Redlining Culture, by Richard Jean So (introduction)

REDLINING

CULTURE

A DATA H ISTORY of RACIAL INEQUAL ITY and POST WAR FIC TION RICHARD JEAN SO

INTRODUCTION

RPHWLPH LQ WKH HDUO\ V 7RQL 0RUULVRQ KDG DQ LPSRUWDQW UHDO L]DWLRQ +HU ZULWLQJ FDUHHU ZDV JRLQJ ZHOO 6KH KDG SXEOLVKHG WKUHH FULWLFDOO\ DFFODLPHG QRYHOV³ The Bluest Eye Sula DQG Song of Solomon³ LQ WKH V HDFK VHOOLQJ EHWWHU WKDQ WKH ODVW %XW KHU RZQ VXFFHVV KDG QRW PHDQW D EURDGHU DQG SHQHWUDWLQJ VXFFHVV IRU RWKHU EODFN QRYHOLVWV $V DQ HGLWRU IRU RQH RI WKH ODUJHVW DQG PRVW SRZHUIXO SXEOLVKLQJ KRXVHV LQ $PHULFD 5DQGRP +RXVH 0RUULVRQ KDG VHHQ WKLV HϸHFW XS FORVH 7KH SUREOHP ZDV WKDW LQ KHU ZRUGV ´WKH PDUNHW FDQ RQO\ UHFHLYH RQH RU WZR %ODFN ZRPHQ ZULWHUV 'HDOLQJ ZLWK ϮYH 7RQL 0RUULVRQV ZRXOG EH SUREOHPDWLF µ 7KXV E\ WKH HDUO\ V 0RUULVRQ WKH DXWKRU OLNHO\ KDG IHZ UHJUHWV DERXW KHU ZULWLQJ FDUHHU %XW 0RU ULVRQ WKH HGLWRU KDG RQH VHULRXV UHJUHW 6KH KDG IDLOHG WR VWDUW KHU RZQ ERRN OLQH DQG VKH GRXEWHG VKH ZRXOG KDYH WKH RSSRUWXQLW\ WR GR VR LQ WKH IXWXUH 7KLV ZRXOG EH WKH RQO\ ZD\ WR EUHDN WKH UDFLDO ORJLF RI WKH OLWHUDU\ PDUNHW ´,¬IHHO QR VXFFHVV DV DQ HGLWRU µ VKH VDLG 0RUULVRQ·V UHJUHW LV VXUSULVLQJ $V DQ HGLWRU VKH SXEOLVKHG D QXPEHU RI VXF FHVVIXO QRYHOV E\ 7RQL &DGH %DPEDUD DQG *D\O -RQHV DQG GLVFRYHUHG QHZ OLWHU DU\ WDOHQWV VXFK DV +HQU\ 'XPDV 7RGD\ FULWLFV DQG VFKRODUV FHOHEUDWH KHU IRU WKLV ZRUN <HW 0RUULVRQ OLNHO\ FRXOG QRW VKDNH WKH IHHOLQJ WKDW DOO RI WKHVH LQGL YLGXDO DFKLHYHPHQWV ZHUH VWLOO QRW HQRXJK WR RϸVHW D ODUJHU VWUXFWXUDO SUREOHP 7KDW VWUXFWXUH ZDV WKH UHDO SUREOHP DQG VKH IHOW LW DOO DURXQG KHU %XW LW ZDV KDUG WR VHH LW ZDV QR VLQJOH SXEOLVKHU HGLWRU PDUNHWHU UHYLHZHU SUL]H FRPPLW WHH RU UHDGHU ,W ZDV D SDWWHUQ D WKLFN OLQH WKDW ZDOOHG Rϸ QRQZKLWH ZULWHUV

S

ï&#x2DC;º

INTRODUCTION

IURP WKH FRYHWHG UHVRXUFHV RI QRW RQO\ OXFUDWLYH ERRN FRQWUDFWV EXW DOVR ERRN UHYLHZV OLWHUDU\ DZDUGV DQG EHVWVHOOHUGRP /LYLQJ LQ 1HZ <RUN &LW\ 0RUULVRQ KDG OLNHO\ KHDUG WKH WHUP ´UHGOLQLQJµ DW VRPH SRLQW LQ WKH V 5HGOLQLQJ GHVFULEHV WKH SUDFWLFH RI DUELWUDULO\ UHIXV LQJ RU OLPLWLQJ ϮQDQFLDO VHUYLFHV OLNH EDQN ORDQV WR VSHFLϮF QHLJKERUKRRGV OLNH +DUOHP EHFDXVH LWV UHVLGHQWV DUH SRRU RU SHRSOH RI FRORU 7KH SUDFWLFH VWDUWHG LQ WKH V ZKHQ WKH )HGHUDO +RXVLQJ $GPLQLVWUDWLRQ ZDV FUHDWHG WR LQVXUH PRUWJDJHV 7KH DJHQF\ LGHQWLϮHG ϮQDQFLDOO\ ´ULVN\µ DUHDV DQG SUR GXFHG PDSV GUDZQ E\ WKH +RPH 2ZQHUV· /RDQ &RUSRUDWLRQ +2/& WR PDUN WKRVH DUHDV LQ EULJKW UHG VR EDQNV NQHZ ZKLFK QHLJKERUKRRGV WR DYRLG $ red line VHSDUDWHG WKH DFFHSWDEOH IURP WKH QRQDFFHSWDEOH SDUWV RI WKH FLW\ DQG WKH QRQDFFHSWDEOH SDUWV ZHUH W\SLFDOO\ SRSXODWHG E\ EODFN SHRSOH DQG LPPLJUDQWV $ +2/& PDS RI 1HZ <RUN LQ WKH V KDV +DUOHP GUHQFKHG LQ UHG 5HGOLQLQJ HYLVFHUDWHG WKH HFRQRPLF GHYHORSPHQW RI EODFN QHLJKERUKRRGV DQG ZKLOH WKH SUDFWLFH RϲFLDOO\ FHDVHG E\ WKH ODWH V LWV DIWHUHϸHFWV FRXOG VWLOO EH IHOW ZHOO LQWR WKH V :KDW RQH KHDUV LQ 0RUULVRQ·V IUXVWUDWLRQ LV WKH UHFRJQLWLRQ RI D VLPLODU NLQG RI V\PEROLF PDS RQH IRFXVHG RQ ZKDW ZH PLJKW FDOO cultural redlining ,W·V ZLGHO\ UHFRJQL]HG WKDW ODUJH DQG PDLQVWUHDP ERRN SXEOLVKHUV OLNH 5DQGRP +RXVH FDQ RQO\ SXEOLVK VR PDQ\ EODFN RU $VLDQ ZULWHUV /LNHZLVH ERRN UHYLHZHUV DW HOLWH PDJD]LQHV OLNH WKH New Yorker SUHIHU WR WDON DERXW ZKLWH PDOH DXWKRUV OLNH -RKQ 8SGLNH DQG UDUHO\ UHYLHZ PLQRULW\ DXWKRUV %RRN SUL]HV PLJKW UHFRJQL]H D EUHDN RXW VWDU OLNH 7RQL 0RUULVRQ EXW DOPRVW QR RQH HOVH $QG VR RQ :H NQRZ DOO WKDW DV D NLQG RI talk DV D VHULHV RI KLVWRULFDO DQHFGRWHV RU VWRULHV %XW ZKDW GRHV DOO RI WKDW ORRN OLNH DV D W\SH RI HPSLULFDO VWUXFWXUH RU PDS" ,I ZH FRXOG GUDZ WKH $PHULFDQ OLWHUDU\ ϮHOG OLNH D PLGFHQWXU\ +2/& PDS ZKDW UHG OLQHV ZRXOG ZH VHH" :KDW SDWWHUQV RI HQFORVXUH GRPLQDWLRQ DQG LVRODWLRQ ZRXOG ZH ϮQG" )RU 0RUULVRQ WKH IDFW WKDW ERRN SXEOLVKHUV FRXOG ´KDQGOHµ RQO\ RQH 7RQL 0RUULVRQ ZDV PHUHO\ V\PSWRPDWLF RI D JUHDWHU FXOWXUDO UHGOLQLQJ LQ SRVWZDU $PHULFDQ OLWHUDWXUH 6KH FRXOGQ·W VHH WKLV HϸHFW DV D PDS RQ D SLHFH RI SDSHU EXW VKH NQHZ LW ZDV UHDO ,I ZH ORRN DW WKH SXEOLVKLQJ GDWD ZKDW ZH VHH LV UHSUHVHQWHG LQ ϮJXUH ,I ZH IRFXV RQ WKH SRVWZDU SHULRG D SHULRG , GHϮQH IRU WKLV ERRN DV WKH \HDUV EHWZHHQ DQG DQG ORRN DW 8 6 ϮFWLRQ DQG UDFH ZKLWH DXWKRUV UHSUH VHQW ¬SHUFHQW RI WKH DXWKRUV SXEOLVKHG DW 5DQGRP +RXVH 7KH GDWD FRQϮUPV ZKDW 0RUULVRQ KDG LQWXLWHG DQ RYHUZKHOPLQJ ZKLWHQHVV DQG D VFDUFLW\ RI PLQRULW\ ZULWHUV 0RUULVRQ DW ODVW ZRXOG VHH WKH OLWHUDU\ PDUNHWSODFH DV D PDS RI LQHTXDOLW\ ,I SXEOLVKHUV FRXOGQ·W KDQGOH ´ϮYH 7RQL 0RUULVRQV µ WKLV LV ZKDW LW ORRNV OLNH DV D SDWWHUQ

