Land of Strangers, by Eric Schluessel (introduction)

Intro u tion

AT THE END of t e nineteent entury a rou of elite men from C ina aine ontrol over a Muslim ma ority re ion of Central Asia an attem te to transform it a or in to t eir own vision of an i eal Confu ian so iety T is book es ribes t e rami ations of t is ro e t for or inary eo le It ar ues t at t is e ort to transform Muslims into Confu ians s a e t e so ial relations i s between eo le w o arti i ate in i erent reli ious tra itions an w o s oke i erent lan ua es Instea of t e assimilation t at t is ivili in ro e t s en ineers inten e it ro u e estran ement as t e ro e t simultaneously intensi e t e ine ualities an every ay violen e t at ty i e t e new era imbue t em wit new meanin s an rovi e a owerful new lan ua e wit w i to navi ate t em Peo le use its i eolo y an institutions to oli e new so ial boun aries an arti ulate ommunal i entities in ways t at bot resiste C inese omina tion an were s a e by it New or reima ine myt s of ommon es ent re e ne t e boun aries of t e Muslim ommunity T e settin of t is istory of so io ultural an e an t e every ay is a la e t at istory writin an t e o ular ons iousness un erstan mainly t rou ran oliti al narratives: in ian in ian or East Turkestan is a re ion t at is ulturally lin uisti ally an istori ally tie to t e so ieties an states of Central Asia As of t e turn of t e last en tury t e ma ority of its eo le s oke an wrote in Turki lan ua es an ra ti e a form of Sunni Islam eavily in uen e by Su sm Yet t ese [ ]

Turki Muslim eo le a ome un er t e ontrol of a C ina base state t e in em ire ile in territory later e ne t e boun aries of t e mo ern C inese nation state t e em ire was rule not by et ni ally C inese Han eo le but by a Man u royal ouse wit Inner Asian ori ins In t is multiet ni em ire on uere in ian an a en e it to t e realm as one of several istin t territories ke t se arate from C ina ro er an rule t rou lo al institutions an aristo rats mu as Mon olia was A military overnor ensure t e territory s se urity but by an lar e lo al Turki Muslims rule on be alf of t e in an wit in t e boun s of Islami law T e mi nineteent entury owever saw a series of wars break out a ross t e in an t e em ire lost ontrol of nearly a t ir of its territory in ian s eo le rebelle in an a series of Islami states emer e in t e va uum forme by t e wit rawal of in ower In t e em ire returne but in a new form: T e ian Army w i was foun e in in t e rovin e of Hunan a fou t an efeate many of t e em ire s internal enemies an now it rea e in ian on a mission of re on uest However t e ian Army was le by a rou of Confu ian intelle tuals w ose iloso y eman e t at t ey brin or er to C ina by im osin w at t ey un erstoo to be t e foun ation of a ar monious so iety: t e atriar al Confu ian family T erefore t eir oal was not to restore t e ol re ime of in ire t rule but instea to assimilate t e Muslim eo le of in ian an t us ensure t eir omelan s er etual in lusion wit in t e C inese ultural an oliti al e umene T ey attem te to o so by transformin t e Muslim family an see in Muslim so iety wit t eir own elite norms t rou e u ation an resettlement A s e ial le al re ime elevate t eir s ri tural i ea of t e Confu ian rites li above even t e o i e law of t e em ire Ultimately t e ian Army s oal was to re reate in ian not as a territory but as a rovin e like its own Hunan or any ot er in C ina ro er ile t at oal was formally a ieve in w en in ian rovin e was e lare t e ian Army s ivili in ro e t ersiste nearly until t e fall of t e in em ire in as t ey ontinue to stru le to establis ontrol an assimilate t e Muslims Many ironies resulte C ief amon t em was t at instea of atta in in ian an its eo le forever to C ina t e ro e t rovi e a means to

