Scholars' Journal 2022

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Scholars’ Journal 2022 A selection of articles written by our Scholars

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Scholars’ Journal 2022 Introduction The 2022 Scholars’ Journal showcases the diverse interests of our Academic Scholars in First to Sixth Form. Since September, they have each pursued independent research into a topic of their choosing, exploring issues and ideas that stretch beyond the curriculum.

A global outlook is evident in many of the published pieces. From racial discrimination in the American legal system to methodologies of Japanese theatre, the Scholars have readily examined the world beyond Cokethorpe’s boundaries, demonstrating a lively engagement with pressing contemporary issues. Whether concerned with philosophy, politics, science or arts, their articles model the thoughtful consideration of new ideas and perspectives that is the cornerstone of the School’s academic culture.

We hope you enjoy reading their work.

Dr S Harrison and Dr C Oldham

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Contents The Scholars’ Journal is a collection of articles created by pupils from First Form to Lower Sixth Form.

The articles combine a selection of work across a wide range of disciplines.

Arts

6-17

What are the Social and Environmental impacts of Fast Fashion?

Nancy Christensen - Fourth Form What are the Different Types of Traditional Japanese Theatre and How Has Tadashi Suzuki Modernised Them to Widen Their Appeal?

Dylan Morris - Sixth Form How Did Nietzsche Influence Béla Tarr's 'The Turin Horse'?

Yichao Sun - Sixth Form How Has Music Been Used in Warfare?

Jamie Wehrle - Sixth Form ‘Drop-dead Gorgeous’: How Do Illness and Beauty Intersect?

Claudia Woods-Cano - Sixth Form

Humanities

18-41

In What Way is There a Racial Bias Towards the Death Penalty in the United States of America?

Danny Arbuckle - Sixth Form To What Extent is Hosting an Olympic Games Beneficial to a Nation’s Economy?

Gemma Croker - Sixth Form To What Extent is China a Developing Country?

Will Hansen - Third Form What Would be the Impacts of a Cashless Society?

Ollie Herbert - Second Form Can Countries Justify Maintaining Their Nuclear Arsenals?

Joe Norman - Third Form Havana Syndrome - Unexplained or Unbelievable?

Ben Orton - Sixth Form What Are the Effects of Psychopathy and How Dangerous Can Psychopaths Be to Society?

Zoe Robertson - Third Form What Would Happen to Earth if All Humans Suddenly Vanished?

Liam Rowe - Second Form What Drives Us to Lie? Caellum Sharp - Fourth Form Is America Still the World’s Greatest Superpower?

Archie Wilkinson - Fourth Form

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Languages and Literature

42-53

STEM

54-77

Is Cancel Culture Stifling Creativity in Young Adult Literature?

Emmeline Black - Second Form What is the Value of Studying Modern Languages?

Monty Bolton - Fourth Form To What Extent Did the Romantic Poets Influence Society at the Time They Were Writing?

Ella Cripps - Sixth Form Why Did Orwell Use the Allegorical Form to Critique Communism in Animal Farm?

Sam Farr - Fourth Form To What Extent do the 2021 Nobel Peace Prize Winners Promote Peace?

Finn van Landeghem - Fourth Form How and Why do Writers use Allegory in Their Work?

Oscar Luckett - Fourth Form

Exploring Organic Architecture’s Effect on a Building’s Sustainability Lucas Bennett - Sixth Form Are There Benefits to Gaming?

Archie Clarke - Third Form In What Ways Did Niels Bohrs Discoveries on the Atomic Structure Influence the World of Physics?

Freya Coughlan - Sixth Form What Effect Does Mathematics Have on Gymnastics?

Eva Graves - First Form Why are White Rhinos So Vulnerable to Poaching?

Luella Hickey -First Form What is WENERGY and How Can it Combat Climate Change?

George Keates - Fourth Form Are Concerns About the Safety of the COVID-19 Vaccines Justified?

Alex May - Second Form What Causes Allergies and How Are They Related to Other Conditions?

Simran Panesar - Fourth Form To What Extent Has the Lack of Inclusion of Women in Clinical Trials Impacted Our Current Understanding of Their Cardiological Health?

Amelia Pratley - Sixth Form To What Extent do Animal Markings Provide Protection Against Predators?

Rebecca Waite - Sixth Form

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Arts

What are the Social and Environmental impacts of Fast Fashion?

Nancy Christensen, Fourth Form, Swift House.

F

ast Fashion is a very current issue with its many social and environment impacts on the planet. Fast Fashion can be defined as extremely cheap clothing that is produced rapidly to keep up with seasonal trends to meet customer demands.

It has become one of the world’s largest polluters with overproduction and consumption levels rising. However, there are differences that can be made by individuals to reduce the negative effects on our world.

The main issue with Fast Fashion is the environmental impacts such as greenhouse gas emissions from landfill. Around 10% of gases like methane and carbon dioxide are released into the atmosphere from only the fashion industry.

Certain fabrics, for example lycra and polyester, can take up to 200 years to decompose. They are cheap to manufacture and difficult to decompose making them tempting for companies to use. As well as this, the fashion industry is the second most water intensive industry in the world. To put things into perspective, one pair of jeans requires at least 7,500 litres of water to be produced.

Another concern of Fast Fashion to be raised is the social impact. Factories are typically based in less developed countries where regulations and

rules on manufacturing are not as strict. These environments are dangerous for employees as they are spending long hours breathing in toxic substances and there are risks of diseases, injuries or fires. In the worst situations, clothing workers may also receive verbal and physical abuse. For example, Radhika, a female employee working for H&M reported her previous experiences of mistreatment explaining how she had been harassed by her supervisor for not meeting the production expectations. Many women from Dhaka, Bangladesh and Indonesia who could be mothers of many children may be forced to work 14-16 hours a day, 7 days a week only to be paid less than a living wage and unable to properly provide for their family.

