri-yarra-biik. pdf?la=en&hash=434EDF529F25D7DCD965DEC65165C103886144F3

Berelov, Eccleston and Frankel, “Excavations, Surveys and Heritage Management in Victoria” Colloquium (2012): 6.

Broome, Richard, “Changing Aboriginal landscapes of pastoral Victoria, 1830-1850”. Studies in the history of gardens & designed landscapes Vol 31 No 2 (2011): 88-96. doi: 10.1080/14601176.2011.556368

Fig 2. Ian Clark and Toby Heydon, A Bend in the Yarra, (Australia: Aboriginal Studies Press, 2004), 9.

Clark, Ian and Heydon. Toby, A Bend in the Yarra. Australia: Aboriginal Studies Press, 2004.

Fig 3. “Aboriginal Languages of Victoria” Victorian Aboriginal Corporation for Languages 2015.

Coutts, Henderson & Fullagar, “A Preliminary Investigation of Aboriginal Mounds in North-Western Victoria” Records of the Victorian Archeological Survey (1979) No9: 1-116.

Fig 4. Coutts, Henderson & Fullagar, “A Preliminary Investigation of Aboriginal Mounds in North-Western Victoria” Records of the Victorian Archeological Survey No 9 (1979): 5.

Eidelson, Meyer. Melbourne dreaming: a guide to important places of the past and the future. Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press, 2014.

Fig 5. Coutts, Henderson & Fullagar, “A Preliminary Investigation of Aboriginal Mounds in North-Western Victoria”, 76.

Parmington, Alexander, et at., “Partnership and Indigenous Cultural Values recording within Victoria: the Merri Creek Cultural Values Project” Excavations, Surveys and Heritage Management in Victoria vol 1 (2012), 57-66.

Fig 6. Coutts, Henderson & Fullagar, “A Preliminary Investigation of Aboriginal Mounds in North-Western Victoria”, 34,40.

WEBSITES “Indigenous cultural heritage and History within the Metropolitan Melbourne Investigation Area,” Shaun Canning and Frances Thiele, Australian Cultural Heritage Management, accessed October 10, 2018, http://www.veac. vic.gov.au/reports/Indigenous%20Cultural%20Heritage%20and%20 History%20within%20the%20VEAC%20Melbourne%20Metropolitan%20 Investigation%20Area.pdf

Fig 7. “Batman’s treaty with aborigines at Merri Creek, 6th June, 1835,” State Library of Victoria, accessed October 10, 2018, https://aboriginalhistoryofyarra. com.au/ Fig 8. Illustration by the author made at Merri Creek, October 9th, 2018 Fig 9. Clark and Heydon, A Bend in the Yarra, 11.

Constanza Jara - History of Landscape Architecture - Sketchbook

Fig 1. Map of Indonesia

Gunung Kawi Sebatu

Pura Gunung Kawi

Fig 3. Subak system in Sebatu - Water temples and villages

Fig 4. Map of the subak landscape of Pakerisan watershed

Fig 2. Map of Bali. Weather conditions, geography and irrigated areas

chapter 2 PRODUCTIVE LANDSCAPE Balinese subak irrigation system IX C, Bali, Indonesia

One of the largest land transformation made by the Balinese self-organised communities was the small-scale irrigation system for agriculture.1 Settlements of were developed around the X century through the figure of agrarian kingdoms.

The extension of the semiautonomous villages (wanua) was relative to the size of the irrigated rice cultivation. The fact of being on an island decreases the trading opportunities. Therefore the food production was a base for their survival.2 The subak is an egalitarian and cooperative farming system for rice production built

by Balinese communities. Each system was composed of a common water source - volcano or spring, a system of canals and tunnels, several terrace rice paddies (sawah), water temples and villages. It was used the landscape conditions to conduct the water downhill from the source to the rice paddies. Water use is closely related to religious beliefs and rituals, as a gift of a Goddess. Then, higher up, near the water source was located a water temple to coordinate the entire watershed activities.3

REFERENCE LIST 1. Peter Boomgaard, A world of water: rain, rivers and seas in Southeast Asian histories (Leiden: KITLV Press, 2007), 18.