INTRODUCTION



FIGURE . ೏ 3HUFHQWDJH RI QRYHOLVWV E\ UDFLDO LGHQWLW\ ZKLWH EODFN DQG 32&³ $VLDQ $PHULFDQ /DWLQ[ DQG 1DWLYH $PHULFDQ SXEOLVKHG DW 5DQGRP +RXVH E\ \HDU EHWZHHQ DQG

% XW WKH SDWWHUQ GRHVQ·W HQG WKHUH )RU LQVWDQFH ZKHQ ZH LQFOXGH LQIRUPD WLRQ UHJDUGLQJ $PHULFDQ ERRN UHYLHZV ERRN VDOHV DQG ERRN DZDUGV³ LQ RUGHU WR XQGHUVWDQG WKH OLIH RI D ERRN DIWHU LW JHWV SXEOLVKHG DQG HQWHUV WKH ZLGHU OLW HUDU\ PDUNHWSODFH ZKDW VKH ZRXOG VHH LV UHSUHVHQWHG LQ WDEOH¬ :KLWH DXWKRUV DOVR UHSUHVHQW ¬SHUFHQW RI WKH PRVW UHYLHZHG QRYHOLVWV LQ PDJD]LQHV DQG SHULRGLFDOV VXFK DV WKH New Yorker $QG ZKHQ LW FRPHV WR ERRN SUL]HV ZKLWH DXWKRUV FRPSULVH ¬ SHUFHQW RI QRYHOLVWV ZKR ZLQ PDMRU DZDUGV VXFK DV WKH 3XOLW]HU (YHQ PRUH VWDUNO\ UDFLDO LQHTXDOLW\ LQ WKH 8 6 OLWHUDU\ Ϯ HOG LV PRVW SURQRXQFHG LQ WHUPV RI VDOHV D VWDJJHULQJ ¬SHUFHQW RI QRYHOLVWV ZKR DSSHDU RQ EHVWVHOOHU OLVWV DUH ZKLWH 7KLV LV DOO GHVSLWH WKH IDFW WKDW ZKLWH SHRSOH UHS UHVHQW MXVW ¬SHUFHQW RI WKH RYHUDOO 8 6 SRSXODWLRQ LQ $ VLPSOH SURFHVV RI FROOHFWLQJ VRPH GDWD DQG FRPSXWLQJ VRPH EDVLF VWDWLVWLFV WHOOV D FOHDU VWRU\ WKURXJK HYHU\ SKDVH RI WKH OLWHUDU\ Ϯ HOG IURP SURGXFWLRQ SXEOLVKLQJ WR UHFHSWLRQ ERRN UHYLHZV WR GLVWLQFWLRQ ERRN VDOHV DQG SUL]HV ZKLWH DXWKRUV H[HUFLVH D GLVWLQFW UDFLDO FRPPDQG RYHU PLQRULW\ DXWKRUV SDUWLFXODUO\ EODFN QRYHOLVWV $QG SHUKDSV PRVW VXUSULVLQJO\ WKHVH QXPEHUV GR QRW FKDQJH RYHU WLPH 5DFLDO LQHTXDOLW\ DV D PDLQ IHDWXUH RI SRVWZDU OLWHUDU\ SURGXFWLRQ DQG



INTRODUCTION

TABLE . U.S. NOVELISTS,   RACE OF AUTHOR

PUBLISHING (%)

BOOK REVIEWS (%)

BEST SELLERS (%)

:KLWH

%ODFN

32&

BOOK PRIZES (%)

3HUFHQWDJH RI QRYHOLVWV E\ UDFLDO LGHQWLW\ ZKLWH EODFN DQG 32&³ $VLDQ $PHULFDQ /DWLQ[ DQG 1DWLYH $PHULFDQ LQ IRXU FRQWH[WV PDLQVWUHDP SXEOLVKLQJ DV UHSUHVHQWHG E\ 5DQGRP +RXVH 8 6 ERRN UHYLHZV 8 6 EHVWVHOOHUV DQG 8 6 SUL]HZLQQHUV EHWZHHQ DQG

