ollision C
Volume 14 Issue 2
The International Compendium for Crash Research
Testing & Validation
of Toyota Vehicle Control History Speed and Acceleration Data
Driver Steering Demands
Following a Steer Tire Deflation on a Commercial Vehicle
Case Studies
Toyota Vehicle Control History
Ignition “Cycology:
Understanding Ignition Cycles collisionmagazine.com 14.2-FrontCover.indd 1
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Contents
Volume 14 Issue 2
inside 5
Collision Magazine Info and Advertiser Index
6
Remembering Tom Szabo
34
features 8
Nissan SUV EDR Recording Characteristics by David M. Hallman and Billy S. Cox Jr.
18
A Review Of Engineering Mechanics Applied To Accident Reconstruction Part 3: Selected Applications by Jai Singh
38
Driver Steering Demands Following a Steer Tire Deflation on a Commercial Vehicle by Donald F. Tandy, Jr. and Jason W. Colborn
54
Crash·ol·o·gy: The Science of Crashes by Wesley Vandiver and Robert Anderson
60
Ignition “Cycology” Understanding Ignition Cycles by Kent Boots
72
Pedestrian Automatic Emergency Braking (P-AEB) And Its Use in Accident Reconstruction by Alan Moore
78
Toyota Vehicle Control History Case Studies by David M. Hallman, Robert D. Anderson and Billy S. Cox Jr.
92
High Speed Pedestrian Collision And Verification Of Car Collision Speed In Pedestrian Accidents Based On Biofidelic Dummy Injuries by Annika Kortmann and Tim Hoger
102
Testing and Validation of Toyota Vehicle Control History Speed and Acceleration Data by Robert Anderson and Wesley Vandiver
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Accident Reconstruction ACTAR Accredited Biomechanics CDR / EDR Crush Analysis Drones Forensic Mapping Human Factors Motorcycles Vehicle Systems Visibility The Crash Hub is the leading online Accident
and more ..
Reconstruction Expert Directory. Crash Experts vary by experience, rate and specialties. When evaluating the right expert for your case, make sure you search, review and connect with the expert that best matches your case needs.
www.The Cras hHub.com
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ADVERTISER INDEX 4N6XPRT Systems
112, Inside Back
Crash Hub
4
1
Collision Magazine Crash Data Group Inc PO Box 892885, Temecula, CA 92589 Toll Free: 800-280-7940 E-mail: sbaker@crashdatagroup.com https://www.collisionmagazine.com/ ISSN: 1934-8681
CSI
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Crash Data Group
Back Cover
Engineering Dynamics
Forensic Mapping
Inside Front
Houston Auto Appraisers
COLLISION STAFF Owner, Managing Editor Senior Editor Advertising Manager
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www.collisionmagazine.com/back-issues Most back issues now in digital format! All rights reserved, © 2020 Crash Data Group Inc. The opinions and conclusions expressed in this publication and any associated data and throughout the articles attributed to specific authors are the opinions and conclusions of the authors noted and not necessarily the editorial staff or anyone else for that matter. While some articles have been reviewed for content, the accuracy of reprinted models or equations cannot be fully guaranteed. It is the responsibility of the reader to apply critical thinking to an individual review of the content and make their own personal judgements as to its value to them, individually. At the end of the day, facts belong to everybody, any other opinions to us. The distinction is yours to draw...otherwise, the opinions expressed herein are not necessarily those of any employer, not necessarily ours and probably not necessary.
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Remembering Tom Szabo We hear it all the time now: “these uncertain times…” But nothing reminds us of what uncertainty truly means like the unexpected passing of a longtime friend and colleague. In August (2020) Tom Szabo passed unexpected while hiking in Phoenix. Tom was born in and grew up near Montreal. An avid hockey player and standout baseball player scouted by a major league baseball team while in college, Tom chose a different route but never gave up his love of hockey. He started his college carrier by earning a Bachelor’s of Science Degree in Kinanthropology (Kinesiology) from Ottawa University. He then went on to McGill University where he earned his Bachelor of Engineering Degree in Mechanical Engineering.. Among his other professional accomplishments, presentations and testing conducted all over the world, not to mention authoring enough papers to fill a small library, Tom designed and tested a biomechanically correct breakable knee for the Hybrid III dummy and established design criteria for biomechanically correct breakable hip, femur and tibia elements for the Hybrid III dummy for use during motorcycle crash testing. He participated in the design and validation testing of a biomechanically correct thorax and the design of an anthropomorphically correct neck for use with the Hybrid III crash test dummy. Tom – together with Jud Welcher, as well as the whole Biomechanical Research & Testing crew – were always an important and integral part of the ARC-CSI Crash Con-
ferences from the start not only as part of the crash crew but as valuable speakers on a variety of topics, not the least of which was explaining the intricacies of the voluminous crash data they collected in the end of conference review. With the BRT team, Tom’s testing and research insight and his invaluable contributions to the conference testing series and presentations ultimately contributed to success of the 16-year running Crash Conference and inspired many in the field. “Tom was my friend for over 30 years and business partner for 25 years. He made us laugh, he was equally capable of listening as he was of offering thoughtful and insightful advice. He unselfishly shared of his wealth of knowledges and understanding. The loss of his insight, straight forward and objective view of things is a loss to us all. Myself personally, and to all of those at BRT, we owe a large measure of our success to Tom, specifically his love of knowledge, writing skills, deep understanding of the sciences, passion for what he believed in, and his willingness to always bring up others with him. There are few like him. He will be greatly missed. Until we crash again - ” – Judson Welcher “Tom left the accident reconstruction, biomechanics and testing community better than you found it. I will miss the example by which he led. His bluntness was balanced by both his playfulness and his alternative vernacular. I am a better person for having known him” – Bob Anderson “Tom's untimely passing is truly a loss not only to the industry but to many of us personally who knew him both as a friend and mentor in many ways. He taught me more about testing than I could have learned in a lifetime of classes. I will miss his infectious smile, insightful and thoughtful approach to crashes and unfailing willingness to help and contribute. I will mention and remember him often and keep his memory alive.” – Rusty Haight “Tom Szabo was the kind of man that you wanted to be around. Or you wanted to be him. Or you wanted his opinion. He was just that kind of a man – charismatic, charming, wicked smart, generous, confident yet humble, tough but fair. There will never be another like him. He was an extraordinary engineer and an even better friend. I will miss his presence for the rest of my life.” – Adelino Yung “Tom was my friend, a mentor and a very respected colleague. He helped me improve on a Low Velocity Impact Simulator
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I nicknamed, “LVIS.” Tom was one of the first occupants we tested. I was honored that he took an interest in the project and to have him and Jud Welcher contribute suggestions for improvements. We were friends and worked together for many years running crash tests for the participants of a variety of crash conferences. He was a prankster with a quick wit and quirky sense of humor. He was legendary in many respects and will be greatly missed by all who were lucky enough to work with him and know him.” – Billy S. Cox, Jr.