2. Stephen Lansing, Perfect order: recognising complexity in Bali (USA: Princeton University Press, 2006), 20-47.

3. Ni Made Yudantini,“Balinese traditional landscape,” Jurnal Permukiman Natah Vol 1 No 2 (2003): 65-70.

Fig 5. Rice paddies (sawah) in the Pura Gunung Kawi

Constanza Jara - History of Landscape Architecture - Sketchbook

Irrigation channel Tunnel Core Rice Field

Temple Open primary channel Tunnel Dam Village Irrigated fields in focus system River

Cosmovision

Fig 7. Rice paddies and irrigation infrastructure in Gunung Kawi Sebatu Temple

Fig 8. Irrigation channel with small shrine to bless the water flow

Fig 6. Map of irrigation system from Gunung Kawi to rice paddies

The Tri Hita Karana philosophic concept reflects the cosmovision of prosperity through the balanced relationship between the three elements Firstly, there was a divine kingship dotated by supernatural powers, being identified with a god (Parthyangan). Secondly, there was the human (Pawongan), small self-organised farm communities that takes profits from nature, avoiding over-exploit it to maintain the balance. Thirdly, there was the universe or nature (Palemahan).

This was a concept to create and maintain the subak system of water temples, rice terraces and irrigation infrastructure.4 Ceremonies were a significant activity in the rice production cycle, which is observed in the temples. They have different scales, varying from the small shrine at a water entry to large multi temples hill up, near the water source.

Fig 10. Tri Hita Karana philosophic cosmovision of prosperity REFERENCE LIST 4. “Cultural Landscape of Bali Province” The Government of Bali Province, United National Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), 2011, https://whc.unesco.org/en/ list/1194/documents/ Fig 9. Water area with in the main temple at Gunung Kawi Sebatu Temple.

Constanza Jara - History of Landscape Architecture - Sketchbook

Gunung Kawi Sebatu Temple

Rice paddies

Pavilion Surface channel or stream Tunnel entrance

Irrigation infrastructure

Pool Abrupt terrain Fig 12 . Map of Gunung Kawi Sebatu water temple

Fig 11. Gunung Kawi Sebatu area.

Water temple, rice paddies and irrigation infrastructure.

Gunung Kawi Sebatu Temple This water temple could be one of the first sites for irrigation experimentation by the farmers in the island. The abundant spring water allows having surface canals connected through tunnels in certain zones. Indeed, the temple is located were the two natural springs are. Small fast-flowing canals were directed to far terraces, allowing to spread small quantities of water into rice paddies in different areas.5 Following the Tri Hita Karana philosophy, the beneficiaries of the yield went to provide offers periodically at the temple.

The temple had several water spaces such as the ponds that contain shrines as spaces to pray, or the bathing pools for purification rituals. Walkways and stairways connect the different pavilions and courtyards tracing the narrative of the ritual.

It is registered that the areas near the water source were protected with planting. Coconut trees, lontar palm trees, areca nuts and bamboo, were caring the space.6 This cultural landscape was enlisted by UNESCO as a world heritage site in 2012 to protect and support the subak living landscape.

REFERENCE LIST 5. “Cultural Landscape of Bali Province” The Government of Bali Province, United National Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), 2011, https://whc.unesco.org/en/ list/1194/documents/ 6. Stephen Lansing, Perfect order: recognising complexity in Bali (USA: Princeton University Press, year), 25-40.

Fig 14. Perspective view of Gunung Kawi water temple

Fig 13. Threshold between a corridor and courtyard.

Vegetation is echoed in the wall surface

Constanza Jara - History of Landscape Architecture - Sketchbook

CHAPTER 2 PRODUCTIVE LANDSCAPE Balinese subak irrigation system BIBLIOGRAPHY

FIGURE LIST

BOOKS AND ACADEMIC JOURNALS

Fig 1. Stephen Lansing, Perfect order: recognising complexity in Bali (USA: Princeton University Press, 2006), 34.

Boomgaard, Peter. A world of water: rain, rivers and seas in Southeast Asian histories. Leiden: KITLV Press, 2007.

Lansing, Stephen. Perfect order: recognising complexity in Bali. USA: Princeton University Press, 2006.

Fig 2. “Water temples and management of irrigation” Stephen Lansing, American Anthropology New Series Vol 89 No 2 (1987): 327.