UHFHSWLRQ LV UHVLOLHQW 'HVSLWH HϸRUWV E\ PLQRULW\ DXWKRUV DQG DFWLYLVWV WR GLYHUVLI\ DQG WUDQVIRUP WKH $PHULFDQ OLWHUDU\ ϮHOG³ IRU H[DPSOH WKH %ODFN $UWV 0RYHPHQW LQ WKH V WKH &RPELQHG $VLDQ $PHULFDQ 5HVRXUFHV 3URMHFW LQ WKH V DQG WKH RVWHQVLEOH ´ULVHµ RI 8 6 PXOWLFXOWXUDOLVP LQ WKH V³ QRQH ZDV VWURQJ HQRXJK WR SHUPDQHQWO\ XQGR WKH KHJHPRQ\ RI ZKLWH DXWKRUVKLS LQ WKH ϮHOG DW VFDOH 7KLV LV QRW WKH XVXDO VWRU\ WKDW VFKRODUV WHOO DERXW SRVWZDU $PHULFDQ OLWHUDWXUH 7KDW VWRU\ LV W\SLFDOO\ IDU PRUH FHOHEUDWRU\ 6FKRODUV RIWHQ VD\ WKDW $PHULFDQ OLWHUDWXUH EHFDPH OHVV ZKLWH DQG PRUH UDFLDOO\ GLYHUVH 7KH\ VD\ WKDW PXOWLFXOWXU DOLVP WULXPSKHG LQ WKLV SHULRG 'DUU\O 'LFNVRQ &DUU LQ KLV LQWURGXFWLRQ WR The Columbia Guide to Contemporary African American Fiction ZULWHV 7KH WKUHH GHFDGHV EHWZHHQ DQG FRQVWLWXWHG WKH PRVW SURGXFWLYH DQG VXFFHVVIXO SHULRG LQ $IULFDQ $PHULFDQ OLWHUDU\ KLVWRU\ +XQGUHGV RI $IUL FDQ $PHULFDQ DXWKRUVೋ ೋ ೋ ೋ EHJDQ RU FRQWLQXHG LOOXVWULRXV ZULWLQJ DQG SXE OLVKLQJ FDUHHUV ೋ ೋ ೋ ೋ 3ULRU WR YHU\ IHZ $IULFDQ $PHULFDQ DXWKRUV FRXOG KRSH WR VHOO PRUH WKDQ D IHZ WKRXVDQG FRSLHV RI WKHLU ERRNV %\ WKH PLG V VDOHV LQ WKH KXQGUHGV RU WKRXVDQGV IRU LQGLYLGXDO ZRUNVೋ ೋ ೋ ೋ ZHUH FRP PRQSODFH IRU VHYHUDO GR]HQ ZULWHUV ೋ ೋ ೋ ೋ 7KH UHZDUGV KDYH QRW EHHQ PHUHO\ ϮQDQFLDO $IULFDQ $PHULFDQ DXWKRUV DOVR EHJDQ ZLQQLQJ VRPH RI WKH WRS OLW HUDU\ ERRN SUL]HV ೋ ೋ ೋ ೋ 3XEOLVKLQJ KRXVHV WKDW RQFH GLVPLVVHG PDQXVFULSWV E\ DQG DERXW $IULFDQ $PHULFDQV RXW RI D ZLGHVSUHDG EHOLHI WKDW EODFNV GR QRW UHDG ERRNV KDYH EHHQ SURYHQ ZURQJ WLPH DQG DJDLQ 7KH GRRUV RI PDLQVWUHDP SXEOLFDWLRQ DQG GLVWULEXWLRQ PD\ UHPDLQ RSHQ LQGHϮQLWHO\ WR EODFN DXWKRUV

INTRODUCTION

ï&#x2DC;½

,Q KLV RYHUYLHZ RI SRVWZDU 8 6 SXEOLVKLQJ 0LFKDHO 6FKXGVRQ GHFODUHV 0XOWLFXOWXUDOLVP E\ WKH V ZDV QRW MXVW DQ DFDGHPLF DQWKHP EXW D VRFLDO IDFW :LWK FKDQJHV LQ LPPLJUDWLRQ SDWWHUQV DIWHU LPPLJUDWLRQ UHIRUP /DWLQ $PHULFDQ DQG $VLDQ LPPLJUDQWV DOWHUHG WKH IDFH RI $PHULFD ,Q SXEOLVK LQJ -HZLVK $PHULFDQ ϮFWLRQ $IULFDQ $PHULFDQ ϮFWLRQ DQG $VLDQ $PHULFDQ ϮFWLRQ FDPH WR DOO EXW GHϮQH WKH ZRUOG RI VHULRXV OLWHUDWXUH D QRYHOLVW OLNH -RKQ 8SGLNH ODWH LQ KLV FDUHHU ZDV VHHQ WR EH DQ REVHUYHU RI QRUWKHDVWHUQ ZKLWH $QJOR 6D[RQ 3URWHVWDQW QDWXUH UDWKHU WKDQ RI JHQHULFDOO\ ´$PHULFDQµ FKDUDFWHUV

+RZHYHU , DUJXH WKDW VFKRODUV RI 8 6 OLWHUDWXUH KDYH SDUWO\ PLVUHDG LWV SRVW ZDU KLVWRU\ E\ IDLOLQJ WR UHFRJQL]H RQH RI LWV VLJQDO IHDWXUHV XQFKDQJLQJ UDFLDO LQHTXDOLW\ , DUJXH WKDW WKH VFKRODUO\ QDUUDWLYH RI WKH ULVH RI PXOWLFXOWXUDOLVP³ D VWRU\ WKDW ϮUVW WRRN KROG LQ WKH VFKRODUVKLS DQG WKHQ GLϸXVHG EURDGO\ WR WKH SXEOLF³ KDV LQ SDUW REVFXUHG D PRUH IXQGDPHQWDO VWRU\ 7KDW VWRU\ LV DERXW WKH¬HFRQRPLFV RI $PHULFDQ OLWHUDWXUH³ SURGXFWLRQ UHFHSWLRQ DQG UHFRJQLWLRQ³ DQG KRZ WKRVH HFRQRPLFV KDYH DQG FRQWLQXH WR SXQLVK DQG H[FOXGH PLQRULW\ DXWKRUV (DFK FKDSWHU RI WKLV ERRN H[SORUHV D VSHFLϮF SKDVH RI WKH OLIHF\FOH RI D QRYHO³ I URP SXEOLVKLQJ WR UHYLHZV WR VDOHV WR SUL]HV³ WR XQFRYHU KRZ UDFLDO H[FOXVLRQ HQDFWV D FRUH IHDWXUH RI HDFK SKDVH 7KLV H[FOXVLRQ DW WKH VDPH WLPH KDV KDG D SURIRXQG HϸHFW RQ WKH IRUP DQG FRQWHQW RI WKH SRVWZDU $PHULFDQ QRYHO &XOWXUDO UHGOLQLQJ LV QRW MXVW D GHPR JUDSKLF SKHQRPHQRQ LW DOVR H[LVWV DW WKH OHYHO RI WKH WH[W WKH SDJH WKH SDUD JUDSK DQG ZRUG 7DNLQJ DV LWV VWDUWLQJ SRLQW WKH QXPEHUV DVVHUWHG DW WKH VWDUW RI WKLV LQWURGXFWLRQ³ ¬SHUFHQW ¬SHUFHQW ¬SHUFHQW DQG ¬SHUFHQW³ , VKRZ WKDW WKH KLVWRU\ RI SRVWZDU $PHULFDQ OLWHUDWXUH DQG UDFLDO LQHTXDOLW\ DUH LQVHS DUDEOH DQG WKDW WKLV LQHTXDOLW\ DOVR GLUHFWO\ VKDSHG WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI WKH ODQJXDJH IRUP DQG QDUUDWLYH RI SRVWZDU $PHULFDQ ϮFWLRQ ERWK DW WKH VFDOH RI WKRXVDQGV RI WH[WV DQG LQ WHUPV RI WKH LQGLYLGXDO ZRUNV WKDW VFKRODUV KDYH LGHQ WLϮHG DV LPSRUWDQW VXFK DV 7RQL 0RUULVRQ·V Song of Solomon ,Q SDUWLFXODU , DUJXH WKDW WKLV LQHTXDOLW\ WRRN WKH IRUP RI D YDVW OLWHUDU\ ZKLWHQHVV WKDW LV IHOW DFURVV D ZLGH UDQJH RI ϮFWLRQ SURPSWLQJ H[DPSOHV RI ERWK DXWKRULDO DFTXLHV FHQFH DQG VXEYHUVLRQ 7KLV ERRN GRHV QRW GHQ\ WKH YDOLGLW\ DQG LPSRUWDQFH RI RXU ϮUVW VFKRODUO\ QDUUDWLYH³ WKH VWRU\ RI $PHULFDQ OLWHUDU\ PXOWLFXOWXUDOLVP³ WROG E\ JHQHUDWLRQV RI KLVWRULDQV DQG FULWLFV 7KLV LV YDOXDEOH ZRUN KLVWRULHV RI WKH IRUPDWLRQ RI FXO WXUDO PRYHPHQWV OLNH WKH %ODFN $UWV 0RYHPHQW UHDGLQJV RI RXWVWDQGLQJ LQGL YLGXDO QRYHOLVWV OLNH -DPHV %DOGZLQ DQG )ODQQHU\ 2·&RQQRU WKDW LOOXPLQDWH WKH