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Bangladesh is one of the largest producers in the garment industries with factories spread all over and particularly in Dhaka. Its growth in the fashion sector has grown and improved rapidly over the last decade. The devastating event of the Rana Plaza factory collapsing in 2013 that took thousands of lives was a turning point as it raised the problems in working conditions and the safety of employees. The series of catastrophic events meant actions were made by the RMG sustainability council to shut down hundreds of unsafe factories and make investments in scaling up other safer environments. Once the changes were made, Bangladesh became a more attractive country for major retailers to work with as is shown in their increase in exports from 14.6 billion dollars in 2011 to 33.1 billion dollars in 2019.

It could be argued that the most important message is the differences customers can make to reduce the amount of clothes they consume and discard. Buying clothes can be seen as part of a chain system where they are being continuously used and passed on. Shopping second hand is a simple change; the most unique clothes are often ones that are vintage or renewal. Rewearing clothes as much as possible may mean buying items that are more timeless and will therefore last longer in your wardrobe. Similarly,

creating a capsule wardrobe, which is where only a few items of clothing can be put together to make many different outfits, results in less consumption. After plenty of wear from clothing items, the following step consists of either donating them to charity shops, giving them to friends, or putting them in the recycling clothing bins that can be found in carparks. Making the switch from buying cheap fabrics that take years to decompose unlike materials such as cotton or wool that only take 6 months to decompose. This can all be gathered on the clothing tag of an item or even the price.

Many ideas can be taken away on how to prevent the toxic system of Fast Fashion. Before purchasing a trendy item of clothing at an unbelievable price, it is important to consider and recognise the negative effects. There are ways to find an equivalent item in a more sustainable way.

References:

Get Green Now (2019). Environmental Impact of Fast Fashion Available at: https://get-green-now.com/environmental-impact-fast-fashion/ Lai, O. (2021). EARTH.ORG. What is Fast Fashion? Available at: https://earth. org/what-is-fast-fashion/ Rauturier, S. (2022). What Is Fast Fashion and Why Is It So Bad? Available at: https://goodonyou.eco/what-is-fast-fashion/

Arts

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What are the Different Types of Traditional Japanese Theatre and How Has Tadashi Suzuki Modernised Them to Widen Their Appeal?

Dylan Morris, Sixth Form, Vanbrugh House.

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apanese theatre has entrenched traditions stretched back for centuries. There are long-established ways of performing and a limited repertoire, which traditionalists are determined to preserve as purely as possible. Tadashi Suzuki has taken a different approach, wanting to create a new form of Japanese theatre for the modern age which breaks down barriers and makes it more accessible to international audiences outside Japan.

There are several forms of tradition Japanese theatre: Noh (能, Nō) Japan’s most famous art form is Noh, one of the oldest forms of theatre in the world which traces its roots to the 14th century. It was popularised in the Muromachi Period (1333-1573) by a man called Zeami. His impressive work attracted the government’s patronage, under which he wrote 90 of the 230 Noh plays in existence, making him the greatest playwright and theorist of Noh theatre. During the Edo Period (16031876), the Tokugawa Shogunate made Noh its official ceremonial art. It issued regulations for its governance, but by emphasising tradition rather than innovation, it prevented the art form from progressing.

Noh is structured around song and dance, with slow movement, poetic language, a monotonous tone and rich and heavy costumes. The plots tend to be drawn from literature, history and even legend. Noh tends to focus on themes related to dreams and the supernatural world. Like in Shakespearean times, all the performers are male.

There are a number of strictly defined characters in Noh theatre: Shite - the leading character. The shite acts as either a holy old man, a deity, a demon, a spirit or, on rare occasions, a living man. His movements express various moods. He’s the one wearing the mask.

Waki - the supporting actor. The waki plays roles such as a priest, monk or samurai. The waki always portrays living people.

Hayashi - the musicians. These four musicians provide music for the performance to dance along to. The music instruments played by the Hayashi is the flute (fue), shoulder drum (kotsuzumi), hip drum (otsuzumi) and stick drum (taiko).

Jiutai - the chorus. The chorus sits to the left of the stage and assists the shite in the narration of the story by singing. There is normally around eight of them.

One important aspect of Noh theatre is the use of masks. They tell the audience what kind of character is being portrayed by the shite. Actors wearing masks are able to communicate their emotions through their head movement and use a folding fan to represent an object, such as a dagger or lantern.

Kyogen Kyogen was also introduced during the Muromachi period but it would typically be performed at intervals between Noh performances. Kyogen’s use of witty jokes and exaggerated actions made the plays comedic. The stories tended to be about everyday life making them relatable, and plays were performed by only two to three actors for around 20 minutes.

Kabuki (歌舞伎) Kabuki was created in the Edo period (1603-1867), and was originally acted by only women, and performed for the common people. However, the Shogunate soon forbade women from participating, and to this day, Kabuki is performed by men. Several male kabuki actors are trained to be specialists when performing female roles and they are called onnagatas.

Kabuki uses extravagant costumes, make-up and wigs to create an eye-catching performance.

The actors use of exaggerated actions and highly stylised movements convey messages to the audience helping them understand the old form of Japanese that is used.

Kabuki plots are usually based on historical events, moral conflicts, tales of tragedy and other well-known stories.

9 All kabuki theatre groups have a yago, a hereditary stage name, which links them to the closely-knit family-based hierarchical organisations that kabuki is based on.

Bunraku (文楽) Bunraku is the traditional puppet theatre of Japan. It started off as popular entertainment for the commoners during the Edo period in Osaka which evolved into artistic theatre during the late 17th century.