[ ]

arti ulate a sense of et ni ity t at bot o ose C inese ower an a ro riate it Put i erently t e e erien e of a istori ally s e i form of omination s a e t e is ourses an ra ti es of self e nition t at emer e amon t e ominate eo le T is was in art be ause eo le use t e resour es an lan ua e of t e ominatin ower to arti ulate an resolve t eir own laims an rievan es but also be ause t e form an i e olo y of omination ui kly be ame naturali e Mu as ren est Afri an or ritis In ian sub e ts turne t eir oloni ers laims of iti en s i an res e t for uman i nity a ainst t eir e loitation so i Turki Muslims in in ian learn to mani ulate t e i eolo y an institutions of t e ivili in ro e t to a van e t eir own interests as im erial sub e ts However s olars i on olonial is ourses of i entity remin s us to atten to t e role t at lass lays in arti ulatin anti olonial ositions on t e art of a ominate ommunity: it is usually t ose members of t e ol oni e rou w o ave learne su essfully to mani ulate t e is ourses of t e oloni er w o t en laim to s eak on be alf of t e w ole rou T is book s ows ow relatively owerful Turki Muslim eo le use t e resour es of t e state to oli e boun aries wit in w at t ey were omin to see as t eir own ommunity to ur e t e internal Ot ers w om t e ivi li in ro e t reate New arti ulations of i entity emer e from new ine ualities an forms of violen e At t e same time t e relations i between t e Muslim eri ery an t e im erial metro ole ame to seem natural as t ou events in in ian were intimately boun to t e istory of C ina itself in ian is to ay known for an on oin an seemin ly intra table on i t between t e Turki Muslim Uy ur eo le w o om rise t e re ion s ma ority an a C inese Communist Party an state attem tin to eliminate t eir lan ua e an ulture T e on i t is often analy e as emer in from a set of on i tin nationalist im eratives: Uy ur nationalism w i re ates t e Party state s ontrol of t e re ion laims in ian as a ome lan for t e Uy ur eo le ile t e Party state formally re o ni es t e Uy ur laim to ultural autonomy w i is ens rine in t e mo ern C inese onstitution C inese nationalism s own eman for ultural omo eneity wit in t e bor ers of t e state now takes re e en e over le al rote tions for t e Uy ur minority lea in to resentment T e ar a teristi s an ori ins of Uy ur nationalism ave t erefore be ome t e

[ ]

Leitmotif of s olars i on in ian It woul be tem tin to raw a strai t line from t e every ay ne otiations of ommunal boun aries in late in in ian as es ribe in t is book to ontem orary on i ts However t e enealo y of Uy ur et nonational i entity is om le Classi ally s olars ave em asi e t e elite intelle tual or oliti al imensions of Uy ur nationalism an attribute its arti ulation to t e oin i en e of transnational Turki nationalism an t e et ni i in re imes of Soviet later C inese Communist overnment Su a ers e tive ives t e im ression t at et ni i entities were ma i ke into e is ten e in t e s More re ently Uy ur nationalism s roots ave been lo ate instea in t e om li ate transnational environment of Central Asia an its interse tion wit subtler forms of reli ious an lin uisti if ferentiation in t e in realm None of t ese analyses is ne essarily e lu sive of t e ot ers However I t ink it is lear t at ertain stran s of t is enealo y ten to obs ure t e ot ers in arti ular romanti Uy ur nationalisms w i arti ulate t e a ealin i ea t at Uy ur ness is an an ient s irit unfol in in time or a ure line of Turki evelo ment iverte from its natural at by C inese omination T e formulai Stalinism of t e C inese Party state s o ial istories of et ni forma tion minzu xingcheng resses u a similar story in seu os ienti lot in alt ou a romanti narrative fre uently s ows t rou Re ar less of t e at t ey take tra in t e enealo y of Uy ur et nonational i entity ine orably lea s s olars ba k to t e erio e amine in t is book w i as nevert eless remaine un ere lore : t e late in Several books ave etaile t e istory of rovin ial in ian in terms of its elite oliti s t e oli ies a van e by t e re ional overn ment an t e intelle tual ba k roun s of its rulers T e i level a roa is valuable but it rarely analy es t e erio of ian Army omi nation from to rou ly in more t an s emati terms Re ent works on t e istory of mo ern in ian ten to be in at least two e a es after t e re on uest at t e time w en a nan ial risis for e t e ian Army rulin ommunity to onsi er reative lans to enerate revenue t at followe t e resour e ma imi ation im eratives ty i al of mo ern states Per a s t e fa t t at t e late in was tem orally wit in t e s o e of t e lobal mo ern as ire te s olars to seek t e roots of mo ern e nomena However as t is book s ows t e in ian overnment before re e te t e riorities an te ni ues of tra itional im erial rovin ial [ ]

