Citizenship Today Revised 4th Edition

Contents How to use this book

5

Theme A Living together in the UK 1.1

What is a community?

8

1.12 Human rights in the UK

30

1.2

Where are your roots?

10

1.13 Political rights

32

1.3

Religious understanding

12

1.14 Legal rights

34

1.4

What’s happening to the UK population?

14

1.15 Fair play at work

36

1.5

Migration: the pros and cons

16

1.16 Protecting the customer

38

1.6

What is identity?

18

1.17 Rights with responsibilities

40

1.7

Mutual respect and communities

20

1.18 Human rights: checks and balances

42

1.8

Meeting barriers

22

1.19 Who represents us?

44

1.9

Discrimination and the law

24

1.20 How does the council work?

46

1.10 Developing mutual understanding

26

1.21 What does the council do?

48

1.11 What are human rights?

28

1.22 Bringing it all together

50

Theme B Democracy at work in the UK 2.1

Getting elected

56

2.6

How are laws made?

66

2.2

Does everyone’s vote count?

58

2.7

Apart or together?

68

2.3

Who shall I vote for?

60

2.8

How are we governed?

70

2.4

Into power

62

2.9

Balancing the budget

72

2.5

Forming a government

64

2.10 Bringing it all together

74

Theme C How the law works 3.1

What’s the point of law?

80

3.7

What sort of sentence?

92

3.2

What is law?

82

3.8

Young people and the justice system

94

3.3

Criminal and civil law: what’s the difference?

84

3.9

What’s happening to crime?

96

3.4

Who puts the law into practice?

86

3.10 How can we reduce crime?

98

3.5

Criminal courts

88

3.11 The law: a citizen’s responsibilities and rights 100

3.6

Solving civil disputes

90

3.12 Bringing it all together

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Theme D Power and influence 4.1

Playing your part in democracy

108

4.14 The media: investigation and scrutiny

134

4.2

Playing a political role

110

4.15 People, pressure groups and the media

136

4.3

Putting on the pressure

112

4.16 What is Europe?

138

4.4

Making a difference

114

4.17 After Brexit

140

4.5

Getting out the vote

116

4.18 The Commonwealth

142

4.6

Digital democracy

118

4.19 The United Nations

144

4.7

Does your vote count?

120

4.20 The UN at work

146

4.8

Supporting society

122

4.21 NATO: what it is and what it does

148

4.9

Trade unions and the protection of people at work 124

4.22 The World Trade Organization

150

4.23 International justice

152

4.10 What is the media?

126

4.24 Who can help?

154

4.11 Why should the press be free?

128

4.25 Conflict: what can the UK do?

156

4.12 The media: informing or influencing?

130

4.26 Bringing it all together

158

4.13 Legal, decent, honest and truthful?

132

Theme E Taking Citizenship action 5.1

Choosing your action

164

5.7

Developing your skills: advocacy

176

5.2

Carrying out research

166

5.8

Developing your skills: the message

178

5.3

Whose point of view?

168

5.9

Developing your skills: protesting

180

5.4

Planning your action

170

5.10 Participation in action

182

5.5

Developing your skills: teamwork

172

5.11 The impact of your action

184

5.6

Developing your skills: questionnaires

174

5.12 Bringing it all together

186

Glossary Index

189 194

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1.4 What’s happening to the UK population?

1 Make a list of the way the government will have to support these children as they grow up and grow old.

2 People are living longer, so what problem does this cause for the government?

Is the population growing?

Is the population ageing?

England and Wales population (millions)

Theme A: Living together in the UK

Getting you thinking

59.6 56.1 52.0 49.9 48.7 1971

48.5 1981

England and Wales population in millions

1991

2001

2011

2021

Source: Office for National Statistics

The UK population has grown steadily throughout history.

Many babies used to die at a young age in the early 20th century. Today the survival rate is much higher.

People used to die much earlier than most people do today. This is because most people now have a better diet and better healthcare.

The size of the population has also been affected by world events. The pyramid graph shows the number of males and females in each age group in 2021. A lot of babies were born in the years after the Second World War. These people are now all heading for age 80. You can see that the bars showing 70–79 year olds are longer than you might expect.

At the beginning of the 21st century, the number of babies fell, and then rose again. In recent years there has been another fall – as you can see from the shorter lines for the Under 9s.