Bunraku puppets range from one to four feet tall, and they are operated by three performers: a principal operator with two assistants, manoeuvring the limbs and the face to create life-like actions and facial expressions. They are dressed in black to signify invisibility even though they are in full view of the audience. Stories are told by a single person who voices all the puppets. The pace of the narration is dictated by the accompanying music.

Suzuki Methodology These were the well-established forms of theatre that Tadashi Suzuki grew up with, steeped in tradition. All of them are unique and amazing to experience but they have not evolved. Suzuki saw this and decided he wanted to create something new but still distinctively Japanese. He drew upon techniques from Noh and Kabuki to create his own modernised form of theatre, the Suzuki Method, and set up his own theatre company in the 1970s.

One concern that Suzuki identified about traditional Japanese theatre was that while it is an amazing spectacle, it had not spread outside Japan. In his book ‘The Way of Acting’ he identifies the Japanese language as one obstacle.

The grammatical construction of Japanese means the verb comes at the end of the sentence and Suzuki’s theory was that this made it difficult to use theatrical gestures in a way outsiders could understand. “Gesture is tied intimately to the words being spoken;” he wrote, “indeed, words represent human gesture.” In traditional Japanese theatre he argued, this was an obstacle to understanding. Additionally, Japanese has a pitch accent, meaning that while westerns languages use pitch to convey emotion, in Japanese, pitch alters the meaning of the word. The word Ame for example, translates as candy with an upward pitch but means rain with downward pitch.

Suzuki argues that this has become a barrier to performing western theatre in Japanese.

Therefore, Suzuki wanted to create a form of theatre that overcame cultural and national barriers; he was interested in creating work that is truly universal.

To do this, Suzuki created a movement-based form of drama, heavily inspired by Noh and Kabuki. In the Suzuki method the upper part of the body is practically immobile, while the foot of the actor is the centre of interest. Noh and Kabuki are structured around song and dance, with foot motion being one of the main aspects. Suzuki focuses on this, looking at how the stamping of the feet creates energy. He realises that to have a continuous stamping motion, the actor must learn to control the energy in his body, otherwise it will cause the upper body to tremble, when the goal is to keep it completely still. To do this the actor must “learn to control and contain that energy in the pelvic region”. Furthermore, Suzuki looked at the movement of an actor, and decided that ordinary walking was not enough to produce the drama he wanted to create. An actor could shuffle his feet or use a pigeon-toed walk to create a more mesmerising piece of theatre.

In this way the Suzuki Method has successfully taken traditional techniques from Noh and Kabuki, and turned into a more universal form of theatre.

Suzuki was sometimes sceptical about whether he would succeed. “International cultural exchange is impossible,” he said, “therefore we must try.” Critics believe Suzuki has been successful in modernising traditional Japanese theatre. We may not see too much of his work in the UK, but it has become incredibly popular in the United States. People go to Suzuki workshops all the time, and his methods have been so successful the US that he and Anne Bogart cofounded the Saratoga International Theatre Institute in New York. He has done more than anyone else alive to bring elements of traditional Japanese theatre into the modern age.

References:

Tadashi Suzuki translated by J. Thomas Rimer, The Way of Acting: The Theatre Writing of Tadashi Suzuki (New York: Theatre Communication Group) Sebastian Mattia, “A White Spot in a White Space: Revealing the Imaginary World of the Actor’s Body” in the Academia Japan Guide (2022) Noh Theatre, available at Noh Theater (japan-guide. com) (Accessed 20/04/2022) The Noh.com (2022) Introducing the World of Noh, available at the-noh. com : Introducing the world of Noh : Stage (Accessed 21/04/2022) MIT Global Shakespeares (2022) Kyogen, available at Kyogen (Japanese theater form) – MIT Global Shakespeares (Accessed 16/05/2022) Japan Guide (2022) Kabuki Theatre, available at Kabuki Theater (japanguide.com) (Accessed 20/04/2022) United Nations Education, Science and Cultural Organisation (2022) Kabuki Theatre, available at Kabuki theatre - intangible heritage - Culture Sector - UNESCO (Accessed 29/04/2022) Japan Guide (2022) Bunraku Theatre, available at Bunraku - Japanese Puppet Theater (japan-guide.com) (Accessed 20/04/2022) Traditional Kyoto (2022) Bunraku, available at Bunraku | Traditional Kyoto (Accessed 29/04/2022)

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Arts

How Did Nietzsche Influence Béla Tarr's 'The Turin Horse'?

Yichao Sun, Sixth Form, Queen Anne House.

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n Turin, on 3rd January 1889, Friedrich Nietzsche steps out of the door of number six Via Carlo Alberto... ' Thus begins Béla Tarr’s 2011 film The Turin Horse. A narrator tells the famous and mysterious story of the German philosopher Nietzsche's mental breakdown when he witnessed the violent flogging of a horse by its master; he then ran to the horse and threw his arms around it before collapsing onto the ground. After this opening scene, however, the philosopher's name is not mentioned again in the film.

Hungarian film director Béla Tarr, born in 1955, is regarded as one of the best directors of all time. His early films explored social and family issues. His style was fully established from his fifth film Damnation (1988) onwards, with its characteristically pessimistic view of humanity, virtuosic long takes and complex philosophical ideas. His work is also unendurably slowpaced for a general audience. Tarr’s decision to employ Nietzsche’s philosophy in The Turin Horse is surprising since the two of them have opposite views of the world; Nietzsche criticised pessimism as ‘the consequence of the absolute illogic of the world-order’ (Deinstag, 2001) whereas Tarr’s filmography displays a loss of faith in humanity. Furthermore, Tarr’s manipulation of Nietzsche’s philosophy is rarely seen in the history of cinema. Directors normally reference Nietzsche without changing the concepts of his philosophy (for example, Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey and Pasolini’s Saló, or the 120 days of Sodom); Tarr on the other hand, transformed Nietzsche’s philosophy to fit his own artistic expression.