It goes without saying that Tom will, of course, be remembered as a true leader in the community but also one of those genuinely good guys. His untimely and early passing will leave a hole in our ranks which will be near impossible to fill.
“Tom was a giant, in every sense of the word. He filled every room with his presence, laughter and incredible insight. It is hard to comprehend the amount of knowledge and information that he has added to the reconstruction community. I feel very fortunate to have known him and to have been able to learn from him.” – Jeff Suway “I am very grateful that I had the privilege of having Tom as a mentor in the early years of my career. I have always had the utmost respect for him professionally and truly appreciated his sense of humor. His passing is a great loss to the accident reconstruction and biomechanics community. He left far too early and will be greatly missed.” – Michelle R. Hoffman “Tom has been a part of my life longer than I can remember. From a very young age, he was a tremendous influence on my life personally and professionally. He was a great mentor for many engineers including myself - always willing to provide valuable advice to anyone who would ask. Tom's legacy will not be forgotten and those who knew him will surely miss him.” – Sean Haight
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Nissan SUV EDR Recording Characteristics David M. Hallman M.S., P.E. Billy S. Cox Jr. bstract To date, there have been multiple published studies of the EDR data recording characteristics for vehicle manufacturers such as GM, Kia, and Toyota. These authors are not aware of any published studies of the EDR characteristics of Nissan / Infiniti vehicles. The purpose of this investigation was to develop and execute a repeatable test method for determining Nissan’s non-deployment trigger threshold and evaluate / confirm the published non-deployment event recording order.
A
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Data imaged from multiple Nissan passenger cars and sport utility vehicle airbag control modules (ACMs) by these authors and others has produced stored non-deployment events with reported longitudinal and lateral delta-v values below the Code of Federal Regulations Title 49 Part 563 (1) (49CFR563) trigger threshold. Data imaged from several Nissan ACMs by others has produced some non-deployment events with longitudinal and lateral delta-v values of zero. This would appear to indicate that the Nissan ACM will record a non-deployment event below the 5 mile per hour or 8 kilometer per hour trigger threshold as defined in 49CFR563. Reviewed information posted on user groups devoted to the general use and interpretation of vehicle crash data seemed uncertain as to the non-deployment event recording threshold and event recording order for crash data imaged from Nissan ACMs. The consensus of the information posted appears to be that Nissan ACMs can record an event any time the crash sensing algorithm wakes up. If this is correct, it implies that Nissan ACMs will record an event below the 5 mile per hour or 8 kilometer per hour trigger threshold defined in 49CFR563. Some posts on the EDR users group also indicated that Nissan has no special rules specific to recording order. The Nissan data limitations as stated at the beginning of the Nissan specific Bosch CDR Report specifies the event recording order and rules. This published recording order will also be evaluated. Introduction Crash data imaged from vehicle ACMs is useful information which is generally available for crash investigation and reconstruction. The Bosch Crash Data Retrieval Tool is the most widely utilized system for crash data imaging as most vehicle manufacturers work with Bosch for data imaging and translation. Each manufacturer provides data as required by 49CFR563, but the source of that data within the vehicle, how it is sent to the ACM and, more importantly, the correct translation and interpretation of that data can vary widely between manufacturers. Extensive research has been performed by others (2,3,4) on the crash data provided by various manufacturers including, but not limited to, GM, Toyota and Kia. Published information on the evaluation of Nissan crash data has been limited to date. Crash data imaged from Nissan passenger and sport utility vehicles in the course of normal crash reconstruction casework by these authors and others was
found to include stored non-deployment events with both the longitudinal and lateral delta-v values below the 49CFR563 defined trigger threshold of 5 mph (8 kph). In some cases, stored non-deployment events were found with both longitudinal and lateral delta-v values of 0 mph and 0 G acceleration values as well. Based on this non-deployment event data, assumptions have been made by crash investigators that the minimum Nissan non-deployment event recording threshold is less than 5 mph (8 kph). Prior to this investigation, there has been no published systematic testing to investigate and confirm the non-deployment event recording trigger threshold for Nissan vehicles. The primary purpose of this investigation was to begin to evaluate the trigger threshold for non-deployment event generation. Secondarily, the event recording order was also evaluated and compared to the Bosch provided data limitations. This investigation utilized crash event data from a single Nissan sport utility type vehicle and future testing and investigation is planned with a Nissan sedan. Materials and Test Equipment These tests were conducted in advance of the 2020 SATAI conference in Glendale Arizona. A total of fifteen low-speed crash tests were conducted for the purposes of this investigation. The Nissan was driven by an instrumented human volunteer for all fifteen tests. Six tests were vehicle-to-vehicle in the forward direction. Six tests were vehicle to barrier in the forward direction. Three tests were vehicle to barrier in reverse. The test vehicle was a 2013 Nissan Pathfinder, VIN: 5N1AR2MM6DC642452 which was purchased as a used vehicle. After being purchased, repairs were made to the Supplemental Restraint System (SRS) including, but not limited to, replacement of the ACM. The tests in this investigation were all conducted with the same measurement equipment installed. This equipment is as follows: DTS Tiny Data Acquisition System (TDAS) Pro, Human Subject Instrumentation, Racelogic Video VBOX, Triaxial Accelerometers, IST EDR 3C – 10 G, Slam Stick S, Speed traps on the ground, Garmin Virb, Garmin Virb Elite and Garmin Virb XE Action cameras, High Speed Video Cameras, DSLR Still Cameras, and various other video and still cameras. The ACM was imaged through the data link connecter (DLC) with the Bosch CDR kit after every test to determine if an event was stored. A stationary 2005 Lincoln Navigator utilized for the first six tests was also occupied by an instrumented human volunteer. The test results
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A REVIEW OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS APPLIED TO ACCIDENT RECONSTRUCTION Jai Singh, BS, MS, MA, ACTAR
Biomechanical Engineering Analysis & Research, Inc.