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If more babies are being born than the number of people who die, the average age of the population will fall. If it is the other way round, the average age will rise and the population will be ageing. As medical care improves, people are living longer. If the population is ageing, the bars at the top of the pyramid graph will grow longer. One third of people born today can expect to live to 100.

An ageing population generally means that there are more people with disabilities. The government has to work out how to pay for more pensions, healthcare and looking after older people.

United Kingdom – 2021 90+ 80–99 70–79 60–69 50–69 40–49 30–39 20–29 10–19 0–9 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 Age Males (millions) Females (millions) group Source: Office for National Statistics

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You will explore the changes that are taking place in the structure of the UK. population.

After the Second World War, the UK was short of people to work in the health service and other jobs. People were encouraged to come from the West Indies and other Commonwealth countries to take up these roles.

As a member of the European Union (EU), the UK agreed that people could move freely from one EU country to another. Since the UK left the EU, immigrants come from the rest of the world rather than the EU.

What’s causing the change?

Since 1971 the population of the UK has grown by over 10 million people. Most of this growth has happened since 2001.

Why do people want to come to the UK?

There are two main factors that cause a change in the size of the population.

People have many reasons for wanting to come to live in the UK. They generally fall into one of the following categories.

1 Life expectancy If people live longer and more babies survive, the population will grow.

• Economic migrants come because they are looking for a better life. They want to find work and support themselves and their families.

2 Migration The number of immigrants coming into the country and the number of emigrants who go to live in other countries will affect the size of the UK population. As you found out on page 10, there has always been migration into the UK. As the numbers rise and fall, the total number of people in the country will be affected.

• Refugees come because they have been forced to leave their country in order to escape war, persecution or natural disaster.

• Asylum seekers come because they want to put in a request to be allowed to stay here because they are refugees. Their claim will be assessed and will be accepted if they are considered to be genuine refugees.

Check your understanding

Action

1 What is happening to the size of the UK population?

2 Why is it changing?

3 What effect will the change in age structure have on the country?

4 Since the Second World War, which areas have people come from?

5 What different groups of people want to come to live in the UK?

Use a search engine to find ‘ONS UK population pyramid interactive’. Look carefully at the data and compare where you live with a different sort of place. Look at expected future changes too.

Key terms

1.4 What’s happening to the UK population?

Where have the migrants come from?

Another point of view ‘We should welcome everyone who is escaping war, persecution or disaster.’

asylum seeker: someone who says he or she is a refugee, but whose claim has not yet been definitively evaluated Commonwealth: a voluntary group of independent countries, some of which were former British colonies economic migrant: a person who travels from one country or area to another in order to improve their standard of living European Union: a group of 27 countries which work together in fields such as the environment, social issues, the economy and trade refugee: a person who has been forced to leave their country in order to escape war, persecution, or natural disaster

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2.2 Does everyone’s vote count?

Theme B: Democracy at work in the UK

Getting you thinking

At the general election in 2019, there was a big difference in the percentage of votes cast for each party and the percentage of seats won. The votes and the 650 seats in the UK Parliament were allocated as shown in the table.

1 Does this seem fair?

2 Approximately how many seats should each party have if the votes were allocated fairly?

3 Can you think of a way that would be fairer and ensure that everyone’s vote counts?

Which voting system?

First-past-the-post As you learned on page 57, first-past-the-post (FPTP) is used in UK general elections. It has both advantages and disadvantages.

The advantages of FPTP are: • Extremist parties are unlikely to be elected as they won’t be able to win enough votes in any one constituency.

• The result becomes clear very quickly, so the winning party can take over government as soon as the election is over.

The disadvantages of FPTP are: • The number of votes cast for a party does not reflect the number of seats won. A party can win an election with a minority of the votes.

• Smaller parties tend to win few seats because they don’t have enough support in each constituency.

• People may vote tactically to keep a party out rather than for the party they believe in.

Party

Votes won (%)

Seats won (%)

Seats won

43.6 32.2 3.9 11.5 2.7

56.2 31.1 7.4 2 1

365 203 48 11 1

Conservative Labour SNP Lib Dems Green

Proportional representation Proportional representation (PR) means that the number of seats a party wins is roughly proportional to the number of votes it receives in an election.

There are many different sorts of PR, but they all work in this way. In the simplest example, you have a large constituency and a list of candidates. You might vote for the candidate or the list, but each vote counts.