The major influence on The Turin Horse was Nietzsche’s philosophy of the eternal return (also known as the eternal recurrence). The eternal return is a thought experiment that Nietzsche invites the readers of The Gay Science to consider: ‘This life as you now live it and have lived it, you will have to live once more and innumerable times more.’ (The Gay Science, 1882) Tarr based the structure of his film on this idea.

The Turin Horse gradually unfolds over six days in the life of the cabman Ohlsdorfer and his daughter, whose deaths are implied at the end of the film. The daily repetition is the most obvious allusion to the eternal return. Over the

course of six days, Tarr deliberately makes the film repetitive; there are only thirty shots over the duration of 2 hours and 30 minutes. Tarr calmly presents the tedious daily life of Ohlsdorfer and his daughter: eating potatoes, getting water from the well, trying to make the horse move, and so on. When the environment they are living in deteriorates, they are reluctant to find a suitable place to live.

The characters’ reaction when facing the eternal return contrasts with Nietzsche’s philosophy.

Nietzsche is an existentialist and highly praised the idea of ‘amor fati’ (to love one’s fate) (The Gay Science, 1882). Nietzsche said that when the eternal return occurs, we should embrace it and aim to improve our lives rather than resisting it passively. This more proactive attitude is presented by the Gypsies in the film who visit Ohlsdorfer and his daughter. Facing a similar situation to Ohlsdorfer, they decide to go to America to find a better life for themselves. The reaction of Ohlsdorfer and his daughter reflects Tarr's pessimism and lack of hope in people and the world.

To some extent, The Turin Horse is actually antiNietzsche. Throughout the film, there is barely any dialogue, with the exception of a sevenminute monologue delivered by a visitor to the cabman. The first half of the monologue is clearly inspired by Nietzsche’s Thus Spoke Zarathustra (1883) and could be seen as spreading the philosophy of the übermensch: ‘there is neither God nor Gods’. This is because, to Nietzsche, the übermensch is someone who will rise above the conventional, weak, and pathological Christian slave morality and impose their own values on the world and themselves. In his complicated works, Nietzsche’s ideologies are implied

11 metaphorically; Tarr’s monologue is similarly abstract. However, in the second half of the monologue, Tarr denies Nietzsche's philosophy of the übermensch: 'I did realise that I was mistaken'.

The villager who delivered the monologue can also be interpreted as Nietzsche before his mental breakdown. When he witnessed the horse, he saw the flaws of his philosophy - the will to power and the theory of übermensch was destroyed by the uncontrollable situation that everyone is in (just like Ohlsdorfer and his daughter in the film). Therefore, it is possible to argue that Tarr explained his own interpretation of the mysterious mental breakdown and Nietzsche's last words: 'Mutter, ich bin dumm' (Mother, I am dumb).

Anti-Christianity is another important theme in both the film and Nietzsche's philosophy.

Nietzsche attacked Christianity throughout his life: 'the Christian faith from the beginning, is sacrifice the sacrifice of all freedom, all pride, all self-confidence of spirit, it is at the same time subjection, self-derision and selfmutilation' (Beyond Good and Evil, 1886). The creation of Christian values such as compassion, thankfulness, and endurance, are based on slave morality according to Nietzsche. As an existentialist himself, Nietzsche believed that Christianity crippled human beings by vilifying natural human instincts, ‘Christianity has taken the side of everything weak, base, ill-constituted, it has made an ideal out of opposition to the preservative instincts of strong life’ (The Antichrist, 1895). Also, it promotes a non-existent afterlife – heaven – that devalues the lives that people are living on earth. The Turin Horse is not as aggressive as some of Nietzsche's work such as The Antichrist; nevertheless, it progresses in an anti-genesis structure. In the Bible, God created the world in six days. In The Turin Horse, water disappears on day four, light disappears on day five, and death is implied on day six.

In brief, Béla Tarr’s masterpiece contains ubiquitous influences from Nietzsche’s philosophy. Complex ideologies are embedded in the film and suitably transformed into a tool for Tarr to convey his artistic expression and views on life and humanity. Tarr’s approach towards Nietzsche’s philosophy is a monumental moment in the history of cinema as he took inspiration from the philosopher and challenged it simultaneously.

References:

Dienstag, Joshua. F. (2001). "Nietzsche's Dionysian Pessimism." The American Political Science Review, 95(4), 923-37. http://www.jstor.org/ stable/3117722.

Nietzsche, Friedrich. W. (2008). The Gay Science. Translated by J. Nauckhoff and A. Del Caro. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Nietzsche, Friedrich. W. (2006). Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Translated by A. Del Caro. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Nietzsche, Friedrich. W. (2003). Twilight of the Idols and The Antichrist.

Translated by R. J. Hollingdale. London: Penguin Books Ltd. Nietzsche, Friedrich. W. (2003). Beyond Good and Evil: Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future. Translated by R. J. Hollingdale. London: Penguin Books Ltd.

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Arts

How Has Music Been Used in Warfare?

Jamie Wehrle, Sixth Form, Queen Anne House.

Clarke and Strickland Scholar

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usic is an expressive and intricate form of art. Whether it be Beethoven, Bernstein or Beyoncé, music has the power to thrill us, to move us, to unite us.

In contrast, war is a heart-wrenching and sickening occurrence that can displace, wound and kill. Yet, throughout history, music has been a central component to warfare and has significantly shaped the outcome of some of history’s bloodiest conflicts.