ï&#x2DC;¾

INTRODUCTION

FUHDWLYLW\ DQG LQQRYDWLRQ RI ´$PHULFDQ OLWHUDWXUHµ RQ WKH SDJH UHDGLQJV RI QHJOHFWHG PLQRULW\ UDFLDO DXWKRUV VXFK DV -RKQ 2NDGD WKDW UHFRYHU D PDUJLQ DOL]HG OLWHUDU\ WUDGLWLRQ³ L QWHUSUHWDWLRQV RI WH[WV WKDW SUHFLVHO\ UHVLVW UDWKHU WKDQ DϲUP WKH LQWXLWHG SUHVHQFH RI VRPH VWXOWLI\LQJ UDFLDO RUGHU IURP DERYH 7KLV KDV EHHQ WKH JHQHUDO DSSURDFK WR WKH ZULWLQJ RI FRQWHPSRUDU\ $PHULFDQ OLWHUDU\ KLVWRU\ DQG UDFH DQG DJDLQ , GRQ·W GLVSXWH LWV DFKLHYHPHQWV 0\ FRQFHUQ LV WKDW WKH ϮUVW VWRU\ KDV HFOLSVHG RXU VHFRQG VWRU\³ WKH VWRU\ RI UDFLDO LQHTXDOLW\ DQG SRVWZDU $PHULFDQ OLWHUDWXUH³ RU DW OHDVW UHQGHUHG LW KDUG WR VHH , VXJJHVW WKDW ERWK VWRULHV FDQ EH WUXH DW WKH VDPH WLPH RQH QHHG QRW FDQFHO RXW WKH RWKHU %XW , DOVR VXJJHVW WKDW ZH NQRZ IDU OHVV DERXW WKH VHFRQG VWRU\ DQG WKDW D JUHDWHU DZDUHQHVV RI LW FDQ OHDG WR D SRZHUIXO UHRULHQWDWLRQ RI RXU ϮUVW VFKRODUO\ QDUUDWLYH ,Q WKH SDJHV WR FRPH , DWWHPSW WR UHDOLJQ WKHVH VWRULHV WKH ZD\ WKDW $PHULFDQ ϮFWLRQ KDSSHQV ERWK DW WKH VFDOH RI D VLQJOH WH[W RU DXWKRU DQG WKH VFDOH RI DQ HQWLUH SXEOLVKLQJ KRXVH DQG PLOOLRQV RI ERRN UHYLHZV ,Q P\ ϮQDO FKDSWHU , DOVR WU\ WR SDUVH KRZ WKHVH VWRULHV EHFDPH VR PLV DOLJQHG LQ WKH ϮUVW SODFH :KDW LV DW VWDNH LV PRUH WKDQ MXVW WKH VSHFLϮF KLVWRU\ RI WKH SRVWZDU $PHULFDQ QRYHO $W VWDNH LV KRZ ZH WKLQN DERXW WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ GDWD DQG FXOWXUDO KLVWRU\ DQG WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ QXPEHUV DQG UHDGLQJ ,QGHHG ZKDW ODUJHO\ DQLPDWHV WKLV ERRN·V RYHUDOO WKHVLV LV D PHWKRGRORJLFDO FODLP OLWHUDU\ VFKRODUV KDYH PLVVHG WKH VWRU\ RI FXOWXUDO UHGOLQLQJ EHFDXVH RXU DYDLODEOH PHWKRGV VXFK DV FORVH UHDGLQJ DQG KLVWRULFLVP DUH QRW ZHOO HTXLSSHG WR GLVFHUQ VXFK SDWWHUQV &XOWXUDO UHGOLQLQJ PXFK OLNH HFRQRPLF UHGOLQLQJ GRHV QRW KDSSHQ DW WKH OHYHO RI WKH LQGLYLGXDO ZULWHU SDJH RU WH[W ,W KDSSHQV DW D FRJQLWLYH VFDOH ZHOO EH\RQG ZKDW D VLQJOH SHUVRQ FDQ REVHUYH RU UHDG ,W KDS SHQV LQ WKH WHQV RI WKRXVDQGV RI QRYHOV SXEOLVKHG E\ 5DQGRP +RXVH WKH KXQ GUHGV RI ERRN SUL]HV DZDUGHG E\ SUL]H FRPPLWWHHV DQG WKH WKRXVDQGV RI ERRN UHYLHZV SULQWHG HDFK \HDU 7KLV ERRN OHYHUDJHV WKH DϸRUGDQFHV RI QDWXUDO O DQJXDJH SURFHVVLQJ DQG WH[W PLQLQJ WR LGHQWLI\ DQG DQDO\]H RWKHUZLVH XQVHHQ S DWWHUQV RI ODQJXDJH IRUP DQG QDUUDWLYH ,W GRHV VR WR foreground ZKDW WUDGL WLRQDOO\ KDV EHHQ YLHZHG DV WKH PHUH background RI OLWHUDU\ KLVWRU\ ,QYHUWLQJ RXU XVXDO RULHQWDWLRQ , KRSH WR VKRZ QRW RQO\ JLYHV XV D QHZ YLVLRQ RI $PHUL FDQ OLWHUDU\ KLVWRU\ ZULW ODUJH EXW DOVR QHZ DQG VXUSULVLQJ UHDGLQJV RI LQGL YLGXDO ZRUNV RI OLWHUDWXUH 7KHUH ZLOO EH FRVWV 4XDQWLϮFDWLRQ DOZD\V PHDQV ORVLQJ VRPHWKLQJ WKLQNLQJ DERXW UDFH ZLWK QXPEHUV ULVNV UHGXFWLRQ DQG UHLϮFDWLRQ )RU H[DPSOH RQH PLJKW DUJXH WKDW D ZKLWH VRFLRORJLVW ZKR OLYHV LQ VXEXUEDQ /RQJ ,VODQG JRLQJ GRRU WR GRRU ZLWK D VXUYH\ DVNLQJ +DUOHP UHVLGHQWV LI WKH\ DUH ´ZKLWHµ RU ´EODFN µ LV LQFUHGLEO\ QDwYH DQG UHGXFHV WKH FRPSOH[LW\ RI UDFLDO H[SHULHQFH WR D FUXGH