Fig 3. Lansing, Perfect order: recognising complexity in Bali, 37.

Lansing, Stephen. “Water temples and management of irrigation”. American Anthropology New Series Vol 89 No 2 (1987): 326-341.

Fig 4. “Cultural Landscape of Bali Province” UNESCO, date of access 13 October, 2018, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1194/documents/

Yudantini, Ni Made, “Balinese traditional landscape” Jurnal Permukiman Natah Vol 1 No 2 (2003): 65-70

Fig 5. “Rice terraces” Flickr, last modified October 13, 2018, https://www.flickr. com/photos/50406852@N08/41971701160/in/photolist-26WTWu1

WEBSITES

Fig 6. Lansing, Perfect order: recognising complexity in Bali, 113.

“Cultural Landscape of Bali Province” The Government of Bali Province, United National Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), 2011, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1194/documents/

Fig 7. “Cultural Landscape of Bali Province” UNESCO, date of access 13 October, 2018, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1194/documents/ Fig 8. “Bali Temples: Gunung Kawi” Flickr, last modified October 13, 2018, https://www.flickr.com/photos/jovijovijovi/15220345347 Fig 9. “Shrine to Visnu. Gunung Kawi Sebatu” Flickr, last modified October 13, 2018, https://www.flickr.com/photos/seakayem/5712578209/ Fig 10. “Balinese traditional landscape” Ni Made Yudantini, Jurnal Permukiman Natah Vol 1 No 2 (2003): 67.

Fig 11. Lansing, Perfect order: recognising complexity in Bali, 38.

Fig 12. Lansing, Perfect order: recognising complexity in Bali, 39.

Fig 13. “Gunung Kawi Temple. Bali” Flickr, last modified October 13, 2018, https://www.flickr.com/photos/133429094@N07/25643961898 Fig 14. “Gunung Kawi Temple - Bali” Flickr, last modified October 13, 2018, https://www.flickr.com/photos/balialpes/5063891483/in/photolist-8HwXyy8HtLvR-8HwUQQ-8HwXwJ-8HK9X7

Constanza Jara - History of Landscape Architecture - Sketchbook

Current city Inca settle Inca settle and current city Main road structure Secondary road structure

Fig 1. Inka roads through the Andean Mountain valleys

chapter 3 ANCIENT ROAD SYSTEM Qhapaq Ñan Road XVI C, South America

South American ancient road network planned and built in the XVI century by the Inkas mainly for exchange among their community and neighbour communities, being the platform of more than 30.000km long to expand an empire based in trading.

This infrastructure was a political project based in the central settle of Cusco and a catalyst for cultural integration, creating from a crossed centre several connections with an extension of six countries (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Argentina, Chile, Bolivia) and connecting distant ceremonial, worship and production centres along the Tawantinsuyu.1 *NTS: Drawing not to Scale

Fig 3. Map of Tahuantinsuyu. Andean Road System.

REFERENCE LIST 1. Gustavo Duperre, “Proposing a digital information system for the management and conservation of the Qhapaq Ñan - Andean Road System,” The international Archives of the Photogrammetry (2017): 193.

Fig 2. Map of distances. Administrative centres through the Inka road. NTS

Constanza Jara - History of Landscape Architecture - Sketchbook SECTION A

TRANSECT CLASSIFICATIONS Established road: composed of noticeable material elements such as the footpath. Nade of compacted soil or stone, its edge elements such as retaining walls or aligned stones, and stairs, bridges, drainages or kerbs.

Traced road: intermittent structural elements into the road. Defined mainly by saywas, apachetas or landmarks, its links are recognised by compacted soil.2

A

Fig 4. High plateau built by addition. NTS

SECTION B

Fig 5. Footpath made by sweeping. NTS

Fig 11. Perspective view sweeped road

SECTION C

Fig 6. Stonewall and paved footpath with crops by the sides. NTS

B

SECTION D

B

C

D F

E Fig 7. Footpath by carved stone, built by subtraction. NTS

Fig 12. Perspective view stone road

SECTION E

Fig 8. Footpath with stone central drainage and stone retaining wall. NTS SECTION F

Fig 10. Key map to locate sections REFERENCE LIST

Fig 9. Compacted soil built by subtraction. NTS

2. Alfredo Bar, “Perspectivas del proyecto Qhapaq Ñan en torno al registro de la red vial inca: propuestas de su sectorización y nomenclatura,” Boletín del Museo de Arte Precolombino (2017): 40-41.