a ministration more t an it i t e mo ern state In ee t e e uliar so ial formation t at sustaine Hunanese ominan e also reserve in i an as an out ost of onservative reformism t at by t e last years of t e in alrea y a eare to be a fossil It was not a nationali in re ime in ontrast to t e Soviet an C inese overnments t at el sway in in ian from onwar An yet somet in took la e in t is a arently re mo ern settin su t at a new sense of rou ness emer e t e arti ula tion of a Muslim self in et ni terms a ainst similarly et ni i e Ot ers T e resent book ontributes to t e un erstan in of i entity in in i an by illuminatin its ro essual ne otiate every ay nature as it was urin t is erio T at is it is on erne wit i enti ation ow eo le un erstan arti ulate an a t on or erform belon in It e lores t at on oin ro ess in t e onte t of every ay on i t in one art of in ian Tur an At t e en of t e in Tur an was a ire tly a ministere refe ture zhili ting wit in t e rovin ial system T e refe ture s survivin ar ive tells t ousan s of stories t at w en rea t rou t e oliti s of translation an re resentation illuminate ow eo le ne otiate relation s i s an resolve on i ts in a multilin ual multi onfessional so iety In t at so iety a C inese s eakin non Muslim minority ominate a Turki s eakin Muslim ma ority but t ere were many ra ations in t e ierar y of ower Class was as si ni ant as lan ua e or reli ion alt ou t e on i ts of every ay life w en arti ulate in t e lan ua e of t e ivili in ro e t ro u e a is ourse of belon in t at s olars to ay woul re o ni e as et ni ity On t e w ole t e ivili in ro e t an its e e ts resemble t ose t at ave istori ally ara teri e s e i forms of Euro Ameri an olonial ism an so om arative olonial istory ui es t e analysis erein How ever olonialism as been invoke wit re ar to t e in em ire many times an often wit i erin meanin s onnotations an assum tions so it is ne essary to state re isely w at I mean by it Colonialism ere is e ne as a system of omination aime at territorial a uisition t rou so io oliti al reor ani ation It is inter onne te wit im erialism a ro ess in w i eo le from one re ion of t e worl ominate t ose from anot er for t e rimary ur ose of resour e e tra tion or territorial se u rity but intervene less ire tly in so ial evelo ment for e am le by rulin t rou a lo al aristo ra y I t us istin uis olonialism as a form of omination aime at assimilatin t e eo le of t e ominate territory [ ]

from im erialism as a form of rimarily e onomi omination t at main tains ontrol of lural onstituen ies t rou iverse vo abularies of rule Generally s eakin a transition from lural im erialism to assimilatory olonialism often o urs as a rea tion to a risis of im erial ontrol an t e in em ire in t e mi nineteent entury was in re isely su a re arious osition In broa om arative terms we may see t e ian Army as a ents of t at an e in on e tions of soverei nty as its lea ers sou t an e an sion of normal institutions into t e reviously se arate bor erlan s Generally s eakin e an in em ires ten to refrain from me iatin between multi le le al an oliti al systems but instea maintain boun aries between t em Over time slowe e ansion or ot er re u tions in t e rate of resour e a uisition as well as t e ten en y of eri eral eo les to learn to make use of t e institutions of t e state ombine to en oura e omo eni ation Lo al elites in in ian s ase t e Turki Muslim begs are re la e wit fun tionaries from t e metro olitan or er ere C inese ma istrates T at omo eni ation is base on a laim to universality but takes a olonial Ot er as its ob e t T e ian Army s e orts in in ian om rise ust su a ivili in ro e t an e ort on t e art of a omi nant rou to im art t eir norms an institutions to a subor inate rou by for e if ne essary Des ite t e loseness of t e ritis an Russian em ires an t e in ursions of Euro Ameri an im erialists alon t e C i nese oast t is ivili in ro e t was of C inese ori in It a its intelle tual an institutional roots in a s e i ommunity of Confu ian t ou t entere on t e ity of C an s a in t e rovin e of Hunan an t e lea ers of t e ian Army were art of t is ommunity T is book emonstrates ow olonialism emer es in a non Euro Ameri an onte t However my rimary oal is not to ro u e some ran ty olo i al statement but to use t e om arison ro u tively as a roun s for is ourse an e loration: If we a e t t e ro osition t at t e omination of in ian an its eo le was in some way olonial w at o we learn In t is ase t inkin of in ian as olonial turns my met o olo i al em a sis to t e tensions an an ieties t at omination t rou so io oliti al reor ani ation en en ers amon its sub e ts et er a olonial ower im oses a ertain oliti al or er reates a system of e onomi e loita tion or re on ures stru tures of en er an se uality it is t e ro u tion of i eren e t at enables it to o so an t at re isters its ee er [ ]