INTRODUCTION

ï&#x2DC;¿

ELQDU\ :KDW DERXW WKH GLϸHUHQFHV EHWZHHQ $IULFDQ $PHULFDQV DQG UHFHQW LPPLJUDQWV IURP 1LJHULD" 'RHVQ·W WKLV UHVHDUFK ULVN SDWKRORJL]LQJ EODFNQHVV DV IRUHYHU WUDSSHG LQ D VWDWH RI SRYHUW\" 6LPLODUO\ RQH PLJKW DVN DERXW WKH FXU UHQW SURMHFW ZKDW DERXW WKH QRQPDLQVWUHDP OLWHUDU\ PDUNHWSODFH³ EODFN SXE OLVKHUV OLNH %URDGVLGH 3UHVV RU PLQRULW\ IRFXVHG OLWHUDU\ DZDUGV VXFK DV 3UHPLR 4XLQWR 6RO" 'LGQ·W WKH\ GR VRPHWKLQJ WR ZHDNHQ WKH IRUPV RI UDFLDO LQHTXDOLW\ ZH VHH LQ WKH PDLQVWUHDP" 'RHVQ·W D OLWHUDU\ KLVWRU\ WKDW RQO\ IRFXVHV RQ PDLQ VWUHDP H[DPSOHV RI UDFLDO LQHTXDOLW\ DQG WKXV QHJOHFWV PDUJLQDO QRQZKLWH IRUPV RI OLWHUDU\ SURGXFWLRQ DQG UHFHSWLRQ SRWHQWLDOO\ MXVW UHLQVFULEH DOO RI WKRVH FXOWXUDO UHGOLQHV" 7KLV ERRN RϸHUV D PRGHVW ϮUVW SDVV DW D ODUJH SUREOHP³ UDFLDO LQHTXDOLW\ DQG OLWHUDU\ ZKLWHQHVV³ WKDW LQ FRQWLQXHV WR DϵLFW $PHULFDQ FXOWXUH ,W GRHV QRW GHQ\ WKH LQHYLWDEOH OLPLWV RI RQO\ IRFXVLQJ RQ PDLQVWUHDP YHUVLRQV RI WKH OLWHUDU\ PDUNHWSODFH <HW , DUJXH WKDW UHFRQVWUXFWLQJ WKH PRVW REYLRXV DQG GRP LQDQW IRUPV RI UDFLDO LQHTXDOLW\ LQ SRVWZDU 8 6 ϮFWLRQ VLJQDOV D XVHIXO LI QRW QHFHVVDU\ ϮUVW VWHS WRZDUG SURGXFLQJ D PRUH ZLGH DQJOH YLVLRQ RI $PHULFDQ ZULWLQJ DQG UDFH RQH , KRSH VFKRODUV ZLWK D JUHDWHU NQRZOHGJH RI $IULFDQ $PHU LFDQ ERRN KLVWRU\ /DWLQ[ FXOWXUDO LQVWLWXWLRQV DQG VR IRUWK FDQ EXLOG RQ )RU H[DPSOH GHVSLWH DOO RI LWV REYLRXV SUREOHPV IHZ ZRXOG GRXEW WKDW VRFLRORJLFDO UHGOLQLQJ UHVHDUFK KRZHYHU UHGXFWLYH RU QDwYH ZDV XVHIXO LQVRIDU DV LW KHOSHG WR UHQGHU YLYLG DQG FRQFUHWH G\QDPLFV RI SRZHU DQG UDFLDO H[FOXVLRQ $QG WKLV UHVHDUFK HQDEOHG D VHULHV RI PRUH VRSKLVWLFDWHG IROORZ XS VWXGLHV ZKLFK RYHU WLPH KHOSHG HϸHFW UHDO ZRUOG FKDQJH LQ WKH SUHVHQW 7KLV ERRN KDV D VLPLODU DVSL UDWLRQ &XOWXUDO UHGOLQLQJ LQ WKH SRVWZDU SHULRG LQYHQWHG D PRGHO WKDW PDGH SRVVLEOH DQG KDV KHOSHG VXVWDLQ UDFLDO LQHTXDOLW\ LQ WKH DUWV DQG OLWHUDWXUH WRGD\ 7R GHIHDW LW ZH QHHG WR NQRZ LWV KLVWRU\

CONGLOMERATION, ENGINE OF RACIAL INEQUALITY 2YHU WKH SDVW WZHQW\ \HDUV VFKRODUV KDYH LGHQWLϮHG PXOWLFXOWXUDOLVP DV D VLJ QDO GHϮQLQJ IHDWXUH RI SRVWZDU $PHULFDQ OLWHUDU\ KLVWRU\ $ VHFRQG GHϮQLQJ IHDWXUH WKDW KDV PRUH UHFHQWO\ FRPH WR YLHZ LV FRQJORPHUDWLRQ 7KH ERRN EXVLQHVV FKDQJHG DIWHU WKH ZDU )DFLQJ WZLQ SUHVVXUHV RI D UDSLGO\ JURZLQJ $PHULFDQ SRSXODWLRQ DQG ULVLQJ OLWHUDF\ UDWHV DV D UHVXOW RI PRUH SHRSOH JRLQJ WR FROOHJH $PHULFDQ SXEOLVKHUV VXFK DV 5DQGRP +RXVH VWDUWHG WR H[SDQG DQG SXEOLVK PRUH ERRNV %HIRUH WKH ZDU ERRN SXEOLVKLQJ ZDV UXQ PRUH OLNH DV -DVRQ (SVWHLQ GHVFULEHV D ´FRWWDJH LQGXVWU\µ VPDOO DQG SHUVRQDO ZLWK ERRN GHDOV

ï&#x2122;&#x20AC;