The advantages of PR are: • No votes are wasted.

• The number of seats the parties win reflects the percentage of votes cast for each party.

The disadvantages of PR are: • It is difficult to stand as an independent candidate.

• The party can draw up the list of candidates so only people who agree with the powerful people in a party will be elected. This is not good for democracy.

• The elected MP has no local link in a big constituency.

• Small parties can have unfair power over the larger parties by threatening to withdraw from a coalition.

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You will learn about the advantages and disadvantages of different voting systems.

In the 2019 election, the Conservative Party had a big majority under the first-past-the-post electoral system. Under proportional representation, there would not have been an overall majority.

Seats under first-past-the-post

Conservative

Labour

Lib Dems

Green Party

Seats under D’Hondt method of proportional representation

SNP

Plaid Cymru

There are several difference types of proportional representation.

This example uses the D’Hondt method, which is used in much of the European Union. It is a type of closed-list system in which the parties put forward a list of candidates who are selected in order. It helps smaller parties gain representation because the constituencies are larger and votes for these parties are rewarded with seats. The Liberal Democrats and the Green Party would both have gained in this system.

The ballot paper shows the parties’ names and lists their candidates.

Any independent candidates are listed at the end. The voter puts a cross next to the party or independent candidate they wish to vote for.

Party

Seats under FPTP at the 2019 General Election 365

Seats under proportional representation

Labour

203

216

Lib Dems

11

70

Green

1

12

SNP

48

28

Plaid Cymru

4

4

Conservative

Key terms

2.2 Does everyone’s vote count?

What difference would proportional representation make?

Check your understanding 1 What does FPTP stand for?

2 What does PR stand for?

3 What are the advantages and disadvantages of FPTP? 4 What are the advantages and disadvantages of PR? 5 Which parties would have gained and which would have lost if PR had been used in the 2019 election?

6 Why would there not have been an overall majority for one party?

228

Another point of view ‘Proportional representation must be used for all UK elections.’

closed-list system: a form of PR in which a party puts forward a list of candidates in the order they will be elected proportional representation: electoral systems which attempt to match the number of seats with the number of votes

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2.7 Apart or together?

Theme B: Democracy at work in the UK

Getting you thinking Here are two views on Scotland’s independence.

Yes!

No!

‘A “Yes” vote means we can choose to have power over our country’s future – and make Scotland a better place to live for all of us.

‘A “No” vote will mean a better future for my kids. They will have more job opportunities and better funding for schools and hospitals.

Even our opponents agree that Scotland has what it takes to be a successful independent country. An independent Scotland would be among the 20 wealthiest nations in the world. But we need independence to make that wealth work better for the people who live here by creating more and better jobs.’

Most people I have talked to think that devolution has been a success. The decisions made in Scotland are guaranteed because of our links with England. There is the power to raise money for our NHS, to help people back to work, and look after welfare. We can have progress in Scotland without the risks of separation.’

1 Set out the two arguments for and against Scottish independence.

2 What is the difference between devolution and independence?

3 Do you think Scotland should become independent?

Devolution The Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly were both set up following referenda in 1998. There had been lengthy campaigns for devolution in both countries. People wanted devolution because it shifted some power and authority from London to their own capital cities. The Welsh Assembly became the Welsh Parliament in 2020.

The extent to which power is shared with Westminster varies according to the strength of the vote in the referendum in each country.

The Scottish Parliament chamber

In the referendum on devolution, Scotland voted strongly for its Parliament. In 2014, another referendum was held. This time it asked whether Scotland should have independence. This was narrowly lost. As a result, the Scottish Parliament was given further powers.

The powers of the Scottish Parliament: • agriculture, forestry and fisheries • consumer advocacy and advice • economic development • education and training • elections to the Scottish Parliament and local government • environment • freedom of information

• health and social services • housing • justice, policing and fire service • local government • sport and the arts • tourism.

Some aspects of: • taxation and benefits • energy • equality legislation • transport.

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You will explore the changing views on devolution and independence in the UK. 2.7 Apart or together?

The Welsh Parliament chamber The Welsh voted by a narrow margin of 0.6 per cent for devolution.

The Welsh Parliament can spend the UK government’s allocation of money to Wales, but it cannot set taxes and has limited law-making powers. Its powers now cover: • agriculture, fisheries, forestry and rural development • culture • economic development • education and training • environment

• • • • •

health and health services highways and transport local government tourism Welsh language.