A
PART 3: SELECTED APPLICATIONS
bstract This paper is the final paper, in a series of three papers, that collectively provide a review of engineering mechanics as applied to the field of accident reconstruction. The first and second paper, in this series, reviewed the fundamental and foundational aspects of rigid body kinematics and rigid body dynamics, respectively. The most salient findings from the first two papers are presented within the introduction of the subject work. This is followed by the presentation of the translational and angular impulse-momentum forms that derive
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directly from the translational and rotational rigid body equations of motion. The planar reduction, which greatly simplifies the problems of interest, is one that is found in multiple accident reconstruction applications. These simplifications, which are consistent across the applications of interest, are also presented as being introductory. The body of the work focuses on four selected applications: rigid vehicle dynamics, rigid body accelerometry, the Calspan Reconstruction of Accident Speeds on the Highway (CRASH3) modeling approach for oblique impacts and planar collision analysis.
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Introduction Brief review of kinematics and dynamics The first two papers in this series of papers introduced a number of important findings in regards to rigid body kinematics 1 and dynamics. 2 These findings are of direct relevance to the subject work. However, it is first important to review the subscript and superscript system employed. For translational vector kinematic quantities, the previous work employed a single right subscript to denote the body being referenced, the point being referenced or both. Portions of the subject work involve multiple bodies, multiple points of interest and multiple points in time. Consequently, the right subscript on translational vector variables includes up to three terms of the form ‘iq(t)’ where i refers to the ith body, q refers to the point q (the symbol, o, in this position, is a reference to the mass center of the body) and (t) refers to the point in time that is of relevance (the symbol, (o), in this position, is a reference to an initial value and the symbol (f ), in this position, is a reference to a final value). Translational kinematic vector variables also have a left superscript and potentially a left subscript. The left superscript refers to the expression frame of the vector. For example, a translational kinematic vector variable with a left superscript of Bi is a vector that is expressed in terms of components along the unit vectors of the ith body frame of reference. The left subscript, when present, refers to the frame-referenced time derivative (i.e. the frame in which the frame referenced derivative is taken). Second frame-referenced time derivatives were presented with a double left superscript and subscript (the inner superscript and subscript pair referencing the expression and derivative frames for the first derivative and the second pair referencing the second derivative). For the subject work, having previously presented the full pair forms, the following shorthand notations are employed, for the sole purpose of presentation simplification, for any relevant translational kinematic vector ζ and frames A and B: (1) Angular kinematics vector variables were presented with a right subscript, left subscript and left superscript. If these terms, respectively, are A, B and X, the interpretation is one of the kinematic variable of the A frame, about the B frame, expressed in the X frame. Finally, because all of the relevant frames of reference are fully specified for each vector kinematic variable, the use of dot notation (single and double dot notation for the first and second time derivatives) is equivalent to the use of alphabetic notation (v and a for velocity and acceleration) irrespective of expression frame. The first paper presented the primary equation for relating the inertial frame of reference (G frame) position of a point, q, to the position of the same point in a body frame (B frame) and the G frame position of the origin of coordinates of the B frame. (2) In equation (2), R was defined as the direction cosine matrix (DCM). The DCM transforms the coordinates of a vector from the right subscript frame into those of the left superscript frame. The DCM was shown to be an orthogonal matrix (R-1 = RT where the first is the inverse and the second is the transpose). The DCM can be parameterized in any number of ways (e.g. Euler angles, quaternions, etc.). Equation (2) can readily be expressed in two alternative forms through simple algebraic rearrangement.
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topic, generally, and of the limitations incumbent within the simplified formulations. As a contextual example, one often finds planar collision mechanics presentations in the form of a listing of component equations without an explanation as to how the basic equations were obtained from the more general case of R3. Such an approach, while meeting an objective of presenting component equations, does not aid in understanding the derivational basis of the same nor the mechanics by which one would remove any or all of the simplifying assumptions when it comes to the evaluation of situations in which those assumptions are not necessarily valid. The presentation of the relevant equations in vector-matrix form, as appropriate, mitigates a good portion of this issue secondary to the fact that such equations are the same in vector-matrix form, irrespective of the spatial order under consideration. The generation of the resultant component equations simply requires the ability of being able to carry out the incumbent vector matrix operations and by knowing which terms should be zero valued for simplified cases.
2. Singh J (2020) A review of engineering mechanics applied to accident reconstruction – Part 2: dynamics. Collision 3. Jazar RN (2008) Vehicle Dynamics, Theory and Practice. New York: Springer, pp. 219-279.
4. Jazar RN (2011) Advanced Dynamics, Rigid Body, Multibody and Aerospace Application. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 695-864.
5. Alem NH and GL Holstein (1977) Measurement of 3-D motion. UMTRI Paper No. UM-HSRI-77-46, International Workshop on Human Subjects for Biomechanical Research, New Orleans, Louisiana, October 18, 1977.