INTRODUCTION

VHFXUHG RQ WKH EDVLV RI D KDQGVKDNH DQG VR IRUWK $IWHU WKH ZDU SXEOLVKHUV PRYHG WRZDUG D PRUH ´FRQVXPHU RULHQWHGµ PRGHO WKDW UHVHPEOHG D FRQYHQ WLRQDO EXVLQHVV $V D SDUW RI WKLV WUDQVLWLRQ ERRN SXEOLVKHUV LQFUHDVLQJO\ ZHUH DFTXLUHG E\ ODUJHU PHGLD FRQJORPHUDWHV ZKLFK ZHUH EHWWHU HTXLSSHG WR PHHW WKH FKDOOHQJHV RI VFDOH QRZ IDFLQJ ERRN SXEOLVKHUV 5DQGRP +RXVH RϸHUV D SULPH H[DPSOH 5DQGRP +RXVH ZDV IRXQGHG LQ E\ %HQQHWW &HUI DQG 'RQDOG .ORS IHU PDLQO\ WR UHSXEOLVK OLWHUDU\ FODVVLFV OLNH Great Expectations %\ WKH ODWH V LW KDG JURZQ LQWR D ODUJH DQG VXFFHVVIXO FRPSDQ\ SXEOLVKLQJ PDMRU DXWKRUV VXFK DV -DPHV -R\FH DQG :LOOLDP )DXONQHU %\ WKH V WKH SXEOLVKHU KDG DWWUDFWHG WKH DWWHQWLRQ RI ODUJH FRUSRUDWLRQV DQG LQ LW ZDV VROG WR 5&$ IRU PLOOLRQ GROODUV D PHGLD FRQJORPHUDWH SULQFLSDOO\ NQRZQ IRU LQWHUHVWV LQ UDGLR DQG WHOH YLVLRQ 0RUH FRQVROLGDWLRQV DQG PHUJHUV ZRXOG VRRQ IROORZ 2QH KLVWRULDQ H VWLPDWHV WKDW E\ ² ¬SHUFHQW RI WKH WRWDO $PHULFDQ DQG (XURSHDQ ERRN PDUNHW ZDV FRQWUROOHG E\ QR PRUH WKDQ ϮYH WR WHQ LQGLYLGXDO SXEOLVKLQJ ϮUPV :ULWHUV FULWLFV DQG VFKRODUV ZHUH SUHGLFWDEO\ RXWUDJHG E\ WKLV WXUQ RI HYHQWV DQG ϮHUFHO\ SURWHVWHG WKH FRPPRGLϮFDWLRQ RI OLWHUDWXUH 6SHFLϮFDOO\ WKH\ ODPHQWHG WKH IDFW WKDW ERRNV ZHUH QRZ MXGJHG E\ WKHLU SURϮWDELOLW\ WKHLU VWD WXV DV FRPPHUFLDO SURGXFWV UDWKHU WKDQ DV LW RQFH ZDV DV VRFLDO JRRGV WKDW ERUH D UHVSRQVLELOLW\ WR HQOLJKWHQ WKH SXEOLF (GLWRUV ZHUH QRZ XQGHU VHYHUH SUHV VXUH WR DFTXLUH DQG SURPRWH EHVWVHOOHUV ERRNV ZLWK WKH SRWHQWLDO IRU ϮOP DGDS WDWLRQ LQ SDUWLFXODU &KLOGUHQ·V OLWHUDWXUH DQG JHQUH ϮFWLRQ WKULYHG OLWHUDU\ Ϯ FWLRQ VXϸHUHG :ULWHUV RI WKH ROG UHJLPH ZRUULHG WKDW WKLV QHZ WUHQG LQKLE LWHG WKH VSUHDG DQG GHEDWH RI VHULRXV LGHDV YLWDO IRU D UREXVW SXEOLF VSKHUH³ GHPRFUDF\ LWVHOI ZDV WKUHDWHQHG ,Q ZKHQ 5DQGRP +RXVH KLUHG $OEHUWR 9LWDOH WR HQVXUH WKDW HYHU\ WLWOH DW WKHLU 3DQWKHRQ %RRNV LPSULQW EH SURϮWDEOH .XUW 9RQQHJXW 6WXGV 7HUNHO DQG KXQGUHGV RI RWKHU ZULWHUV SURWHVWHG RXWVLGH WKHLU RϲFHV 0XOWLFXOWXUDOLVP DQG FRQJORPHUDWLRQ WKXV DSSHDU WR EH WZR PDLQ GULYHUV RI SRVWZDU $PHULFDQ OLWHUDU\ KLVWRU\ %XW ZKDW LV WKHLU UHODWLRQVKLS" 0LFKDHO 6FKXGVRQ VXJJHVWV D SRVLWLYH G\QDPLF +H FRQFHGHV WKDW ZKLOH WKH LQWHQVH SRVW ZDU FRUSRUDWL]DWLRQ RI WKH ERRN WUDGH EURNHUHG WKH ULVH RI D VSHFLϮF W\SH RI ERRN QDPHO\ WKH ´EHVWVHOOHU µ LW DOVR IRUFHG SXEOLVKHUV WR GLYHUVLI\ WKHLU OLVWV LQ RUGHU WR UHDFK QHZ DQG EURDGHU UHDGHU FRQVWLWXHQFLHV 0RUHRYHU WKH RYHUDOO H[SDQVLRQ RI WKH ERRN WUDGH FUHDWHG RSSRUWXQLWLHV IRU VPDOOHU SUHVVHV WR FODLP YDULRXV QLFKH PDUNHWV WKXV OHDGLQJ WR D JURZLQJ GLYHUVLW\ RI ERRNV SXEOLVKHG HDFK \HDU LQ JHQHUDO 7KLV EDODQFLQJ PDUNHW HϸHFW RI GLYHUVLϮFDWLRQ 6FKXGVRQ LPSOLHV LQ SDUW IDFLOLWDWHG WKH HPHUJHQFH RI EODFN DQG HWKQLF OLWHUDWXUHV LQ WKH V DQG V $QG ZH KDYH HYLGHQFH RI WKLV HϸHFW 7DNH 5DQGRP +RXVH ,Q WKH\ KLUHG WKHLU ϮUVW EODFN DFTXLVLWLRQV HGLWRU 7RQL 0RUULVRQ SUHFLVHO\ WR

INTRODUCTION



WDS LQWR D JURZLQJ $IULFDQ $PHULFDQ UHDGHUVKLS GHPRJUDSKLF 0RUULVRQ DFTXLUHG DQG SXEOLVKHG ERRNV E\ 7RQL &DGH %DPEDUD *D\O -RQHV DQG PDQ\ RWKHU EODFN ZULWHUV :KHQ ZH ORRN DW ϮJXUH¬ ZH LQGHHG QRWLFH D VSLNH LQ WKH QXP EHU RI EODFN DXWKRUV SXEOLVKHG DW 5DQGRP +RXVH 'XULQJ D PRPHQW RI SHDN F RQJORPHUDWLRQ WKH HDUO\ V D SXEOLVKHU ZHOO NQRZQ IRU HPEUDFLQJ FRQ JORPHUDWLRQ KLUHG D EODFN HGLWRU LQ RUGHU WR UDFLDOO\ GLYHUVLI\ DQG H[SDQG LWV ϮFWLRQ OLVW %XW WDNH DQRWKHU ORRN DW ϮJXUH¬ :KDW VWDQGV RXW LV QRW VR PXFK WKH LQWHQ VLW\ RI WKDW VSLNH EXW LWV HSKHPHUDOLW\³ LWV QHDU LQVWDQW UHJUHVVLRQ WR WKH PHDQ $QG WKLV WUHQG OLQH PDSV QHDWO\ RQWR 0RUULVRQ·V WLPH DW 5DQGRP +RXVH WR $V VRRQ DV 0RUULVRQ OHDYHV WKH GDWD VXJJHVWV WKH SXEOLVKHU UHWXUQV WR LWV SUH 0RUULVRQ OHYHOV RI EODFN H[FOXVLRQ ,QFUHDVLQJ DXWKRULDO GLYHUVLW\ DW 5DQGRP +RXVH DV D SDUDOOHO RU UHODWHG HϸHFW RI FRQJORPHUDWLRQ LQ WKH V RQ LV QRW D WRWDO LOOXVLRQ %XW DW EHVW DW OHDVW EDVHG RQ WKH GDWD LW LV D SDVVLQJ WUHQG 8OWLPDWHO\ FRQJORPHUDWLRQ³ RU PRUH EURDGO\ SRVWZDU LQGXVWULDO SULQW FXOWXUH³ VHUYHV LQ SDUW DV DQ HQJLQH RI UDFLDO LQHTXDOLW\ RQH GLVFHUQDEOH LQ WHUPV RI ERWK DXWKRU GHPRJUDSKLFV DQG WKH OLWHUDWXUH LWVHOI , ZLOO DUJXH WKDW UDFLDO LQHTXDOLW\ LV D VSHFLϮF IHDWXUH RI SRVWZDU SULQW FXOWXUH DQ LQGLVVRFLDEOH FRQ VWDQW HYHQ DV WKLV LQGXVWU\ H[SHULHQFHV SHUSHWXDO DQG SURIRXQG FKDQJHV LQ LWV FRQVWLWXWLRQ )RU H[DPSOH LQ FKDSWHU¬ , VKRZ WKDW FRQJORPHUDWLRQ GLG LQ IDFW GLUHFWO\ LPSDFW 5DQGRP +RXVH³ QDPHO\ DQ LQFUHDVH LQ LWV QXPEHU RI IHPDOH QRYHOLVWV DQG \RXQJ DGXOW QRYHOV +RZHYHU , DOVR VKRZ WKDW DJDLQVW WKLV EDFN GURS RI FRQJORPHUDWLRQ LQGXFHG FKDQJH WKH UDFLDO UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ RI DXWKRUV DV ZHOO DV KRZ UDFH JHWV UHSUHVHQWHG LQ WKH QRYHOV WKHPVHOYHV UHPDLQV XQFKDQJHG RU FRQWLQXHV WR EHQHϮW WKH UDFLDO VWDWXV TXR³ ZKLWHQHVV $W WKH VDPH WLPH , WUDFN WKH H[WHQGHG HϸHFWV RI SRVWZDU SULQW FXOWXUH EH\RQG MXVW ERRN SXEOLVKLQJ &RQJORPHUDWLRQ FRQVROLGDWLRQ DQG FRUSRUDWL]DWLRQ QRW RQO\ IRUFHG ODUJH $PHULFDQ ERRN SXEOLVKHUV WR FKDQJH LW DOVR KDG D UHYHUEHU DWLQJ HϸHFW ZLWKLQ WKH EURDGHU ERRN PDUNHWSODFH IURP UHFHSWLRQ WR GLVWLQF WLRQ %RRN UHYLHZV FKDQJHG EHVWVHOOHU OLVWV FKDQJHG ERRN DZDUGV FKDQJHG ,Q¬FKDSWHUV¬ DQG , H[SORUH WKLV DIWHUOLIH WR DUJXH WKDW GHVSLWH DOO RI WKHVH FKDQJHV WKH HϸHFWV RI UDFLDO LQHTXDOLW\ ZH VHH LQ SXEOLVKLQJ UHPDLQ VWDEOH ZLWKLQ HDFK RI WKHVH QH[W SKDVHV 5DFLDO LQHTXDOLW\ SHUVLVWV DV D NH\ IHDWXUH LQ KRZ WKHVH VXELQGXVWULHV IXQFWLRQ <HW , DOVR VKRZ WKDW LQHTXDOLW\ JHWV PRGL ϮHG DQG QXDQFHG RIWHQ LQ VXUSULVLQJ ZD\V DQG WDNHV RQ LQFUHDVLQJO\ VXEWOH GHPRJUDSKLF DQG WH[WXDO VKDSHV DV ZH PRYH GHHSHU LQWR WKH F\FOH :KDW FDXVHG WKLV LQHUWLD RI ZKLWHQHVV LQ SRVWZDU SULQW FXOWXUH" 2QH SRVVLEOH H[SODQDWLRQ GHYHORSHG LQ JUHDWHU GHWDLO LQ WKH QH[W FKDSWHUV FRQFHUQV RQH RI FRQJORPHUDWLRQ·V PRVW SRWHQW HϸHFWV UDWLRQDOL]DWLRQ RU VLPSO\ WKH SURPRWLRQ