e e ts Di eren e is not a mere intelle tual u le or sim ly a tool of ower as t is stu y s ows it is an on oin ro ess of i enti ation t at relates to formal ate ories in om le ways As mu as been reveale by s olars of im erial ulture an t e institutions of knowle e in Sout C ina an Taiwan w ose works are a entral in uen e on t is book S olars i on lobal frontiers e ually informs t is stu y of t e C inese Nort west T ere is no sin le analo y for in ian but t ere are nevert e less many arallels an e lorin t em will reveal a lar ely une lore istory from below as resente in t e wor s of or inary eo le owever me iate instea of t e minority of ower ol ers y re ar in im erialism an olonialism as so io ultural ro esses we an e ten t e el of is ourse an om arison between e ansive states an t e so iet ies at t eir mar ins it in t e el of C inese istory t is book re resents an e ort to brin t e met o olo ies of istori al ant ro olo y familiar from stu ies of Sout C ina to bear on t e uestions ose by t e New in History T e New in History is an amor ous an e ansive el t e ief intervention of w i is t e illumination of eri eral voi es of various kin s In t e min s of most observers owever t is sub el is rimarily on erne wit et ni i eren e in t e onte t of in em ire S olars of t e New in History ave s own for e am le ow Tibetan reli ious lea ers an Mon ol aristo rats relate to t e in ourt an earlier seminal works a ress t e ro u tion of et ni ity t rou in institutions Generally s eakin ea of t e em ire s onstituen ies saw a i erent fa e of in ower t at was relevant an le itimate in t eir own onte t Yet in ian as remaine somew at of a mystery in t is re ar : w ile Mon ols an Tibetans mi t ave seen t e em eror as a warrior k an or an in arnate bo isattva t e in a eare to ave no Muslim uise T e uestion remains o en as to ow t e in s Turki Muslim sub e ts un er stoo t e em ire I ar ue t at an i ea of t e in emer e not from areful im erial ro a an a but rat er in t e ro ess of routine en ounters wit C inese ower in t e last e a es of t e em ire Yet all of t ese re resentations of self em ire an t e relations i between sub e t an soverei n only be ome lear w en we rea a ross t e lo al ar ive an la e it into ialo ue wit t e Turki lan ua e manu s ri t tra ition S olars i on in ian s mo ern istory as often relie on C inese lan ua e sour es ro u e at t e i est levels of overnment [ ]