Northern Ireland’s Assembly was set up in 1998 but has often been suspended because of disagreement among Irish politicians. The current Assembly has powers to control education, health, local government, policing and justice.

There are calls for regional assemblies in the rest of the UK too. Many people in regions such as Cornwall feel that their part of the country is distinctive and has different needs from the rest of the UK. People in the North East, however, rejected the idea when a referendum was held. The cost of running a regional assembly was one factor in their decision.

As calls for devolution have grown stronger in Cornwall, new powers have been granted to the county. It now has control over adult skills and regional investment. Health and social services have been brought together and it organises bus services.

Check your understanding

Action

1 What is the purpose of a referendum? When is one held?

The Scottish referendum on independence resulted in the decision to stay in the UK. There was, however, still pressure for change. Check up on what is happening and how the powers of the Scottish Parliament are changing.

2 What is devolution?

4 What’s the difference in the amount of power held by the Scottish Parliament and the Welsh Parliament?

5 Why do some Scottish people want independence?

Another point of view

6 Why do some people want to have regional governments?

‘Devolution means that better decisions are made for a region because they are made locally.’

Key terms

Assembly: a body of people elected to decide on some areas of spending in a region devolution: the transfer of power from central to regional government

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4.16 What is Europe?

Theme D: Power and influence

Getting you thinking Objectives Democracy

46 member states

Human rights The rule of law

27 member states

To promote peace and the well-being of EU citizens.

To offer EU citizens freedom, security and justice, without internal borders.

To work towards the sustainable development of Europe, promoting equality and social justice.

To establish an economic union, with the euro as its currency.

1 All the information above refers to the European Union or the Council of Europe. Work out which are which.

The Council of Europe The Council of Europe was founded after the Second World War. It aims to protect democracy, human rights and the rule of law. Most European countries are members. The UK is currently a member.

You learned about this on pages 30 and 31. The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) in Strasbourg deals with cases brought by individuals, groups or states who believe their rights have been infringed.

It created The European Convention on Human Rights.

No member state has the death penalty.

What does it do?

The Council of Europe monitors democracy, human rights and the rule of law in member countries and recommends changes when necessary. Here are some examples of its activities.

Advocates freedom of expression and of the media, freedom of assembly, equality and the protection of minorities.

Campaigns on issues such as child protection, online hate speech, and the rights of the Roma, Europe’s largest minority.

CoE Helps member states fight corruption and terrorism and undertake necessary judicial reforms.

Promotes human rights through international conventions, such as the Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence and the Convention on Cybercrime.

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You will explore what it means to be a member of the European Union.

When the European Union (EU) was formed in 1957, it was an which have applied to join. The UK left at the end of January economic community. Over the years, it has taken on a wider 2020. role and has now become a more political, social union.

Some member countries use the euro as their currency. It The EU has a Parliament. Its members are elected by each makes trade and travel more straightforward but also means country and it makes laws that all EU countries must follow. that countries must keep their economies in line to keep the There are currently 27 members and several more countries euro stable.

4.16 What is Europe?

The European Union

The single market The single market means that people, money and trade have free movement within the EU. This means that there need to be laws and regulations to make sure that competition between countries is fair.

EU citizens can live and work anywhere in the EU.

There are no taxes when products are sold from one country to another. Taxes on trade are called tariffs.

The EU has rules and regulations about standards of production so countries trade fairly with each other.

Single market

There are laws which protect people at work.

The EU makes policies that apply to member countries relating to things like fishing, agriculture and trade. The EU also negotiates agreements on these issues with countries outside the EU.

There are laws about governments supporting industry.

Check your understanding

Another point of view

1 What are the aims of the Council of Europe?

‘There’s no need for two organisations in Europe. One would do.’

2 How does it promote and protect these aims?

Action

3 What is the European Union? How has it changed over the years?

4 What is a single market? How does it work?

5 What is the European currency called?

Key terms

1 Find out which European countries are not members of the Council of Europe.

2 Some people in the UK think the country should withdraw from the Council of Europe, the European Convention on Human Rights and the European Court of Human Rights. Find out whether there has been any change in the UK’s status with these organisations.

member state: a country that is a member of the EU single market: a group of countries trading with each other without restrictions or tariffs

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4.17 After Brexit Theme D: Power and influence

Getting you thinking Fishing

Migration

Fact: Boats from EU countries will be allowed to fish in UK waters until 2026. There will be a gradual fall in the amount they are allowed to catch. After 2026 there will be negotiations each year to decide how the catch is shared out.