ï&#x203A;&#x153;ï&#x2DC;¹

INTRODUCTION

RI RQO\ D IHZ ERRNV WKDW WKH SXEOLVKHU WKLQNV ZLOO EH D EHVWVHOOHU RU SUL]HZLQQHU DW WKH H[SHQVH RI SURPRWLQJ LWV HQWLUH OLVW ,Q WKH SRVWZDU SHULRG SXEOLVKHUV GLV FRYHUHG WKDW LW ZDV PRUH SURϮWDEOH DQG HϲFLHQW WR IRFXV RQ MXVW D KDQGIXO RI WLWOHV HDFK VHDVRQ DQG SXVK WKHP YHU\ KDUG WKURXJK PDUNHWLQJ LQ WKH KRSHV WKDW RQH RU WZR ZRXOG EHFRPH EUHDNRXW KLWV ZKHWKHU DV EHVWVHOOHUV RU ϮOP FURVV RYHUV 7KLV LQHYLWDEO\ SURPRWHG D ´VWDUµ V\VWHP WKDW QHFHVVDULO\ GUHZ UHVRXUFHV DZD\ IURP D SXEOLVKHU·V VR FDOOHG PLGOLVW³ DXWKRUV ZKR VHOO EHWZHHQ WHQ WKRX VDQG DQG RQH KXQGUHG WKRXVDQG FRSLHV SHU ERRN ,Q VKRUW ELJ 0DQKDWWDQ ERRN SXEOLVKHUV SXEOLVK KXQGUHGV RI DXWKRUV HDFK \HDU EXW LQ WKHLU H\HV RQO\ D YHU\ IHZ UHDOO\ PDWWHU 5DWLRQDOL]DWLRQ KHOSV H[SODLQ WKH PDLQ VWUDQJHQHVV RI ϮJXUH¬ WKH IDFW WKDW DV VRRQ DV 0RUULVRQ UHWLUHV DV DQ HGLWRU DW 5DQGRP +RXVH WKH SUHVV UHYHUWV WR LWV SUH 0RUULVRQ OHYHOV RI EODFN DXWKRUVKLS DERXW RQH EODFN QRYHOLVW SHU \HDU $V , GHVFULEH LQ FKDSWHU¬ 5DQGRP +RXVH GLG QRW SXEOLVK PDQ\ EODFN RU RWKHU QRQZKLWH DXWKRUV EXW WKRVH WKDW LW GLG SDUWLFXODUO\ GXULQJ 0RUULVRQ·V WLPH DV HGLWRU DQG DIWHU WKH\ SXW D JRRG GHDO RI HϸRUW LQWR VXSSRUWLQJ :ULWHUV OLNH 7RQL &DGH %DPEDUD DQG *D\O -RQHV GLG QRW ZULWH EHVWVHOOHUV EXW WKH\ JRW UHYLHZHG ZLGHO\ DQG VRPHWLPHV ZRQ DZDUGV 7KH\ OHQW D FHUWDLQ FULWLFDO SUHVWLJH WR WKH SXEOLVKHU 7KH SUREOHP RI FRXUVH LV WKDW VXSSRUWLQJ RQH RU WZR SURPLQHQW EODFN DXWKRUV ´NQRZQ TXDQWLWLHVµ FDPH WR VWDQG LQ IRU VXSSRUWLQJ D PXFK ODUJHU DQG¬GLYHUVH JURXS RI EODFN ZULWHUV ,W PHDQW WKDW ZULWHUV OLNH %DPEDUD DQG -RQHV DQG RWKHUV EHFDPH V\QHFGRFKHV IRU WKH HQWLUH FRQWHPSRUDU\ EODFN OLWHUDU\ ϮHOG 7KH SRVWZDU HYLVFHUDWLRQ RI WKH PLGOLVW LQDGYHUWHQWO\ PHDQW WKH HYLVFHUDWLRQ RI D EURDG DQG LQFOXVLYH ϮHOG RI EODFN DXWKRUV DW ODUJH $PHULFDQ SXEOLVKLQJ KRXVHV (GLWRUV DW 5DQGRP +RXVH ZHUH XQOLNHO\ XQWURXEOHG E\ LWV LPPHGLDWH DQG VHYHUH ´UHJUHVVLRQ WR WKH PHDQµ IRU EODFN DXWKRUV DIWHU 0RUULVRQ·V GHSDU WXUH VLPSO\ EHFDXVH WKH\ GLGQ·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