Fig 13. Perspective view drained road

Constanza Jara - History of Landscape Architecture - Sketchbook

SARAUNA FOR CROPS Elements to stabilise the terrain and provide a water system through canals from top to bottom, conserving the heat for agricultural purposes.

Different structures were created to access the platforms depending on the type of slope.4

ASTRONOMICAL SYMBOLISM The Inka Saywas were landmarks along the road used to measure the time-based in the Inka calendar, mainly related to the cult of the sun. These pieces were wayfinding elements of the traced road.

In the Chilean part of the Inca road were founded monolithic elements upon the saywas as astronomic elements to interpret the cosmos.3

Fig 15. Saywas de Lasana: cultural landscape and symbolic aspects. NTS

ROAD CONTINUITY Vegetal fiber bridge

Stone bridge

Fig 14. Land marker and land measurer

Wood bridge

REFERENCE LIST 3. Cecilia Sanhueza, “Las Saywas del Inka en el desierto de atacama: ¿una inscripción del calendario en el Qhapaq Ñan?,” Boletín del Museo de Arte Precolombino (2017): 133.

4. “Executive summary, title of the nomination Qhapaq Ñan, Andean Road System” UNESCO, date of access 15 September, 2018, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1459/documents/ Fig 16. Typology of bridges. NTS

Fig 17. Typology of Saraunas. Different approaches to built the walking

through the cropped slope. NTS

Constanza Jara - History of Landscape Architecture - Sketchbook

CHAPTER 3 ANCIENT ROAD SYSTEM Qhapaq Ñan Road BIBLIOGRAPHY ACADEMIC JOURNALS Alfredo Bar, “Perspectivas del proyecto Qhapaq Ñan en torno al registro de la red vial inca: propuestas de su sectorización y nomenclatura” Boletín del Museo de Arte Precolombino (2017): 40-41.

Cecilia Sanhueza, “Las Saywas del Inka en el desierto de atacama: ¿una inscripción del calendario en el Qhapaq Ñan?” Boletín del Museo de Arte Precolombino (2017): 133.

Gustavo Duperre, “Proposing a digital information system for the management and conservation of the Qhapaq Ñan - Andean Road System” The international Archives of the Photogrammetry (2017): 193.

WEBSITES “Executive summary, title of the nomination Qhapaq Ñan, Andean Road System” UNESCO, date of access 15 September, 2018, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1459/documents/ “State of conservation report, Qhapaq Ñan, Andean Road System” UNESCO, date of access 15 September, 2018, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1459/documents/

FIGURE LIST Fig 1-2. “Executive summary, title of the nomination Qhapaq Ñan, Andean Road System” UNESCO, date of access 15 September, 2018, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1459/ documents/ Fig 3. Alfredo Bar, “Perspectivas del proyecto Qhapaq Ñan en torno al registro de la red vial inca: propuestas de su sectorización y nomenclatura” Boletín del Museo de Arte Precolombino (2017): 39.

Fig 4-9. “State of conservation report, Qhapaq Ñan, Andean Road System” UNESCO, date of access 15 September, 2018, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1459/documents/ Fig 10. Bar, “Perspectivas del proyecto Qhapaq Ñan en torno al registro de la red vial inca: propuestas de su sectorización y nomenclatura” 39.

Fig 11-13. Fig 4-9. “State of conservation report, Qhapaq Ñan, Andean Road System” UNESCO, date of access 15 September, 2018, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1459/ documents/ Fig 14-15. Cecilia Sanhueza, “Las Saywas del Inka en el desierto de atacama: ¿una inscripción del calendario en el Qhapaq Ñan?” Boletín del Museo de Arte Precolombino (2017): 142-149 Fig 16-17. “Executive summary, title of the nomination Qhapaq Ñan, Andean Road System” UNESCO, date of access 15 September, 2018, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1459/ documents/

Constanza Jara - History of Landscape Architecture - Sketchbook

Roads Water Unsold sites Parkland

Sites sold for private development Fig 2. Earliest Royal Park lands were acquired during the 16th and 17th centuries by the Crown in London

Fig 3. Birkenhead Park development plan, London

Fig 1. London’s slums in 1877

chapter 4 PUBLIC LAND FOR HEALTH Planning Strategic Landscape XIX C, Europe, USA

Public open spaces have been part of cities to be accessed freely for all citizens, even though they were not designed or acquired for health and recreational purposes.