6. Park S and SK Hong (2011) Angular rate estimation using a distributed set of accelerometers. Sensors 11: 10444-10457.
7. McHenry RR (1975) A comparison of results obtained with different analytical techniques for reconstruction of highway accidents. SAE Technical Paper The key points of the dynamics work is threefold. The No. 750893. first is the fact that the statements of Newton’s 2nd law of 8. Rose NA, SJ Fenton and RM Ziernicki (2004) An motion as either F = ma or in its translational impulseexamination of the CRASH3 effective mass concept. momentum form is that such a statement is valid only SAE Technical Paper No. 2004-01-1181. for an inertial frame of reference. The second is that the equation for rotational dynamics, Euler’s equation, is most 9. Brach RM and RM Brach (2007) Vehicle Accident Analysis and Reconstruction Methods (1st ed.). easily implemented in the body frame secondary to the Warrendale, Pennsylvania: Society of Automotive Entime-invariance, for a rigid body, of the matrix associated gineers, pp. 103-152. with the mass moment of inertia tensor. Finally, the expression frames of dynamics equations are readily change- 10. Kok M, JD Hol and TB Schon (2017) Using inerable by means of the application of the appropriate kinetial sensors for position and orientation estimation. matic transform (i.e. premultiplication by the appropriate Foundations and trends in signal processing 11(1-2): DCM). 1-153. It is hoped that the applications discussed, while limited in number, showed not only the broad applicability of engineering dynamics to the context of accident reconstruction but also showed the details, starting from basic principles, of the manner in which one obtains the final forms of the relevant relationships that are found elsewhere in the literature. References 1. Singh J (2020) A review of engineering mechanics applied to accident reconstruction – Part 1: kinematics. Collision
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11. Ishikawa H (1993) Impact model for accident reconstruction – normal and tangential restitution coefficients. SAE Technical Paper No. 93065.
12. Ishikawa H (1994) Impact center and restitution coefficients for accident reconstruction. SAE Technical Paper No. 940564.
13. Carpenter N and J Welcher (2019) Inter-vehicular sliding friction and crush energy losses in impulse momentum planar collision. SAE Technical Paper No. 2019-01-0422.
14. Zhou J, J Lu and H Peng (2007) Collision model for vehicle motion prediction after light impacts. 20th IAVSD Symposium, Dynamics of Vehicles on Roads and Tracks, Berkley, California, August 13-17, 2007.
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Driver Steering Demands Following a Steer Tire DEFLATION on a Commercial F. Tandy, Jr. & Jason W. Colborn Vehicle Donald Tandy Engineering & Associates, Inc.
A
bstract This paper discusses the results of known scientific studies which have been conducted where a steer tire on a commercial vehicle was purposely aired out in order to evaluate vehicle controllability. Additional tests on a semi-tractor without a trailer were also performed specifically for this paper. The first test was conducted by deflating a tire of a semi-truck while at rest before accelerating the vehicle up to speed and documenting the disintegration of the tire, using on board video equipment and a computer with transducers to measure driver inputs as well as vehicle responses during the testing. In the second test, an air out condition was created using a special test device that fired five twelve-gauge shotgun shells at a steer tire sidewall of the semi-truck while it was traveling at freeway speeds. Results from these tests, as well as other studies, show that a rapid steer tire (i.e. a tire on the front axle) air out event creates a slight pull to the side of the deflated tire which requires a corrective steer to maintain a straight-ahead course. Absent an odd occurrence such as a tread wrapping an axle or a pre-existing mechanical problem with the vehicle, a steer tire air out is a controllable event. Introduction Commercial vehicles like medium duty and semitrucks require a large number of tires due to their size and weight. Like any other vehicle component, a tire can be disabled and separate or, most commonly, completely air out. There have been several recent articles published concerning the effect of a tire tread 34 Collision Magazine - Volume 14 Issue 2
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separation on vehicle handling of various utility vehicles, pickup trucks, vans, and passenger cars 1-12 and a paper written specifically discussing tire air outs on light vehicles. 13 One paper used computer modeling to study the effects of wheelbase and steering compliance on the ability to control a heavy commercial vehicle. 14 However, there have been fewer studies on what occurs when a steer tire is disabled in the real world on heavy vehicles such as a commercial vehicle or a semi-truck. What is known is that when a steer tire airs out, it leaves evidence on the roadway due to the weight of the vehicle pushing the rim down on the deflated carcass which moves against the ground making what has been referred to as a “waffle mark” (see Figures #1 and #2 for real world examples). In support that a steer tire disablement on a commercial vehicle is controllable, the Commercial Motor Vehicle Driver’s handbook for various states discuss what to do in the event of a steer tire disablement. An example of this comes from the Texas 2014 Commercial Driver’s License Manual and instructs drivers to “hold the steering wheel firmly” and to “stay off the brake” which is typical language for the other states. This is good advice, namely to obtain directional control first before braking. So, this begs the question: “Why tell a driver what to do if a tire disablement is uncontrollable?” This paper will discuss what scientific tests have been conducted over the years in order to determine driver demands during a steer tire disablement on a commercial vehicle. Unscientific information such as internet videos found on sites like YouTube that some may claim show that a steer tire deflation on a commercial vehicle is uncontrollable will also be discussed.
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Vehicle Stability and Control,” ESV 2001 Paper No. 258, June 2001. 3. Gardner, J., “The Role of Tread/Belt Detachment in Accident Causation,” ITEC Paper 27A, 1998. 4. Arndt, M.W., Rosenfield, M.J., Arndt, S.M., and Stevens, D.C., “Force Response During Tire Tread Detachment Event,” SAE Technical Paper No. 2004-011075, 2004, doi:10.4271/2004-01-1075. 5. Arndt, M.W., Rosenfield, M., Arndt, S.M., “Measurement of Changes to Vehicle Handling Due to Tread Separation Induced Axle Tramp,” SAE Technical Paper No. 2006-01-1680, 2006, doi:10.4271/2006-011680. 6. Fay, R.J., Robinette, R.D., Smith, J., Flood, T., and Bolden, G., “Drag and Steering Effects from Tire Tread Belt Separation and Loss,” SAE Technical Paper No. 1999-01-0447, 1999, doi:10.4271/1999-010447. 7. Baker, J.S., McIlraith, G. D., “Tire Disablements and Accidents on High-Speed Roads,” Committee on Highway Safety, 48th Annual Meeting. 8. Klein, E.Z., Black, T.L., “Anatomy of Accidents Following Tire Disablements,” SAE Technical Paper 1999-01-0446, doi:10.4271/1999-01-0446. 9. Tandy, D.F., Tandy, K.T., Durisek, N.J., Pascarella, R.J., Carr, L., Liebbe, R., “An Analysis of Yaw Inducing Drag Forces Imparted During Tire Tread Belt Detachments,” SAE Technical Paper 2007-01-0836, 2007, doi:10.4271/2007-01-0836. 10. Tandy, D.F., Granat, K.J., Tandy, K.T., Durisek, N.J., Baldwin, J.W., Pascarella, R.J., “Vehicle Response Comparison to Tire Tread Separations Induced by Circumferentially Cut Tires and Distressed Tires,” SAE Technical Paper No. 2007-01-0733, 2007, doi:10.4271/2007-01-0733. 11. Tandy, D.F., Pascarella, R., Ault, B.N., Coleman, C., Tandy, K., “Steering and Handling Performance During a Full Tire Tread Belt Separation,” SAE Technical Paper No. 2011-01-0973, 2011, doi:10.4271/201101-0973.