In Battle Since biblical times, music has played an important role on the battlefield. Chapter Six of the Old Testament’s Book of Joshua describes how, during the siege of Jericho, seven priests blew into trumpets made from rams’ horns. After seven days, when the trumpets were joined by the cries of Joshua’s army, the walls of Jericho collapsed, and the siege was over. Comparatively, ancient warfare witnessed the Greek and Roman armies using brass and percussion instruments to relay information across the battlefield. This demonstrates that even in such an early period, the idea of using music in battle was beginning to develop. This partnership between music and warfare became more established as Europe progressed into the Middle Ages. The Saracens used instruments to communicate orders and intimidate English forces during the numerous crusades, whilst the Ottoman Empire recorded the first official military band in the thirteenth century.

If we fast-forward to the seventeenth century, the technology of war had developed to feature the might of muskets and gunpowder. Thus, music became critical to warfare, allowing orders to be heard over the chaos of the battle. As part of their basic training, soldiers learnt the different orders that their musicians would play, such as Marche and Retreate. These anthems would be distinctive for each nation, so that a soldier could recognise his own country’s orders during the madness of a conflict. However, some tactical military leaders used this to their advantage. For example, during the Battle of Oudenarde in 1708, drummers of the anti-French coalition (which included England) played The French Retreate so convincingly that a portion of France’s army withdrew from the battle. But, as technology has advanced, musical orders have been replaced by

specialist gadgets and equipment. During active service, military musicians might now be involved in casualty handling, including stretcher-bearing, ambulance driving and patient decontamination.

However, their roles away from the field of battle still play a significant role in boosting their comrades’ morale and showcasing their nations’ military to the rest of the world.

Morale There is a long running history of music being played to raise the spirits of soldiers. For example, in ancient times, the Greek army employed musicians to accompany recitals of odes and poetry, which reminded soldiers of their ancestors’ bravery and encouraged them to display similar courage. However, it was during two World Wars where music became crucial in maintaining spirit in the face of adversity. For instance, ‘It’s a Long Way to Tipperary’ by Jack Judge and Harry Williams became a popular marching song for frontline soldiers in the WWI trenches, whilst Vera Lynn, known affectionately as the Forces’ Sweetheart, raised the morale of soldiers fighting during WWII with songs such as ‘We’ll Meet Again’ and ‘The White Cliffs of Dover’.

13 But it was not just soldiers who relied upon music during wartime. In the suffering of Nazi concentration camps, prisoners were known to sing or play instruments together for comfort and community, or in some cases, to drown out the sounds of executions. Some camps composed their own camp songs and anthems, with the song ‘The Peat Bog Soldiers’, which referenced the downfall of the Third Reich, becoming a favourite at Börgermoor concentration camp. In wartime Britain, songs such as ‘Run Rabbit Run’ and ‘Hitler has Only Got One Ball’ were used

by Britons to mock the Luftwaffe and the Nazi Leadership respectively. Comparatively, in the Soviet Union, composer Dmitri Shostakovich completed his Seventh Symphony in December 1941. Having been evacuated from the siege of Leningrad earlier that year, he dedicated his piece to the inhabitants of Leningrad, whose city was still under siege by Nazi Forces. On 9th August 1942, whilst still trapped in Leningrad with over a year and a half of the siege still left to endure, surviving musicians performed Shostakovich’s symphony. Their playing was transmitted through loudspeakers to the rest of the city and the surrounding Nazi Forces as an act of defiance and strength.

has used this method several times in order to extract information from prisoners and defeat opponents. For example, the USA used music by Metallica to sleep deprive and culturally offend POWs during the War in Iraq, whilst using ‘The Real Slim Shady’ by Eminem and ‘Dirrty’ by Christina Aguilera for interrogation during the War on Terror. Furthermore, in battle, America used ‘Music Torture’ during the invasion of Panama in December 1989 which saw the dictator Manuel Noriega flee to the Holy See Embassy. US Troops surrounded the embassy before blasting it with hard rock music by Guns’N’Roses, U2 and Van Halen. Ten days later Noriega, the reported opera lover, surrendered.

Torture Finally, in recent years the use of music and sound has become an established method of interrogation and torture. ‘Music Torture’ involves the continuous playing of music or loud noises and is often used in combination with techniques such as sleep, food and sensory deprivation.

America initially intended to use ‘Music Torture’ as one way to combat Soviet ‘brain-washing’ in the 1950s and 1960s. Since then, America

In Conclusion Throughout history, music has been a key aspect of warfare. Beginning as a method of communicating across the battlefield, music has become both a way of boosting the morale of soldiers and civilians and a method for interrogation.

The importance of music in war cannot be underestimated – would the outcome of early wars have been different if music was not used to command the troops? Would soldiers have endured the harshness of the frontline without the comfort and camaraderie that music brought?

Thus, just as music has become intrinsic to our lives, music has become an integral part of warfare.

However, the use of music in torture has generated considerable controversy. The charity Reprieve began an initiative called Zero dB which aimed to stop the use of music in torture by encouraging the public to demonstrate through silent protests. Many musicians supported this movement, including Christopher Cerf (composer from Sesame Street), R.E.M., Pearl Jam and Jackson Browne. Some even scheduled minutes of silence during their concerts to contrast the deafening music used during interrogations.

References:

www.historynet.com www.classicfm.com www.bbc.co.uk Wikipedia bbico.com www.ushmm.org www.mic.com

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Arts

‘Drop-dead Gorgeous’: How Do Illness and Beauty Intersect?

Claudia Woods-Cano, Sixth Form, Swift House.

This article contains mentions of restrictive eating disorders and mental health issues.

W

hile it may not seem obvious at first, illness and beauty standards have had a large amount of overlap over the course of history, and even in modern times. Beauty is a social construct, and with that in mind, it is often influenced by conventions and events of the time period – including illnesses.

Mouches and French Pox In France during the 17th century, a new beauty trend emerged, called mouches. Mouches, also known as beauty marks, were a patch of fabric (often silk, velvet or taffeta) worn on the face, and were essentially faux beauty spots. While this trend emerged from upper class French women, it soon became popularised and worn by women of all statuses – poorer women would create them from mouse skin. Mouches were meant to draw attention to the wearer’s pale skin.