The reform Bill in 1832 in England rises a shift in the way of planning and design cities, pointing out the inclusion of open spaces as places of exercise and public walks as a way to tackle unhealthy conditions for the growing population, especially of the working class.1 This shift was an opening for the professional field of the landscape architecture and the development of the public parks such as the Birkenhead park in 1847 and park systems such as the Regent’s Park within the Royal Park framework in 1841 and the Haussmann’s Park system in Paris in 1853.2 The impact of the reform and those parks became a precedent for the metropolitan development interlaced with public parks as key elements in early stages of the United States.

The role of public parks did not only provide a framework for urban growth but also promoting the well-being, public health and strengthen the civil society.3` REFERENCE LIST 1. Alexander Garvin, Public parks, the key to livable communities, (New York: Norton and Company, 2011), 19-20.

2. Andrew Saniga, History of Landscape Architecture lecture, Melbourne, September 7, 2018 3. Garvin, Public parks, the key to livable communities, 13-14.

Fig 4. Haussmann’s Park metropolitan system, France

Constanza Jara - History of Landscape Architecture - Sketchbook

The Emerald Necklace The European planning strategy was a shift of governmental role in developing new growth areas as desirable destinations for private investment.4 Consecutively, the requirement for a professional expert in this matter appears. Frederick Law Olmsted in company of Calvert Vaux was the pioneer in the United States playing this role. Several parks in New York, Illinois, were antecedents for the first design of a park system, the Emerald Necklace in Boston developed between 1875-1895.5 The 445 ha metropolitan system was based in the available open spaces through 11 km from the Charles River to Franklin Park, using the Murray River as a vital drainage element, where the structure of the system is given by the topography of the land.6 The multipurpose design combines both social activity and landscape preservation, through the integration of six precepts: purchase the least expensive land; sewer system installation; gradual slopes for the flowstream; camouflage the train line; greening edges for future residential areas; flat open areas for recreational purposes.7

Arnold Arboretum

Franklin Park

Fig 6. Parks and parkways proposed for the Emerald Necklace, Boston, 1896

Jamaica Park

Leverett Park

The Emerald Necklace

Fig 5. Open spaces in The Boston Metropolitan district in 1899.

Muddy river improvements

REFERENCE LIST 4. Garvin, Public parks, the key to livable communities, 29.

5. Cynthia Zaitzevsky, Frederick Law Olmsted and the Boston Park System (USA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1982), 26.

6. Swaffield, Simon, Theory in Landscape Architecture. A Reader, (USA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002), 167.

7. Garvin, Public parks, the key to livable communities, 144.

The Fens

Commonwealth Avenue

Common Public Garden

Charles Bank

Constanza Jara - History of Landscape Architecture - Sketchbook

Fig 8.The Country Park view to north-west (P)

Fig 9. Sheep bound maintaining the turf, 1916.

The Steading The Overlook Fig 7. Woodland path in the Franklin Park, Boston, 1895.

Long Crouch woods

Franklin Park Different size parks were conceived by Olmsted. The smallest was designed to provide facilities to serve local communities. By contrast, largest sites for parks may have particular topography, historical significance or natural features. This was the case of Franklin Park. In 1885, 213 ha were designed highlighting its natural features, avoiding any urban elegance neither as a decorative element.8 It was included native species and the use of sheep to crop the turf. This decision was a step forward in aesthetic terms, leaving ‘the styles’ to make appears the place.9 The park was divided into two areas, the Ante-Park and the Country Park, both linked by the designed footpaths that were arranged in a loop providing multiple views to the central open space within a limited area. The boundaries of the park were densely planted to enclose the park from the surrounding context, providing a perception of an unbroken countryside through views framed by the landscape towards far hills.10 In words of Ebenezer Howard, ‘Elsewhere the town is invading the country: here the country must invade the town’.11 REFERENCE LIST 8. Julius Fabos, Gordon Milde and Michael Weinmayr, Frederick Law Olmstead: founder of Landscape Architecture in America (USA: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1968), 68.