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12. Beauchamp, G., Koch, D., and Thornton, D., “A Comparison of 25 High Speed Tire Disablements Involving Full and Partial Tread Separations,” SAE Int. J. Tran. Safety, 1(2):364-385, 2013, doi:10.4271/201301-0776. 13. Tandy, D.F., Ault, B.N., Colborn, J., Pascarella, R., “Objective Measurement of Vehicle Steering and Handling Performance When a Tire Loses its Air,” SAE Technical Paper No. 2013-01-0748, 2013, doi:10.4271/2013-01-0748. 14. Bernard J.E., Shapley, C.G., “The Effect of Vehicle Design on Post Blowout Controllability,” SAE Technical Paper No. 791042, 1979, doi:10.4271/791042. 15. Michelin Tire co. (1987). The Critical Factor. Available online at: http://www.michelintruck.com/assets/ movies/The_Critical_Factor.mov. 16. R.L. Anderson, R.A. Nidley, G. McCormick, F. Russoniello, “Control of Large Commercial Vehicle Accidents Caused by Steer tire Failures – Final Report,” DOT Contract No. DOT-FH-11-8562, August 1975. 17. 17. Taborek, J.J., “Steering Forces and Stability,” Machine Design, June 27, 1957. 18. Sind-Prunier, P., Yohe, L.L., “Human Performance & Vehicle Group Chairmen’s Report of Operation Testing,” National Transportation Safety Board, 2007. 19. Cornetto, A., Bayan, F., Dunn, A., Tanner, C., Wahba, R., Suway, J., et al., “Tractor-Semitrailer Stability Following a Steer Axle Tire Blowout at Speed and Comparison to Computer Simulation Models,” SAE Technical Paper No. 2013-01-0795, 2013, doi:10.4271/2013-01-0795. 20. Forkenbrock, G.J., Elsasser D., “An Assessment of Human Driver Capability,” NHTSA Report No. DOT HS 809 875, June 2005. 21. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, “Large Truck and Bus Crash Facts 2015,” FMCSARRA-16-021, November 2016. 22. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, “Traffic Safety Facts 2015,” DOT HS 812 384, 2017.
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crash·ol·o·gy THE SCIENCE OF CRASHES Wesley Vandiver
Robert Anderson
Collision Forensics, Inc.
Biomechanics Analysis
Toyota Vehicle Control History - The Basics of What You Need to Know
S
ince their introduction in the 1990s, Event Data Recorders (EDRs) have become a common source of important data for those investigating or analyzing crash events. Unlike EDR recordings that are triggered as a result of an impact, Toyota Vehicle Control History (VCH) recordings are triggered by events other than impacts, such as driver behavior and activation of safety systems. In response to these triggers, the VCH acts much like a traditional EDR in that it reports pre-trigger data parameters (vehicle speed, etc.), but also reports posttrigger data parameters, that often provide fifteen seconds of data surrounding the triggering event. The VCH data becomes important in situations where EDR data may not be available, including noncontact situations, as well as low speed and low deltaV impacts, such as pedestrian and bicyclist collisions, which often do not qualify for an EDR recording. The VCH data can also add to an EDR report’s precrash data set. Example real-world cases when VCH data has proven useful are covered in the Toyota VCH Case Studies paper in this issue of Collision. As outlined in the Testing and Validation of Toyota VCH Speed and Acceleration Data paper in this issue of Collision, the Toyota VCH was first introduced to the vehicle crash forensics community at the 2014 CDR Summit by Dave Hallman, of Hallman Engineering. Published details regarding the Toyota VCH were provided by representatives from Toyota Motor Corporation and Toyota Motor North America in 2016 and 2019 SAE papers. 1,2 Figure 1 lists the model start year and production start date of each Toyota, Lexus, and Scion vehicle
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equipped with VCH. This coverage information was determined by the model year start and production date start for VCH listed in the Repair Manuals on Toyota Technical Information System (TIS). The VCH is a function that records control data (record data) when triggered by specific vehicle and driver behavior. The VCH is recorded in different storage areas designated by trigger group and it is possible to save records for up to a total of 140 triggers. If storage space is filled, the data is overwritten on a FirstIn, First-Out (FIFO) basis. Each trigger receives time information from the main body Electronic Control Unit (ECU), which is the time elapsed since the engine switch was turned on for the given ignition cycle. Absolute time may be recorded for vehicles with factory-installed navigation systems.1 Like EDR data, the VCH data are recorded in nonvolatile memory within the Airbag Control Module (ACM). VCH data can be retrieved using Toyota Techstream, but it cannot be cleared using this application and disconnecting power from the vehicle will also not result in VCH data loss. 1,2 In addition to VCH data, additional Pre-Collision System operational data (PCS-O) and image data (PCS-I) became generally available in 2017 with Toyota Safety Sense (TSS). Any images stored as the result of a specific trigger, such as Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB), are stored in the camera sensor nonvolatile electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM). Figure 2 shows an example of the multiple low-resolution images (15kb) that are stored in the forward-facing camera. 2
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Figure 1: Start of VCH coverage by production date and model year for Toyota, Lexus, and Scion vehicles Both the VCH and PCS data stored in the ACM, and the PCS image data stored in the camera sensor, can be retrieved using Techstream and a Vehicle Interface Module (VIM) such as the MongoosePro Toyota 2 cable [3], Nexiq USB-Link [4], or the Bosch CDR 900 [5]. The equipment set-up for obtaining VCH and PCS data through the DLC is shown in Figure 3. As shown in Figure 4, and in the Toyota VCH Case Studies paper in this issue of Collision, VCH data can also be obtained directly from an ACM (without connecting to the DLC) using Techstream, a VIM, and a newly-developed cable designed by Crash Data Specialists. Stored images cannot be obtained when using the direct-to-module
method because, as previously discussed, the images are not stored in the ACM. The Bosch Crash Data Retrieval System and many other EDR tools are read-only systems that can collect recorded data but do not erase or write new data. Techstream is primarily a read-only tool; however, it is possible to erase images stored in the camera memory. This process is outlined in Figures 5, 6, and 7, and is an important piece of information for an investigator examining a Toyota that has been subjected to a prior VCH download. For vehicles equipped with TSS 1.0, VCH data and PCS image recording is only triggered with AEB. For newer vehicles equipped with TSS 2.0, image recording has 6 dif-