Although they were popularised in France, they even became popular in Britain at the time, where they held political meaning. However, what is so curious about mouches is their relation to French Pox, also known as syphilis. Syphilis is a sexually transmitted infection, that left the sufferer with marks on their bodies, and often faces. Mouches could be used to hide the signs of the disease – a carefully placed mouche could cover over them.

Not only this, but the treatment doctors used for French Pox at the time was a dark brown or black ointment, which resembled a mouche. Because of

this, the reputation of mouches quickly became very varied as it became associated with the STI syphilis. Mouches began to represent both luxury and flirtatious, promiscuous behaviour.

An example of the link between mouches and flirtatious behaviour is artist William Hogarth’s works ‘A Harlot’s Progression’. The protagonist Moll Hackabout’s descent into the world of prostitution is shown by the way she gains more and more mouches throughout. Syphilis’ relation to the beauty trend of mouches is curious, but there are many more examples throughout history of illness and beauty.

Tuberculosis and Victorian Fashion Tuberculosis, also known as phthisis or consumption, isn’t a new disease to Victorian society. The disease has been found present in even Egyptian mummies, but it’s impact on Victoria society has been by far the most peculiar.

Tuberculosis became widespread during this era mostly due to the industrial revolution. With a growing population and more and more people working in tight, enclosed unhygienic places, it’s no wonder the disease quickly became one of the most prominent issues of the Victorian era.

Death and disease were large aspects of Victorian life anyhow, and tuberculosis quickly became one of the most common ways to die. With death so prevalent, Victorian people were always aware of their own mortality, thus manifesting itself in the art and fashion of the time. However, reactions to the disease differed based on social class.

Those of higher social status often romanticised tuberculosis as a ‘beautiful’ way to die which favoured those of higher intellect. Percy Shelley, a well-known Romantic poet, wrote “you continue to wear a consumptive appearance.

This consumption is a disease particularly fond of people who wrote such good verses as you have

15 The Alexandra Limp In 1869, a newspaper from North British Mail published an article describing how “a monstrosity has made itself visible among the female promenaders in Princes Street. It is as painful as it is idiotic and ludicrous". This ‘monstrosity’ was a short-lived trend known as the ‘Alexandra limp’.

Alexandra of Denmark was the bride of the prince of Wales. As royalty, she had a large influence on fashion and beauty standards.

In 1867, following the birth of her daughter, Alexandra was diagnosed with rheumatic fever.

This left her with a permanent limp which high class women began to imitate. Women began to wear odd shoes to mimic the limp, and shopkeepers even began to sell shoes where one heel was higher than the other, to replicate Alexandra’s limp. This trend fell out of favour quickly but remains a prime example of both the influence of royalty and people of higher status on fashion, and of illness itself.

done”. The disease quickly became associated with the ‘suffering artist’ trope following the deaths of well-known creatives such as the Bronte sisters, Paganini, Chopin and Keats to tuberculosis.

Not only this, but the physical symptoms of tuberculosis also fitted the beauty standards of Victorian England. Someone suffering from consumption would often experience heavy weight loss as their health declined, as well as a pale skin that heavily fitted with societal preference for paler people. This, accompanied with the trademark red lips and flushed cheeks brought by the disease, meant it was quickly seen as a glamourous death, and represented the beautiful fragility by which many women of the time were valued.

Tuberculosis only lost its mystique and glamour following the discovery of germ theory by Dr Robert Koch, and the invention of penicillin.

Following this discovery, tuberculosis fell out of favour and robust health became a sign of beauty and social status.

Modern Examples of Illness in Beauty In recent years, physical illness has much less of an obvious link to fashion and beauty. However, following a rise of media coverage and awareness of mental health issues, it is no surprise that these issues have begun to influence fashion.

High fashion in the 90s had strong influences of the grunge subculture, especially following the global influence of bands such as Nirvana. Heroin use among celebrities was rising in popularity, and with icons such as Kurt Cobain and Courtney Love’s vocality over their drug use, heroin quickly became romanticised.

This quickly made its way into high fashion, where a new trend known as ‘heroin chic’ emerged. Heroin chic used the visual of heroin users, with incredibly thin models with pale skin, dark under eye circles, dark lipstick, prominent bone structure and straw-like hair dominating the runway. A prominent model of the time, Kate Moss, heavily fits this aesthetic. The style eventually became criticised for glorifying and promoting drug use and addiction, as well as promoting unhealthy body standards. However, it still holds influence both in mainstream beauty and strongly in the grunge subculture.

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The rise of ‘heroin chic’ helped fuel the expectation on models to be unhealthily thin, as healthy bodies were no longer seen as fashionable in high fashion. This still has influence today, with as many as 40% of models struggling with eating disorders according to a study by the Model Health Inquiry. The media portrays ‘skinniness’ as synonymous with ‘beautiful’ – which is very much not the case – and only now is this view beginning to be challenged. Dr Anne Becker argues that “with Fashion Week, and all of those thin models, and clothing that looks best on a size zero -- what that does is set a standard of what is socially desirable and prestigious that is likely to have a powerful influence on social norms. If one day we had a Fashion Week where there were size 16 models, I suspect that would be very influential, too".

Menhera and Yami Kawaii fashion is a more recent phenomenon, originating in the Harajuku district of Tokyo, Japan. Menhera, meaning ‘someone who is struggling with their mental health’ and Yami Kawaii, meaning ‘sick-cute’ both

refer to a fashion aesthetic in Japan, characterised by cute clothing with dark undertones or motifs.

In Japanese culture, conformity and rigidity is everything. Because of this, depression and other mental health issues are highly taboo, so Yami Kawaii began as a defiance to this and as a way to bring light to these issues – especially considering Japan has one of the highest suicide rates in the world.