w i tell us little about ow oli ies laye out on t e roun Meanw ile anot er bran of resear fo uses on manus ri t sour es in C a atay t e Turki literary lan ua e use in Central Asia into t e s Alt ou t ese latter sour es illuminate ri worl s of iety e onomy an every ay life t ey say relatively little about t e e erien e of C inese rule T e Tur an ar ive owever was forme in a multilin ual onte t t rou t e a umulation of re or s of on i t between for t e most art or inary eo le Alt ou only a minority of t e o uments in t e ar ive are urely in C a atay w ile t e ma ority are in C inese almost all are none t eless ro u ts of translation T is book reveals t e oliti s of Turki C inese translation in late in in ian an brin s t at oliti s to bear on its rea in of sour es a ross an beyon t at ar ive s owin ow on e ts from wit in t e s a es e ne by C inese ower nevert eless olo ni e t e is ourses beyon t em y rea in t e ar ive riti ally as a site of ne otiation an om etition I seek to em asi e t e a en y of or inary eo le over t at of i level o ials Or inary eo le in t is ase sim ly in i ates t ose w o el no o e an w ose a tivities were lar ely meant to remain uiet beyon t e si t of t e a ministration T ese in lu e farmers artisans mer ants rostitutes ervis es an but ers amon a w ole ost of eo le w o were in no osition to ir umvent t e u i ial system At its ore t is book is a stu y of every ay oliti s : t e ebates on i ts e isions an oo eration amon in ivi uals rou s an or ani ations re ar in t e ontrol allo ation an use of resour es an t e values an i eas un erlyin t ose a tivities Every ay oliti s is t e uiet subtle an ra ual a ustment an ontestation of norms an institutions T is book is about ow eo le en a e in t at kin of mun ane oliti s ow t ey resiste ower an ow t ey a ro riate it for t emselves T eir on i ts oul be about very mun ane t in s su as lan in eritan e an nevert eless re e t ran er uestions of im ort to ontem orary s olars su as t e e nition of et ni ity Certain issues are raise fre uently in t e ar ive t e is osal of t e ea for e marria e an t e unis ment of se workers amon t em Alt ou we annot ave ire t a ess to t e is ourses an ra ti es sur roun in su oints of tension as t ey manifeste in t e every ay t ey are re e te imly in t e orners of t e ar ive Let us turn now to t e etails of t e ase fo usin on ow eo le in Tur an t emselves es ribe t eir la e in istory an eo ra y irst I will [ ]

lo ate Tur an in t e istory of t e u risin s t at re e e t e stu y at an T en we will onsi er ow eo le es ribe Tur an s lo ation in in ian an its ost u risin s so iety ot oint to a sense t at t is was a broken la e a s attere so iety of estran e eo le

Prelu e: After t e

orl S attere

T e so alle Muslim u risin s be an in not in in ian but in t e nei borin Muslim ma ority re ions of Nort west C ina Lon stan in rievan es on t e art of lo al Muslims in lu in C inese violations of Muslim sa re s a es an overta ation interse te wit a set of on oin feu s wit in t e ommunities of C inese s eakin Muslims or Hui Two years later in une rumors s rea t at t e military overnor of in i an a or ere t e reem tive slau ter of Hui eo le in or er to re vent t e rebellion from omin to t e bor erlan Instea t at rumor rom te Hui military o ers an reli ious lea ers to atta k in arri sons an C inese mer ants ust t en t e on oin rebellions in C ina ro er lose t e lines of ommuni ation wit ei in an t e eo le of in ian foun t emselves in a va uum of ower T e initial violen e a ainst C inese .KLŕ ƒÄ?\ eo le w i in lu e Man u s eakers an ot er non Muslims soon broke into a stru le amon Muslims as lea ers of i erent Su linea es former in omman ers an ot er laimants to ower stoo oise to lun er on uer an emonstrate t eir own ability to establis a le itimate Islami state y t e en of t e year a o en fa tions a built om etin ower bases a ross t e re ion In t e wor s of one man t e worl s attere T e lines rawn in t is on i t were ui an o en to inter retation E onomi fa tors laye a role in t e rebellion as i o ortunism but so i t e ability of Su lea ers to mobili e t eir a erents an ot ers w o esire an Islami state T eir followin s ten e to orres on rou ly to i eren es in lan ua e as C inese s eakers relate to tren s in Islami iety amon Hui in C ina ro er w ile Turki s eakers orien tation aroun ertain te ts an s rine il rima e onne te t em more to Central an Sout Asia Nevert eless allian es a ross boun aries of lin uisti an se tarian i eren e were as fre uent as enmities T at is w ile oly war JKD]Ä?W ame to ara teri e t e rebellion t e ob e t of [ ]