9. Garvin, Public parks, the key to livable communities, 147.

10. Zaitzevsky, Frederick Law Olmsted and the Boston Park System, 73.

11. Ebenezer Howard, Garden cities of to-morrow (London: Faber and Faber, 1974), 156.

The Playstead

Juniper Hills School Master Hill

Resting ground

The Little Folk’s Fair Heathfield

Sargent’s Field The Greeting The Music Court The Deer Park The Country Park

Canterbury Hill The Nursery Border Grounds

Fig 10. General Plan of Franklin Park,1885.

Refectory Hill P

Constanza Jara - History of Landscape Architecture - Sketchbook

CHAPTER 4 PUBLIC LAND FOR HEALTH

The Emerald Necklace

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FIGURE LIST

BOOKS AND ACADEMIC JOURNALS

Fig 1. Alexander Garvin, Public parks, the key to livable communities, (New York: Norton and Company, 2011): 19.

Fabos, Julius, Milde, Gordon and Weinmayr, Michael. Frederick Law Olmstead: founder of Landscape Architecture in America. USA: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1968.

Garvin, Alexander. Public parks, the key to livable communities. New York: Norton and Company, 2011.

Howard, Ebenezer. Garden cities of to-morrow. London: Faber and Faber, 1974.

Swaffield, Simon. Theory in Landscape Architecture. A Reader. USA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002.

Zaitzevsky, Cynthia. Frederick Law Olmsted and the Boston Park System.

USA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1982.

Fig 2. Garvin, Public parks, the key to livable communities, 18.

Fig 3. Garvin, Public parks, the key to livable communities, 22.

Fig 4. Garvin, Public parks, the key to livable communities, 24.

Fig 5. Julius Fabos, Gordon Milde and Michael Weinmayr, Frederick Law Olmstead: founder of Landscape Architecture in America (USA: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1968), 61.

Fig 6. Fabos, Milde and Weinmayr, Frederick Law Olmstead: founder of Landscape Architecture in America, 64.

Fig 7. Cynthia Zaitzevsky, Frederick Law Olmsted and the Boston Park System (USA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1982), 79.

Fig 8. Zaitzevsky, Frederick Law Olmsted and the Boston Park System, 71.

Fig 9. Zaitzevsky, Frederick Law Olmsted and the Boston Park System, 77.

Fig 10. Zaitzevsky, Frederick Law Olmsted and the Boston Park System, 69.

Constanza Jara - History of Landscape Architecture - Sketchbook

Vegetational succession process in base of a provisional forest composed by alders, birch, poplars as fast-growing species, and a permanent forest composed by ash, oak, maple as slow-growing species.6

Fig 2. Bicycle path through the rowing course, 1940.

150km of footpaths and 50km of bikelanes composed the Bos Park.5

Sea level

Regata Road canal

Fig 1. The Amsterdamse Bos, 1937-1960.

The removement of dikes allows the topography regulation for the ground plane restoration.4

LANDSCAPE REHABILITATION

XX C., The Netherlands

REFERENCE LIST 1. James Corner, Recovering Landscape, (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999), 1.

2. Anne Whiston Spirn, The language of landscape, (USA: Yale University Press, 1947), 24.

3. Corner, Recovering Landscape, 189.

4. Corner, Recovering Landscape, 190.

5. “Parque Amsterdamse Bos,” Lofscapes, accessed October 18, 2018, http://www.lofscapes. com/blog/2016/5/28/parque-amsterdamse-bos-holanda 6. Corner, Recovering Landscape, 190.

7. Corner, Recovering Landscape, 191.

Tennis, hockey, cricket, riding school

Toboggan slopes Artificial Hill Deer Park

The Bos Park

The contemporary landscape architecture development is orientated to discover the capacity and potential of landscape practice and ideas. The professional field begins to engage with diverse matters to become an active instrument to shape the culture, leaving the vision of the landscape as a passive space,1 a mere scenery, decoration or landscaping that sustain the separation between ‘natural’, ‘artificial’ or ‘cultural’ and lost the understanding that landscape is a whole.2 The case of the Bos Park in the Netherlands is an example of how the concept of public park shifts as an active space that serves the city with a civic and public character. The park was built by men and horses using little aid of machinery.