An icon of the Yami Kawaii aesthetic is MenheraChan. Created by Bisuko Ezaki, Menhera-Chan is a comic character named after people struggling with mental health. Sine ‘menhera’ is a relatively derogatory way to describe somebody with mental health issues, Menhera-Chan did fall under criticism, but many like her and find comfort in her, including the creator himself.

Bisuko created Menhera-Chan while studying for his university entrance exams. His grandparents used to use a lot of abusive language towards him, especially when it came to his style, and for him, Menhera-Chan was a way to escape reality and put his feelings down in a healthy way. Many

17 people shared the same feeling for the character, which is why she gained so much popularity.

Since Yami Kawaii’s focus is on mental illness, many of the people who follow the aesthetic are struggling in some way themselves and use the style as a healthy outlet for their emotions.

Fashion can be a coping mechanism for complex emotions for a lot of people, and especially in Japan where it is frowned upon to speak about mental health issues, Yami Kawaii can be a positive way to normalise mental health struggles and destigmatise them. Yami Kawaii is meant to “uses those negative feelings that everybody has, whether it be some darkness or sadness, and makes it cute". However, many argue that Yami Kawaii is just another way in which mental health issues are being romanticised, as many mental health issues are being portrayed as

References:

Aske, Dr Katie. Beauty Spots and French Pox. 2015. Web. Bogár, Nikolett and Ferenc Túry. The Fashion Industry and Eating Disorders: the Dangers of the Catwalk. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2019. Print.

Clay, Jeremy. “Victorian Strangeness: The bizarre tale of the ladies who limped.” BBC News (2014).

Web. Le, Mina. The Bizarre History of Beauty Marks. 6 August 2021. Video.

Nordqvist, Christian. “Eating Disorders Among Fashion Models Rising.” Medical News Today (2007). Web. Ricalton, Emily. “'Heroin Chic': A Movement That Changed the Appearance of Fashion.” Quench (2020). Web. Row, Kaz. “Crimson Peak's Costumes, and How Tuberculosis Shaped Victorian Fashion.” YouTube, 22 October 2020. Video.

Turco, Jenifer and Melanie Byrd. “An Interdisciplinary Perspective: Infectious Diseases & History.” The American Biology Teacher (2001): 325-335. Print.

Wang, Connie. “The Dark Side of Harajuku Style You Haven't Seen Yet.” Refinery29. 24 February 2018. Video.

trendy or cool online. The menhera aesthetic calls into question the limit of self-expression – should something as serious as mental health problems really be a fashion trend?

In conclusion, illness and beauty have a much larger influence on each other than perhaps primarily obvious, and this can be seen across history. The nature of this intersection is, and has always been, controversial. Art often comments on the darker aspects of human life, but the influence of this on beauty standards is perhaps becoming increasingly malicious. The long-term effects of these unhealthy standards on young girls is only just beginning show, and we are yet to see which is more sinister – ignoring illness, or romanticising it?

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In What Way is There a Racial Bias Towards the Death Penalty in the United States of America?

Humanities

Danny Arbuckle, Sixth Form, Queen Anne House.

T

he focal point of this essay is to explore the ways in which there is a racial bias towards the American judicial system, in particular capital punishment.

Currently in America, 27 states have a legalised death penalty while 3 states have a moratorium. However, there is a strong argument against the death penalty due to its racial bias against black defendants. This essay will examine different aspects of racial bias: Economic discrimination and how this can target minorities, institutional racism and how the super due process can result in less favourable outcomes for minority defendants and the overt racial discrimination against minority defendants. Ultimately, there is a strong racial bias which has a big impact on capital punishment and contributes to the argument that the United States should abolish the death penalty.

The U.S legal system is structured so that significant economic resources are required to effectively obtain full legal protection. For death row cases, private attorneys can be inordinately expensive, and therefore most low-income defendants do not have the ability to seek private representation. This can be extremely significant because it disadvantages those who come from poorer backgrounds, where a high percentage of low-income defendants are from minorities. As a result, this constitutes economic discrimination. Moreover, in most death row cases the defendant cannot afford private representation and therefore receive State/ court appointed lawyers. This is highly significant because the appointed attorneys do not usually have the required skillset and lack motivation.

The National Coalition to Abolish the Death Penalty (NCAB) wrote in its fact sheet of 2008 “Death Penalty Overview: Ten Reasons Why Capital Punishment is Flawed Public Policy” that ‘appointed attorneys are overworked, underpaid, or lacking the trial experience required for death penalty cases’. This handicaps many defendants severely, where they receive poor representation for a very consequential sentence, the death penalty. The fact sheet also mentions that ‘There have been instances in which lawyers appointed to a death case were so inexperienced that they were completely unprepared for the sentencing phase of trial’. This is a vivid example of how economic discrimination can prohibit judicial equality. Statistically, in North Carolina, the African American population alone accounts for

22.2% of the state’s overall population. However, in the poorer regions of the state, such as Enfield, this increases to a much higher percentage. This is relevant because it demonstrates that there is a very large African American population in North Carolina, where a large percentage live in lower economic classes. This prejudice can be seen in Exzavious Gibson’s death row trial. Exzavious was convicted in Georgia, 1990 when he was 17 years old, for the murder of a civilian in a gas station.

On the day of his trial, he met his defence lawyer, who was appointed by the State, only 30 minutes before the trial was due to begin. In conjunction with this, there were reports of the lawyer being ‘drunk’ or ‘hungover’, which demonstrates the unprofessional nature of Gibson’s representative.

Moreover, the trial itself only lasted for roughly 30 minutes during which time there was no mention of the defendant’s age, 17 years old, which may have had a large impact on the sentencing as in the eyes of the law, he was still considered a child. Nevertheless, the judge pronounced the death penalty and Gibson was sent to death row.