Fact: The same rules apply to migrants from the EU as from the rest of the world. They will need a visa.

Trade-off: Most of the catch is sold to Europe, so the EU might decide to tax imports from the UK or ban British boats from EU waters if it thinks its fishing industry is being badly treated.

Trade-off: The number of migrants has changed little. Highly trained people with skills from non-EU countries have replaced low-skilled, poorly paid people.

Trade Fact: The trade deal between the UK and means that there are no tariffs or quotas on goods that are made in the UK. A lot more paperwork is needed for everything that goes from the UK to the EU. Trade-off: The quantity of exports to the EU has changed little but exports by small firms has fallen considerably.

Travel Fact: A passport will no longer be enough to travel to EU countries.

You will have to pay for an ETIAS. It will last for three years. On entry into an EU country, you will have to provide fingerprints and have your photograph taken.

Trade-off: The ETIAS will make EU borders more secure as travellers can be tracked. It should reduce crime and terrorism.

1 Who are the winners and losers in each category?

After Brexit When the UK left the EU there were many changes to the relationship between the two. EU law had been incorporated into UK law. Quality standards for everything manufactured across Europe were the same. The laws about the way people were treated at work were the same. People and products could move freely from one country to another. Relationships

with the rest of the world were the same. The UK is now in the process of adapting to the different situation and politicians are starting to change laws to meet the different demands of the electorate.

The following sections sum up some of the changes being made.

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You will investigate how people and organisations in the UK are affected by European Union regulations.

• From 2021 to 2026, EU boats will need a licence to continue to fish in UK waters.

• After 2026, the UK will have the right to completely ban EU boats. Much of the fish caught in UK waters is sold to EU countries so the UK needs to maintain a good relationship.

• In the same period, UK fishing boats will get an increasing Fishing boat owners would like the British to eat more share of the fish caught in UK waters. After that, there will fish as this would give the industry more power as they be annual negotiations to decide how the catch is shared wouldn’t be so dependent on sales to the EU. out between the UK and EU.

Migration • People from member countries of the EU can live and work freely in the other countries. There is no need for visas or work permits. Since the UK left the EU, this no longer applies to UK citizens.

• EU citizens wanting to move to the UK need a visa and face the same points-based system as people from anywhere else in the world. These rules do not apply to people who live in the Republic of Ireland.

• A visa applicant needs 70 points to be successful. The table shows the main factors necessary to achieve the points.

• UK citizens wanting to live or work in an EU country need a work permit in most countries, but not Ireland. In most cases, they will need a job offer from their chosen country to get a visa to move there.

Points-based immigration system You must have: A job offer 20 points Job at middle skill level or above 20 points English language skills 10 points You may have: Salary £23 040 10 points Salary £25 600 20 points Salary £20 480 20 points For an eligible post in health or education: Job in shortage occupation 20 points New entrant to the labour market 20 points

Trade

Travel

• The free movement of goods, persons, services and capital between the UK and the EU ended when the UK left the EU. The UK left the EU Customs Union and the single market.

Northern Ireland is, however, still part of the single market.

• Non-EU citizens will need to pay for an ETIAS to enter the EU. Have a look at ‘Getting you thinking’.

• On leaving the EU, a trade deal was agreed. There are no tariffs or quotas on products that originate in the UK. There can, however, be long delays at the border because all exports need a detailed customs declaration, which has to be checked.

• After the UK left the EU, the government has concentrated on agreeing new trade agreements in order to cut or end tariffs with a number of countries beyond the EU.

4.17 After Brexit

Fishing

• Travellers wishing to take a pet abroad will have to get it microchipped and vaccinated against rabies at least 21 days before travel.

• If you come from the UK and plan to stay in most countries of the EU for more than 90 days in any 180-day period you will need a visa. This does not include travel to Ireland.

• When you travel to the EU, you cannot take products containing meat or dairy with you. Picnics for the journey must be planned carefully.

Check your understanding

Action

What changes took place in the following areas when the UK left the EU? • fishing • trade • migration • travel

Select one of the four topics covered here and check whether there have been any recent changes.

Another point of view ‘The UK is better off outside/inside the EU.’

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