oly war oul be ambi uous as it oul be turne a ainst internal or e ternal enemies As mu is illustrate by t e istory of t e rebellions in Tur an On Au ust a Su lea er name Ma m an wa a le t e u risin t ere an ire te a series of atta ks on C inese settlements He was soon oine by for es from t e Su lea ers or NKZ훾MDs of t e nearby oasis of u a w o were t en in an allian e wit Hui military o ers from t e ol arrison town of r m i To et er t ey besie e t e C inese arrison an ommunity at Tur an for nine mont s In Mar after a ty i ally lon an bleak winter t ey o ere t e besie e C inese an es ort ba k to C ina in e an e for t eir surren er Instea w en t e C inese o ene t e ates t e Muslims let t em travel some istan e from t e ity an t en slau tere t em T ose t at remaine were enslave Soon as t e allie rebel for es attem te to e an t eir territory eastwar a lo al NKZ훾MD rou base in t e town of L k n attem te to sei e ower T e Hui s e i ally were vi timi e as t e L k n for es burne un re s of Hui omes to t e roun in an attem t to anta oni e t e r m i om man ers er a s in retaliation for t e r m i for es enslavement of Turki Muslims in umul Hami T e r m i omman ers retaliation was swift an evastatin but remnants of t e L k n fa tion eventually rose to su rema y in Tur an an e elle t e u a NKZ훾MDs Su s fou t Su s a ainst an alon si e Hui Later in t e o er Ya b e arrive in as ar from t e anate of o an an soon bot t e battle lines an t e is ourse of on i t an e T e violen e be an to be re resente as a on i t between boun e ommunities of eo le t at were i enti e rimarily by lan ua e an la e of ori in albeit o e in reli ious terms As t e roni lers of t is erio re resente it t e rimary rou of anta onists a been t e C inese s eakin non Muslims T at t ese C inese in fa t in lu e Man u s eakin eo le was lost in re olle tion t ey were nev ert eless obvious i olaters an in els an t eir i ol tem les C a a tay EXWNK훾QD burne all t e same Yet as t e C inese e ie or on verte an t rou t e on i ts t at ra ually emer e between C inese s eakin an Turki s eakin Muslims Turki Muslim writers ame to onstrue t e Hui as t e enemy After all w ile t e o an is an Ya b e ori inally a eare as outsi ers t ey nevert eless s oke a lan ua e very lose to t at of East Turkestan were ulturally similar an [

]

es ite t eir inte ration of Hui an onverte C inese into t e state oul laim to un ertake oly war on be alf of t e Muslim 0XVXOPčQ eo le T at laim was es e ially im ortant as Ya b e a initially ome to as ar wit or ers to establis o an i in uen e t ere by installin an su ortin a Su as its lea er However Ya b e a betraye t e Su w ile o an fell to Russian on uest an now e en e on is mil itary rowess an i entity as a oly warrior for le itima y T e Turki Muslim roni lers of t is erio an after a or in ly referre to t emselves as 0XVXOPčQ literally meanin Muslim w ile e lu in t e Hui C a atay 'ࡃQJčQ from t is ate ory T erefore I use t e term 0XVXOPčQ t rou out t is book to in i ate Turki s eakin Muslims S e i ally it in i ates t ose Turki Muslims w o i enti e wit oasis a ri ulture an life as istin t from a ak s or yr y w o es ite bein Turki s eakin Muslims were e i te as livin stri tly by er in in t e mountains To ay most of t ese 0XVXOPčQs woul retros e tively be labele Uy ur a or in to mo ern et nonational ate ories 0XVXOPčQ owever retains t e label s istori ally s e i ambi uity wit its reli ious enotation lin uisti onnotations an im li it re e tion of ot er Muslims es ite its su er ial in lusivity T e story in t is book unfol s in a worl before t e e emony of t e nation state an it is a ro riate to use t e ate ories t at were a tive in it Moreover as Ro ers rubaker ar ues lan ua e an reli ion resemble et ni ity but are not e uivalent to it Rat er t ese are all embo ie i enti ations ways of a tin an erformin rou belon in T ese more ui erformative or situational i enti ations be ame in reasin ly naturali e t rou t e late in by emer in is ourses of ommon es ent an t e violen e of t e u risin s was an im ortant atalyst for t at naturali ation Ya b e s state rose to su rema y swee in t e fa tions before it Musulman an Hui alike en is armies rea e Tur an in t ey vis ite yet more violen e u on Hui eo le T ey a roa e from t e west an t e town of To sun killin nearly all of t e Hui sol iers statione t ere At t e ates of Tur an ro er t ey met an efeate several t ousan more or es from r m i attem te to tra Ya b e s sol iers in a in er movement but faile L k n fell an t e as ar army e e ute t ose t ey took risoner Tur an was un er sie e a ain but now it was full of an ious Hui rat er t an C inese eo le or nine mont s Ya b e s armies besie e t e ity an bombar e it wit annon re Hui i in t e lo es of [