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Ignition “Cycology” Understanding Ignition Cycles Kent E. Boots
A
bstract The majority of the vehicles supported with the Bosch Crash Data Retrieval (CDR) tool do not provide a date or time for recorded events in CDR reports. Most vehicles do however keep track of ignition cycles. The ignition cycles at the event and at investigation (data collection) are both part of the CDR report from many manufacturers even prior to 2013. Since 2013 each vehicle equipped with an EDR must record the ignition cycles at the crash and at the download (data collection). 1 The minimum range is 0 to 60,000 ignition 60 Collision Magazine - Volume 14 Issue 2
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cycles with an accuracy of +/- one cycle, and a resolution of one cycle. 2 Knowing how many ignition cycles there are at the event can be like a date stamp when you know the number of ignition cycles for a given vehicle per day. In most cases, first responders typically do not have any issues relating a CDR event to their crash.
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However, many times in civil cases investigators may not get vehicle access for months or even years after a crash. When there is a non-deployment (ND) event present, the question has to be answered as to whether or not the event data is related to the crash. It might not be as simple as saying the CDR data matches the circumstances of my crash so it must be related data. Definitions An ignition cycle is an incremental counter in the airbag control module (ACM) for the lifetime of the vehicle. The Bosch CDR Help file defines an ignition cycle as “Ignition power applied to and removed from the ACM.” It also defines “powered-up” as “the act of applying approximately 10V - 16VDC power source to the appropriate pins on a specific control module.” 3 The following definitions appear in the Bosch CDR Help file as well as NHTSA Part 563. 4,5 •
“Ignition Cycle, Crash means the number (count) of power cycles applied to the recording device up to and including the time when the crash event occurred since the first installation of the EDR. Also seen as “Ignition cycle at (event name).”
•
“Ignition Cycle, Download - The number of power cycles applied to the recording device at the time when the data was downloaded since the first installation or use of the EDR. Also seen as “ignition cycle at investigation.”
General Motors defines a power cycle as Off – Run – Crank – Run. 6 The ignition key is normally in the “Off” or lock position (See Figure 1). The driver turns the key to the “Run” or on position (See Figure 2). Then the driver turns the key to the “Crank” or start position until the engine is running (See Figure 3). The driver lets go of the key and it returns to the “Run” or on position (See Figure 2). When the driver reaches their destination, they turn the key to the “Off” or lock position (See Figure 1) which starts the next power cycle. Push-button start vehicles are similar in that the driver presses the button to turn the ignition from off to on, then to start the engine, and finally to turn the vehicle off. Example The author investigated a case where the driver alleged he was traveling on the freeway when his tire went flat, he lost control, and the vehicle went into a ditch. The driver is the original owner and there were no other reported losses with the vehicle. The vehicle was repaired and being driven prior to crash data being collected. There was one nondeployment event present. The pre-crash data was not
consistent with the driver’s statements. There were 3552 ignition cycles at the event, and 7251 ignition cycles at the investigation, a difference of 3699. With an average of 6 to 7 ignition cycles per day that gives a date range of January 25th to April 25th, 2015. This is over a year prior to the alleged loss on July 7th, 2016. It would take an average of 35 to 49 ignition cycles per day just to be in the month of July of 2016 and take an average of 37.4 ignition cycles per day to “match” the date. Background The CDR Software Help File has vehicle coverage notes that are specific to each Automobile Manufacturer. Starting in model year 2004 with the Chevrolet Malibu, the General Motors vehicle coverage notes included Note 6 which states, “A key is not required to image these vehicles through the DLC, so you can leave ignition off or on during imaging.” 7 Almost all currently CDR Tool supported General Motors vehicles, as of the 2020 model year, are Note 6 vehicles. Note 6 vehicles typically have two fuses that protect the ACM. One of the two fuses provides power to the ACM regardless of whether the ignition is on or not. Those fuses are sometimes labeled with the word “battery” in the description. The second fuse only provides power to the ACM when the ignition is turned on. Those fuses are sometimes labeled with the word “ignition” in the description. The ignition feed is a backup to a message from the CAN bus that the vehicle engine is running. Some newer Note 6 General Motors vehicles (e.g. 2016 Chevrolet Malibu) only have one fuse that protects the ACM. This single fuse provides power to the ACM regardless of whether the ignition is on or not. These vehicles (just like two-fuse Note 6 vehicles) require a power cycle and to receive a message from the CAN bus that the vehicle engine is running to increment the ignition cycle counter. Note 6 vehicles do not require the ignition switch to be turned on for data collection, but it can be. Whether the ignition is on or off, the process of Crash Data Retrieval will not add an ignition cycle. If data collection is conducted by going direct-to-module no ignition cycles are added either. The only way to increment the ignition cycles is by going through a power cycle as previously described. The author has an ACM (SDM40) from a 2016 Chevrolet Malibu with a deployment event. The data limitations from the CDR File states that applying and removing battery power will not increment the ignition cycle counter (See Figure 4). This supports the fact the author has imaged that particular ACM direct-to-module numerous times without incrementing the ignition cycle counter.