INTRODUCTION



7KH SUREOHP ZLWK WKLV EOLQGQHVV LV WKDW LW VXVWDLQV WKH LQHUWLD RI ZKLWHQHVV LQ SULQW FXOWXUH EHFDXVH QR RQH LV DEOH WR VHH LWV EURDG FRQWRXUV ,W DOVR KDV D UHYHUEHUDWLQJ HϸHFW ZLWKLQ WKH ODUJHU SLSHOLQH RI WKH ERRN PDUNHW )RU H[DP SOH LQ FKDSWHU¬ , VKRZ KRZ 5DQGRP +RXVH·V YDORUL]DWLRQ RI D KDQGIXO RI EODFN DXWKRUV DW WKH H[SHQVH RI DFTXLULQJ ERRNV IURP PDQ\ GLϸHUHQW EODFN DXWKRUV JHWV UHSURGXFHG LI QRW DPSOLϮHG LQ WKH ZRUOG RI ERRN UHYLHZV ZKHUH DQ HYHQ VPDOOHU QXPEHU RI QRQZKLWH DXWKRUV JUDEV DQ RXWVL]HG SURSRUWLRQ RI DWWHQWLRQ $QG LQ FKDSWHU¬ , VKRZ KRZ WKLV SDWWHUQ FRQWLQXHV LQ WKH ZRUOG RI ERRN SUL]HV /LNH WKHLU FRXQWHUSDUWV LQ SXEOLVKLQJ ERRN UHYLHZHUV DQG SUL]H FRPPLWWHHV KDYH D JRRG XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI ZKDW WKH\ DUH GRLQJ DW WKH ORFDO GHFLVLRQ PDNLQJ OHYHO EXW WKH\ GRQ·W QHFHVVDULO\ KDYH D YHU\ VWURQJ JUDVS RI ZKDW WKH\ DUH GRLQJ DW VFDOH³ KRZ WKRVH GHFLVLRQV DFFXPXODWH RYHU GHFDGHV WR FRQVWLWXWH SDWWHUQV UHJDUGLQJ ZKDW W\SHV RI DXWKRUV JHW LQFOXGHG DQG ZKDW NLQGV RI VWRULHV JHW WROG /LWHUDU\ VFKRODUV KDYH DOVR EHHQ XQZLWWLQJO\ FRPSOLFLW LQ WKLV LOOXVLRQ ,Q DERXW WHQ \HDUV DIWHU WKH QXPEHUV RI EODFN DXWKRUV DW 5DQGRP +RXVH VWDUW WR GLS WR WKHLU SUH 0RUULVRQ OHYHOV +HQU\ /RXLV *DWHV¬-U LGHQWLϮHG D ´SUROLIHUDWLRQ RI WLWOHVµ EHLQJ ZULWWHQ E\ EODFN DXWKRUV DQG ´KLJK VDOHV ϮJXUHVµ IRU WKRVH ERRNV JXLGHG E\ DQ RYHUDOO XSZDUG WUHQG LQ EODFN DXWKRUVKLS +H PHQWLRQV ´7RQL 0RU ULVRQµ DQG ´7RQL &DGH %DPEDUDµ DV HYLGHQFH *DWHV LV QRW ZURQJ WKDW certain EODFN DXWKRUV DUH SXEOLVKLQJ PRUH ERRNV DQG JHWWLQJ UHDG EXW KH PLVWDNHV WKH VXFFHVV RI D IHZ LQGLYLGXDO DXWKRUV IRU D WUDQVIRUPDWLRQ LQ WKH ODUJHU ϮHOG 7KH¬ ODUJHU ϮHOG IURP PDLQVWUHDP ERRN SXEOLVKLQJ WR ERRN UHYLHZV WR ERRN VDOHV WR ERRN DZDUGV VDZ QR HQGXULQJ WUDQVIRUPDWLRQ 7KH WURXEOH LV WKDW VFKRODUV OLNH *DWHV ZKR VHUYH DV LQϰXHQWLDO SXEOLF SUR[LHV IRU WKH DFDGHP\ KDYH SURYLGHG D IDOVH DQG SRWHQWLDOO\ GDQJHURXV DOLEL WR WKH OLWHUDU\ ZRUOG 7KH\·YH KHOSHG SURPRWH WKH LOOXVLRQ WKDW ZKLWHQHVV LV DWWHQXDWLQJ LQ $PHULFDQ ϮFWLRQ (GLWRUV DW 5DQGRP +RXVH ERRN FULWLFV DW WKH New York Times DQG SUL]H MXULHV DUH PRUH WKDQ KDSS\ WR DFFHSW WKLV XQLYHUVLW\ VDQFWLRQHG YHUVLRQ RI UHFHQW OLWHUDU\ KLVWRU\ 1R RQH LV WR EODPH IRU D SUREOHP WKDW GRHVQ·W H[LVW

“INEQUALITY” AS KEYWORD +RZ GLG OLWHUDU\ VFKRODUV ODUJHO\ PLVV RU JHW ZURQJ WKLV KLVWRU\" ,Q FKDSWHU,¬DUJXH WKDW D VHW RI PHWKRGRORJLFDO FRPPLWPHQWV FORVH UHDGLQJ LQ SDUWLFXODU HQJHQGHUHG D VHW RI DQDO\WLFDO EOLQG VSRWV IRU WKH GLVFLSOLQH WKDW SUHYHQWHG OLW HUDU\ VFKRODUV SDUWLFXODUO\ $PHULFDQLVW VFKRODUV IURP IXOO\ GLVFHUQLQJ DQ LQWHQVH DQG XQFKDQJLQJ UDFLDO LQHTXDOLW\ LQ WKH SURGXFWLRQ UHFHSWLRQ DQG

REDLINING CULTURE draws on big data, literary history, and close readings to analyze the persistence of whiteness in American publishing. Richard Jean So ranges across Toni Morrison’s tenure as an editor at Random House; the careers of writers such as Octavia Butler, Henry Dumas, and Amy Tan; and biases in book reviewing and awards. He argues that rather than seeing the postwar period as the era of multiculturalism, we should understand it as the invention of a new form of racial inequality— one that continues to shape the arts and literature today.

“It’s easy to say that American publishing has

“With clarity and conviction, So makes the case

taken steps to reduce racial inequality, indicated

for why quantitative methods matter for the study

by the expanding list of published novels by

of literary culture. But more than that, he shows

nonwhite authors since World War II. So refutes

what these methods can do: reveal patterns of

that statement with this data-driven account that

inequality, identify examples of resistance, and

brings literary and historical methods together. A

enrich our understanding of the structural forces

breakthrough in book history, this pathbreaking

that shape what we read and why.”

study about publishing, authorship, race, and

—Lauren Klein, coeditor of Debates in the Digital

recognition is essential reading.”

Humanities

—Maryemma Graham, founding director of the Project on the History of Black Writing, University of Kansas

“Redlining Culture is a book of landmark significance, both for digital humanities and for literary studies at large. So demonstrates that

“So conducts groundbreaking data analysis of

scholars have underestimated the persistence

modern and contemporary American literary

of inequality in postwar fiction. In supporting

production, making visible, at scale, the denial

that thesis, he also shows that quantitative

of opportunity, attention, and distinction to

models can help us understand every stage in

writers of color. An ambitious work in cultural

the production of literary value—from authorial

analytics, Redlining Culture will be a model for

and editorial decisions, to book reviews, to

future work in the field.”

the distribution of prizes and academic

—Kinohi Nishikawa, author of Street Players:

consecration. At once ambitious and startlingly

Black Pulp Fiction and the Making of a Literary

clear, the book provides a blueprint for a new

Underground

kind of literary history.”

—Ted Underwood, author of Distant Horizons:

RICHARD JEAN SO is assistant

Digital Evidence and Literary Change

professor of English and cultural analytics at McGill University. He is the author of

ISBN: 978-0-231-19772-4

Transpacific Community: America, China, and the Rise and Fall of a Cultural Network (Columbia, 2016).

D E S I G N : L I SA H A M M

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS / NEW YORK

C U P. CO L U M B I A . E D U

PRINTED IN THE U.S.A.