]

Su or ers until nally some ose to sue for ea e Mulla M sa Sayr m t e elebrate istorian from u a later re or e ow Ya b e visite tyranny এXOP a ainst t e Hui in is am ai ns by massa rin inno ent Muslims C inese s eakers an se tarians t ou t ey mi t ave been However anot er roni ler w o was an eyewitness to Tur an an a loyal o er in Ya b e s army ro u e a i erent a ount T is writer As r Ak un ara teri es Ya b e as an instrument of Go s usti e ૛DGčODK He es ribes t e Hui emissary sent to ne otiate ea e as a trea er ous Su w o istra te t e o ers w ile a Hui army re are for a sneak atta k After t e battle a vi torious Ya b e for e t e Hui to sell t eir own belon in s to ay for foo an t en mar e t ousan s of t em towar as ar an into slavery Su As r k n asserts are t e wa es of sin w at Hui eo le eserve for bein a ostates T ese two writers Mulla M sa Sayr m an As r Ak un were art of a oo of istori al writin t at emer e as Muslims re e te on t eir own i entities an la e in istory an t e worl T ey also re resent two ositions on i eren e t at were in tension urin t e u risin s an after ile t e lines of on i t were rawn r etori ally between Muslims an non Muslims in fa t t e violen e was fre uently between C inese s eakers an non C inese s eakers Sayr m resents Ya b e s vio len e a ainst Hui as tyranny w ile As r laims it was usti e A ontem orary t e oet Mu amma G ar b S y r similarly oses a istin tion between Musulmans like imself an non Muslims Qč 0XVXOPčQ w o ave betraye t e fait namely t e C inese s eakin Muslims of r m i T e nature of Hui eo le s alle e sin was obs ure but as we will see it oul later be as ribe to t eir myt i al ori ins as eo le between C ina an t e Muslim worl To G ar b Ya b e s estru tion of t e Hui was t erefore a means to men t is broken buzuq lan to ur e t e internal t reat wit in t e Muslim ommunity an make it w ole a ain ile Musulmans ara teri e t eir lan as s attere or broken none of t em woul see it men e in t e way t at t ey o e In Au ust t e ian Army mar e a ross Nort in ian uttin Ya b e s for es to i t In May as Ya b e strate i e from is ala e in u a e ie su enly T e ause of eat in retros e t was a stroke but Musul man aut ors be an ointin n ers tryin to i entify some reason w y t e Islami state fell: Sayr m for is art inter rete Ya b e s su en assin as a onse uen e of t e same wrat JKDঋDE t at a le im to [

]