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Pedestrian Automatic Emergency Braking (P-AEB) And Its Use in Accident Reconstruction Alan Moore, P.E., ACTAR
A.B. Moore Forensic Engineering, inc.
A
dvanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) have advanced rapidly in production cars in recent years. In model year 2020, every major auto manufacturer has some level of ADAS functionality available in their vehicles. IIHS & HLDI predicted in 2018 that, by approximately 2022, 25% of vehicles on the road will be equipped with ADAS, specifically frontal crash prevention technology. With some risk of extrapolation, this implies that half of all two-vehicle crashes will include an ADAS component by 2022. Some evidence suggests that the adoption curve is moving faster than HLDI predicted. The future of accident reconstruction will include the need to understand and evaluate ADAS technology. Pedestrian Automatic Emergency Braking (P-AEB) is a combination of several technologies: •
Forward Collision Warning (FCW)
•
Brake Assist, or Dynamic Brake Support (DBS)
•
Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB)
•
Pedestrian Detection
Forward Collision Warning uses a windshield camera and/or radar to monitor objects ahead of the vehicle. When it detects a potential for impact with a Time To Collision (TTC) of less than approximately 3 seconds*, it may provide the driver with a collision warning consisting of visual (lights and displays), audible, and haptic (vibration or force) alerts. An interesting example of a haptic alert is the seat cushion vibration 72 Collision Magazine - Volume 14 Issue 2
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provided by some General Motors vehicles. Most pedestrian detection systems use a windshield-mounted camera, which allows an investigator a preliminary assessment of whether the vehicle is equipped with ADAS. Note the triangular opening(s) in the windshield frit (Figure 1), which is indicative of a camera. The square opening is a rain sensor. In many AEB-equipped vehicles, the Brake Assist function is enabled shortly after a collision warning is provided. Brake Assist, also known as Dynamic Brake Support, monitors the brake pedal travel and how quickly it is depressed. After it receives a collision warning and senses the driver depressing the brake pedal, Brake Assist quickly ramps up brake force to near the maximum braking capability1 of the vehicle.
Figure 2: Automatic Emergency Braking (in blue) compared to Brake Assist (in green) in a 2018 Toyota Camry.
If the driver does not respond to the collision warning, vehicles so equipped may engage Automatic Emergency Braking. This function autonomously applies the brakes without any driver involvement. An AEB engagement produces less deceleration than a Brake Assist engagement. In comparison to a Brake Assist engagement, autonomous AEB braking occurs later, ramps up slower, and uses a lower maximum acceleration (Figure 2 through 4). Sensing the pedestrian Before issuing a collision warning or initiating automatic braking, an ADAS-equipped vehicle must first identify and analyze potential hazards. To detect a pedestrian, a
Figure 1: Triangular opening(s) in the windshield frit is indicative of a windshield camera.
Figure 3: Brake Assist – driver applied brake after warning in Japan-spec Subaru Levorg, with Eyesight 32.
Figure 4. AEB braking – no driver involvement in Japan-spec Subaru Levorg, with Eyesight 32.
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Toyota Vehicle Control History
Case Studies David M. Hallman M.S., P.E., Robert D. Anderson M.S.,
Billy S. Cox Jr.
I
ntroduction Starting in vehicle Model Year 2013, Toyota quietly added a data recording feature to the Toyota Rav4 which collected a large amount of data based on a wide variety of possible trigger events defined by Toyota. Similar to EDR data, when a trigger event occurs, data preceding, and post trigger is captured and stored. This data cannot be manually erased but will eventually be overwritten by newer events as the write locations fill up. The recording time, frequency, number of data points captured, and number of events stored prior to overwrite depends
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on the type of event and is defined in the Toyota Information System (TIS) available by subscription through the Toyota Technical Information website. The data is stored in the airbag control module (ACM) and can be imaged through the DLC using the Toyota Tech Stream software, also available through www.TechStreamSupport.com for an annual fee. Since the introduction in the 2013 Rav4, this recording capability has been added to virtually all Toyota and Lexus models as well as one Scion model. Tables listing the production date and model years that VCH coverage began
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for each North American vehicle in the Toyota family of vehicles is included in crash·ol·o·gy in this issue of Collision (Vol 14, Issue 2). As this data has become widely available across all Toyota models, there are increasing opportunities to put this data to use as a reconstruction tool. This article will give an overview of seven case studies from the authors where the VCH data was utilized with and without EDR data to assist in determining the facts of, and reconstructing, a crash. The purpose of this article is to demonstrate some of the potential uses for this data as another tool for the reconstructionist’s toolbox. Vehicle Control History Case Study #1, Mercedes v. Camry A low speed rear-end impact is an example of a type of vehicle collision which may not be sufficient to qualify for
event recording. In this case study, a Toyota Camry was stopped and waiting to exit a parking lot when it was rearended by a Mercedes-Benz C-Class. According to the police report, it was daylight, the weather was clear, the roadway was dry, level and straight, and no unusual roadway conditions were noted. The vehicles were not disabled and both sustained only minor damage. The responding officer’s estimate for the impact speed was 2 mph. A crash scene diagram was not prepared. An aerial photograph of the accident site is shown in Figure 1. The Mercedes driver stated that her foot slipped off the brake pedal, and that she then idled forward and bumped the Toyota.
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High speed pedestrian collision and verification of car collision speed in pedestrian accidents based on biofidelic dummy injuries Annika Kortmann and Tim Hoger ecent studies have shown 1 that the construction and use of the biofidelic dummy leads to much more realistic vehicle damage in passenger car/pedestrian collisions than in collisions with conventional dummies. When comparing the longitudinal throwing distances of biofidelic and conventional dummies, no significant difference occurred in contrast to the damage caused to the passenger car. Often, when investigating pedestrian collisions with regard to the collision velocity, the pedestrian injuries remain disregarded. The relationship between collision speed and pedestrian injury characteristics was investigated on the basis of real accidents by Appel et. al. 2 Whether the biofidelic dummies present corresponding “injuries” in a collision as a function of the passenger car collision velocity can be checked by undergoing an “autopsy” on the dummy after the crash tests.