The aim was show a natural process instrumentalised through a rational design and techniques such as plant growth and drainage, as productive elements of the landscape, detached of any stylistic intention.3

Park canal system

Road

External lake

Fig 3. Water level topographic diagram of the Bos Park.

The drainage operation is supporting the forest planting in a site 4.5 bellow sea level Children’s football

chapter 5

Artificial hill

Swimming pool site Hippodrome Regatta canal Natural reserves Sunbathing Hockey Open-air theatre Children’s play Experimental farm Fig 4. General Plan of The Bos Park. 940 ha organised in a nonhierarchical spatial structure, composed by three thirds balanced portions of lawns, roads and water.7

Children’s football

Games

Camping

Constanza Jara - History of Landscape Architecture - Sketchbook

Room for the River

The Netherlands

Room for the River is a contemporary national-scale project of Climate change adaptation based on the concept of flood safety and ecology. Different countries are beginning to develop it, in the case of the Netherlands Room for the River appears in 2007, underlying the concept of regeneration used in the Bos Park. It is proposed to give the river more space, through a series of design strategies, focused on water safety and the landscape restoration.8 In this case, the landscape as infrastructure works with existing natural dynamics such as water, wind, sediments and vegetation to create a new adaptive way to face the risks of climate change.

The implementation of this project applies a new network of multi-actor governance in a more egalitarian scheme. New policies and ways of collaboration are including numerous stakeholders and bottom-up initiatives.

The benefits of the project are broad, including agriculture, housing, shipping and cultural heritage.9

Germany

Average precipitation in mm/year 1500 1200 1000 800 700

Belgium

France Fig 5. Catchment area of the Rhine and the Meuse

Dike reinforcement

Lowering of Groynes

Dike relocation

Depoldering

Flood plain excavation

Removing obstacles

Increase river capacity

Water storage/retention

Fig 7. Nine typologies as structural measures to increase the river discharge capacity

Flood channel

REFERENCE LIST 8. “Dutch national Room for the River project: integrated approach for river safety and urban development,” Nijssen & Schouten, accessed October 19, 2018, https://www.graie.org/ISRivers/ actes/pdf2012/1A108-265NIJ.pdf 9. “Room for the river,” Deltafact, accessed October 18, 2018, http://deltaproof.stowa.nl/pdf/ Room_for_the_river?rId=48 10. “Room for the Rivers Programme,” Henk Nijland, accessed October 19, 2018, https://www. riob.org/IMG/pdf/roma_2007_nijland.pdf

Fig 6. Room for the River project overview.

Includes 5 provinces, 60 municipalities, 12 waterbodies, more than 30 locations and 725km of dikes.10

Constanza Jara - History of Landscape Architecture - Sketchbook

Urban River Park, Nijmegen The Room for the River Waal is the intervention of the national-scale project on the bend of the Waal River at Nijmegen that built an expansion on the northern shoreline, realised between 2012-2016.11 An elongated island and a new channel were built in the flood plains composing the Urban River Park, that not only integrates historical and Archeological elements but also uses the water fluctuations, sedimentation and erosion processes in the design.12 A dike relocation, an ancillary channel and the island are the elements that take place to create a solution for the flooding risk, reducing the water levels and giving space for recreation and housing facilities. This project becomes the previous image of the river flowing over the city to a city that embraces the river.13 More than the management of nature, the change of paradigm is related to apply technology to design with natural dynamics.14

Previous shoreline

Citadel bridge

Fig 8. Nine strategies applied in a standard section in Room for the River project

Ancillary Channel

Promenade bridge

New quay Lent

LENT

Fig 9. River expansion and city park in Nijmegen, I-Lent, Nijmegen, 2015

REFERENCE LIST 11. “Dutch national Room for the River project: integrated approach for river safety and urban development,” Nijssen & Schouten, accessed October 19, 2018, https:// www.graie.org/ISRivers/actes/pdf2012/1A108-265NIJ.pdf 12. “Room for the River, Nijmegen,” Landzine, accessed October 19, 2018, http:// www.landezine.com/index.php/2016/08/room-for-the-river-nijmegen-by-hnslandscape-architects/ 13. “Room for the river Waal Nijmegen”. Gemeente Nijmegen, accessed October 19, 2018, http://www.waterfrontcenter.org/Awards/Awards2011/Room%20for%20the%20 river.pdf 14. Swaffield, Simon, Theory in Landscape Architecture. A Reader, (USA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002), 226.