massa re inno ent Hui Pro Ya b e roni lers insiste t at e a been oisone er a s by a Hui omman er w o a visite a C inese i ol tem le an rank lt in t e im erial manner .KDTDQ UDVPLFKl Ä?Q LFKWL violatin Muslim ietary rules before le in oat s to t e C inese Ot ers sus e te a former in o ial w o a serve many masters Niy e of swit in si es on e a ain an ons irin wit t e ian Army to betray Ya b e In t e ensuin aos Ya b e s sons turne a ainst ea ot er w ile is armies fell ba k In Sayr m s wor s T e eo le s atien e was e auste so t ey turne t eir fa es to t e Court of t e Creator t eir eyes brimmin wit tears an wis e for t e Em eror of C ina t eir ries an leas rowin ever lou er or better or worse t eir rayers were answere It was t e mornin of A ril w en t e ian Army arrive in Tur an T e army move ui kly east to west a ross t e valley an its swift mar set eo le in motion At t is moment we oul i entify t ree of t em all of w om were travelin in i erent ire tions: Ab l Ma a youn Musulman man was runnin for t e ills wit is brot ers T ey o e to avoi t e violen e entirely Instea t ey wan ere in un er for several years unable to survive easily in t e new so ial or er A ommon sol ier name Yan en en a C inese s eaker an non Muslim mar e wit t e army He soon settle in t e same town t at Ab l Ma e an t ere e trie an faile to remake imself on t e frontier ei shi a Hui woman was a refu ee s e e t e same army westwar in sear of free om for erself an er family Yet ei shi foun only bon a e an a tivity Tur an fell wit ar ly a t an a new era of re onstru tion be an an era marke by subtler kin s of violen e Over t e ne t t irty years a new kin of C inese ower transforme t e lives of t e eo le of Tur an an of in ian e will revisit Yan en en ei shi an Ab l Ma later in t is book However un erstan in t e ar s of t eir lives will re uire us rst to illuminate a set of istori al ro esses t at transforme in ian s so iety an ulture

Tur an t e Lan of Stran ers ourteen years later on uly sat own wit a man name Ma

a Russian et nolo ist visitin Tur an Ak un an aske im to es ribe is [

]

At the close of the nineteenth century, Confucian revivalists gained control of Xinjiang and undertook a program to transform its inhabitants from Turkic-speaking Muslims into Chinese-speaking Confucians. Eric Schluessel explores this encounter between Chinese power and a Muslim society through the struggles of ordinary people in the oasis of Turpan.

At a time when understanding the roots of the modern relationship between Uyghurs and China has taken on new urgency, Land of Strangers illuminates a crucial moment of social and cultural change.

“An expert collector, reader, and translator of difficult materials, Schluessel provides us with a window into frontier society in the late nineteenth century. Land of Strangers is an exceptionally well-researched work grounded in a stunning assortment of primary sources, replete with memorable close-up encounters with an engaging cast of characters.”

—TOBIE MEYER-FONG, AUTHOR OF WHAT REMAINS: COMING TO TERMS WITH CIVIL WAR IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY CHINA

“Schluessel combines prodigious linguistic skills with exhaustive archival research and conceptual sophistication to bring the Turpan oasis to life in all its human complexity.

Land of Strangers is a fine-grained account of history from below, unlike anything we have on any part of Central Asia. A stellar achievement.”

—ADEEB KHALID, AUTHOR OF MAKING UZBEKISTAN: NATION, EMPIRE, AND REVOLUTION IN THE EARLY USSR

“Through this theoretically rich exploration of Qing philosophy and practice of colonial rule, we see how violence and forced intimacy shape enduring group identities in Xinjiang.

Using his multilingual skills to draw on diaries, memorials, and documents from court cases, Schluessel uncovers the interactions of everyday life among colonizing Chinese, intermediaries, and colonized Uyghurs in late Qing Xinjiang.”

—MARIANNE KAMP, AUTHOR OF THE NEW WOMAN IN UZBEKISTAN: ISLAM, MODERNITY, AND UNVEILING UNDER COMMUNISM

“In this fine monograph, Schluessel describes the local articulation and hardening of boundaries between people in late Qing Xinjiang. Using Turkic, Manchu, and Chinese sources on Turpan, he introduces (among others) local elites, Hunanese Confucian statecraft ideologues, mediatory tongchi interpreters, and Chinese-speaking Muslim brokers. His narratives describe culture clashes, identity negotiation, gender ideologies, colonial discipline, and naming practices, persuasively and subtly connected to today’s troubled conditions.”

—JONATHAN N. LIPMAN, AUTHOR OF FAMILIAR STRANGERS: A HISTORY OF MUSLIMS IN NORTHWEST CHINA

E R IC S CH L U E S S E L is assistant professor of modern Chinese history at the George Washington University.

Cover design: Milenda Nan Ok Lee Cover image: Bilingual Chaghatay-Chinese document, dated 1928. Photo by author.

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS | NEW YORK CUP.COLUMBIA.EDU Printed in the U.S.A.