R
For this purpose, a series of crash tests were carried out with the biofidelic dummy from crashtest-service.com
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GmbH using the same vehicle model in the speed range from 28 to 109 kph. A collision speed of 109 kph represents the highest speed in currently available crash tests between passenger cars and pedestrians in relevant databases. Introduction Generally, the more indications available for resolving the course of events in car-pedestrian accidents, the more the results can be restricted. In accident reconstruction, the extent of the damage to the vehicle and, when present, the throwing distance of the pedestrian are used for determining the vehicle’s collision speed. The injuries of the pedestrian are often only taken into account in regard to the impact direction, and where appropriate, in cooperation with forensic scientists. The relationship between collision speed and injury characteristics according to Appel et. al.2 offers information on the injuries of the pedestrian which likewise provides the possibility to estimate the collision speed.
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This is particularly interesting at lower vehicle velocities, since there is no or very little damage occurring to the vehicle, whereas the pedestrian can bear severe injuries as a result.
available crash tests. Up to a collision speed of about 80 kph, corresponding crash test attempts and the evaluation of throwing distance of pedestrians exist in relevant databases.
The crash test series with several VW Polo 6R and the biofidelic dummy 1 have shown that the conventional dummies presented weaknesses due to its hard construction and the restricted rigid mobility, also the damage caused to the vehicle and the movement sequence of the pedestrian during the collision was not realistically represented. Through the dynamic separation of the biofidelic dummy during the collision extensive damage occurred which can also be observed in real accidents.
To also be able to provide information in the high speed range (v > 100 kph), as part of an expert seminar by crashtest-service.com GmbH, the crash test series with the VW Polo 6R and the biofidelic dummy was supplemented with a collision speed of 109 kph. Thus, the relationship between passenger car damages and pedestrian injuries be can extended. Additionally, it is possible to check whether at high collision speeds the postulate tears according to Appel et. al. 2 between the leg and torso also occurs to the biofidelic dummy. Similarly to the previous crash test series, the dummy was also impacted laterally in the high speed crash test. The point of impact on the passenger car was situated in the centre of the bonnet, figure 1.
Originally, the biofidelic dummy was developed as a pedestrian surrogate in order to realistically reconstruct the damage to the vehicle in a collision. Furthermore, the construction of the biofidelic dummies 3 (due to the achievable production accuracy) offers the possibility, for the first time, to reproduce the pedestrian injuries from a collision. Taking into account the damage to both vehicles, for example in a crash attempt recreating a passenger car versus passenger car collision, the solution of the road traffic accident appears to be obvious. This is now also possible for passenger car/pedestrian collisions by means of a subsequent examination of the biofidelic dummy. Supplement to the crash series VW Polo impacting a biofidelic dummy in the high speed range The passenger car collision velocity could be further and more precisely restricted with the increasing amount of
Changes in the rolling behaviour of the pedestrian in high speed attempts The rolling movement of a pedestrian in a collision with a passenger car is known, as shown in the side view in figure 2 in individual images. The crash attempt shows a biofidelic dummy, which was laterally impacted at a velocity of 80 kph. The rolling behaviour of the dummy begins when the dummy is positioned with the hips almost half way between the vehicle front and the lower edge of the windscreen. A typical lateral shearing movement of the head occurs in the direction of the windscreen.
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Testing and Validation of Toyota Vehicle Control History Speed and Acceleration DatA
I
Robert D Anderson
Wesley Vandiver
Biomechanics Analysis
Collision Forensics, Inc.
ntroduction
Unlike traditional Event Data Recorders (EDRs), which have become a vital source of information for those analyzing collisions, the Toyota Vehicle Control History (VCH) can include data recorded from a number of events/triggers that are not collision related. Acquiring VCH data involves different procedures than acquiring traditional EDR data, but yields some familiar data elements, including vehicle speed, engine RPM, accelerator pedal percentage, etc. A series of instrumented tests were conducted to examine the potential data available from the VCH, and the accuracy of speed and acceleration data 102 Collision Magazine - Volume 14 Issue 2
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obtained. VCH data from a dozen different trigger types was obtained and evaluated, and some best practices became apparent to assist an investigator in evaluating and explaining recovered data. Toyota has been one of the most forthcoming manufacturers with its EDR data in terms of historical coverage and the volume of data available to investigators. In addition, Toyota recognized the importance of recording vehicle behavior and driver operations leading up to crashes and non-crash events, such as evasive maneuvers, aggressive driving, and crashes that do not qualify for an EDR recording, such as pedestrian and low speed impacts.
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The recording of VCH data began with the 2013 RAV4 and 2014 Highlander. This feature has subsequently been added to virtually all Toyota and Lexus models, and one Scion model. Tables listing the production date and model years that VCH coverage began for each North American vehicle in the Toyota family of vehicles is included in crash·ol·o·gy in this issue of Collision (Vol 14, Issue 2). VCH was first introduced to the forensic automobile crash community by Dave Hallman at the 2014 CDR User’s Summit.[1] Two years later, Iyoda et al. outlined Toyota Motor Corporation’s EDR program which began to be applied to its vehicles in August 2000. In addition to crash triggered recordings of the now familiar EDR, non-crash triggered event recording in the VCH was outlined.[2]
Xing et al. investigated the accuracy of vehicle speed and longitudinal acceleration data in the VCH of a 2017 Corolla during Autonomous Emergency Braking (AEB). It was found that vehicle speed was consistently underreported, but was generally within 2 kph of the actual speed, and that speed errors increased with the level of braking. The average longitudinal accelerometer error was -0.006 g’s and the sensor saturated so that its minimum reading was -0.91 g’s.[3] Lewis et al. from Toyota Motor North America and Toyota Motor North America Inc. presented VCH data and images obtained from AEB testing with a 2017 Corolla. The testing was performed to demonstrate the usefulness of the data. Although external instrumentation for comparison was not used, it was observed that the VCH recorded data was consistent with the testing conditions.[4]
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