NIJMEGEN

New urban development

Extended bridge

New green dike

Constanza Jara - History of Landscape Architecture - Sketchbook

CHAPTER 5 LANDSCAPE REHABILITATION The Netherlands’ waterfront BIBLIOGRAPHY

FIGURE LIST

BOOKS AND ACADEMIC JOURNALS

Fig 1. “Beeldbank Prentbriefkaarten,” Vereniging Vrienden van de Amsterdamse Binnenstad, accessed October 18, 2018, https://www.amsterdamsebinnenstad. nl/beeldbank/pics-zuid/zuid-00371-a.jpg

Corner, James. Recovering Landscape. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999.

Jellicoe, Geoffrey. The landscape of man: shaping the environment from prehistory to the present day. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1995.

Swaffield, Simon. Theory in Landscape Architecture. A Reader. USA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002.

Whiston Spirn, Anne. The language of landscape. USA: Yale University Press, 1947.

WEBSITES “Dutch national Room for the River project: integrated approach for river safety and urban development,” Nijssen & Schouten, accessed October 19, 2018, https://www.graie.org/ISRivers/actes/pdf2012/1A108-265NIJ.pdf

Fig 2. “History of the Amsterdam Forest,” Gemeente Amsterdam, accessed October 18, 2018, https://www.amsterdamsebos.nl/english/history/ Fig 3. Geoffrey Jellicoe, The landscape of man: shaping the environment from prehistory to the present day, (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1995): 303.

Fig 4. “Reflections on the Amsterdam Bos,” The Advanced Landscape, accessed October 18, 2018, https://thelandscape.org/2013/10/02/the-amsterdam-bos/ and Geoffrey Jellicoe, The landscape of man: shaping the environment from prehistory to the present day, (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1995): 303.

Fig 5. “Room for the Rivers Program,” Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, accessed October 18, 2018, https://www.riob.org/IMG/pdf/ roma_2007_nijland.pdf Fig 6. “Measures: how we will make room for the river,” Ruimte voor de rivier, accessed October 18, 2018, https://www.ruimtevoorderivier.nl/english/

“Room for the river,” Deltafact, accessed October 18, 2018, http:// deltaproof.stowa.nl/pdf/Room_for_the_river?rId=48

Fig 7. “Project overview,” Ruimte voor de rivier, accessed October 18, 2018, https://www.ruimtevoorderivier.nl/english/

“Room for the Rivers Programme,” Henk Nijland, accessed October 19, 2018, https://www.riob.org/IMG/pdf/roma_2007_nijland.pdf

Fig 8. “Programme Room for the River,” Peter Jesse, accessed October 18, 2018, www.nna.niedersachsen.de/download/52074

“Room for the River, Nijmegen,” Landzine, accessed October 19, 2018, http://www.landezine.com/index.php/2016/08/room-for-the-river-nijmegenby-hns-landscape-architects/

Fig 9. “River expansion + city park,” H+N+S Landscape Architects, accessed October 18, 2018, http://www.hnsland.nl/en/projects/room-river-nijmegen and “Room for the river Waal Nijmegen,” Gemeente Nijmegen, accessed October 18, 2018, https://www.nijmegen.nl/ruimtevoordewaal

“Parque Amsterdamse Bos,” Lofscapes, accessed October 18, 2018, http:// www.lofscapes.com/blog/2016/5/28/parque-amsterdamse-bos-holanda “Beeldbank Prentbriefkaarten,” Vereniging Vrienden van de Amsterdamse Binnenstad, accessed October 18, 2018, https://www. amsterdamsebinnenstad.nl

A landscape is a space deliberately created to speed up or slow down the process of nature. As Eliade expresses it, it represents man1 taking upon himself the role of time.2 J.B. Jackson

FOOTNOTE 1. Should be replaced for humanity 2. James Corner, Recovering Landscape, (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999), VI.