Cases such as these are a good example of how economic discrimination links to racial bias.

The racial bias towards the American death penalty is also illustrated by forms of institutional racism that have been rooted in the U.S judicial system for generations. The term ‘institutional racism’ can be defined as the ‘systemic racism’ which is ‘embedded in the laws and regulations of society’. A study carried out by the Death Penalty Information Centre found that racism is common

19 in courtrooms across America. However, in death penalty cases in particular, derogatory slurs have had a large impact on cases since they can ‘kindle the flames of prejudice’. This is significant because racial slurs and derogative statements can influence the jury. An example of this blatant racism is when a white judge in Florida stated during the preparation for the death penalty phase of an African American defendant’s trial, “Since the nigger mom and dad are here anyway, why don’t we go ahead and do the penalty phase today instead of having to subpoena them back at cost to the state.” As a result, Anthony Peek was sentenced to death and the sentence was upheld by the Florida Supreme Court in 1986, which reviewed his claim of racial bias.

Overall, this example demonstrates that racism is ubiquitous throughout the American penal system where even many professionals still use racial slurs which can have a serious impact on the trial process alongside the sentencing many defendants receive. Institutional racism can also be seen in the jury selection process where unfair prosecutors can intentionally exclude jurors based on their race because of a false belief that

people of colour cannot fairly serve as jurors and follow the law. A 2001 study of the death penalty cases discovered that 25% of the juries had no black members and around 70% had two or fewer. This exclusion from juries is both extremely unethical while also prejudiced as their voices are hidden. In addition, notes from a North Carolina prosecutor showed that in the making of their list of jury strikes, they classified one potential juror as a ‘Black wino’, while also identifying another potential juror as coming from a ‘respectable black family’. However, under questioning the prosecutors could produce no evidence that indicated the white potential jurors came from a respectable family. This demonstrates how the perspective of prosecutors can be detrimental to the trial process. This systemic racism can be seen with Troy Davis’s case, where he was convicted in 1989 and executed in 2011.Davis was convicted of murder based on little physical evidence and the testimony of nine witnesses, however seven of these nine later recanted their testimony and admitted it was false. Because of this, his case became very topical and grew rapidly in popularity, to a point where public

20

figures like Pope Benedict XVI and 51 members of Congress spoke out against the execution.

Ultimately, a systemic racial bias in the application of the death penalty exists at both the state and federal level. Because of this, a moratorium on the death penalty is urgently needed to address this miscarriage of justice, so that we can prevent any wrongful executions due to racism.

Finally, the racial bias towards the American death penalty is present in the overt racial discrimination against minority defendants throughout all levels of the U.S penal system. To begin with, the overt racial discrimination against minority defendants refers to the imposition

of more severe dispositions on members of a subordinate racial group. Linking to this, it can be simplified as the direct result of racial prejudice. In addition, Dr Isaac Unah (a professor of Political Science at the University of North Carolina) conducted a study on North Carolina’s death penalty and the racial prejudice behind it. His research and teaching focuses on judicial institutions and their collective influence on public policy and bureaucratic behaviour. In conjunction with this, his study on ‘Race and the Death Penalty in North Carolina An Empirical Analysis: 1993-1997’ examines the frequency with which the death sentences were imposed amongst all homicide cases that occurred in

21 North Carolina from January 1993 to December 1997; in total there were 3,990 cases. From this study, Unah found that “prosecutors are more likely to reject a plea deal in cases that involve non-white defendants and white victims, but interestingly are less likely to seek the death penalty in such cases”, which demonstrates that their prosecutors are more likely to reject a plea deal for cases against non-white defendants because they believe winning is more likely.

Furthermore, the study similarly uncovered that black defendants who murder white victims are 5.16 times more likely to face the death penalty compared to black defendants who kill black victims. This statistic demonstrates how there is a high level of overt racism rooted in the death penalty prosecution structure, since white victims are presented as more significant, compared to black victims. This study has been supported by many real cases where racial discrimination is evident. For example, Gary Graham, who was convicted in 1981 and executed in 2000 was sentenced to death at the age of 18. He was convicted for the robbery and murder of Bobby Lambert. However, his conviction was based on the testimony of one witness who said she ‘saw him through a windshield from 30-40 feet away’.

His court appointed lawyer failed to call two witnesses who had said they had seen the killer that night, someone other than Graham. There was also no physical evidence linking Graham to the murder, and the gun in his possession was not the murder weapon. However, Gary Graham was still executed in 2000. In summary, overt racism is current throughout capital punishment and demonstrates how there is a racial bias towards the American death penalty since it heavily impacts prosecutors’ decision making and jury selection.

In conclusion, there is strong evidence of racial bias within the American death penalty system, where minorities experience an injustice, particularly on death row cases where lives are on the line. It is evident in the economic discrimination which may not be a direct example of racism, however, dramatically affects minorities who make up poorer communities in America. In addition, institutional racism is another example of how racism is embedded into the penal system where African Americans can be excluded from juries, and the racist voice can influence outcomes of cases. Finally, the overt, ubiquitous

racial discrimination against minority defendants has led to the urgent need for a moratorium on the death penalty in America, so that the current racial injustice in the judiciary may be eradicated.

References:

The Death Penalty in North Carolina The Death Penalty in Black and White: Who Lives, Who Dies, Who Decides Files.deathpenaltyinfo.org U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: North Carolina Race and the Death Penalty Robinson S, The Death Penalty in North Carolina Unah, I. (2010). Choosing those who will die: The effect of race, gender, and law in prosecutorial decision to seek the death penalty in Durham County, North Carolina. Michigan Journal of Race & Law 15(1), 135-179

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To What Extent is Hosting an Olympic Games Beneficial to a Nation’s Economy?

Humanities

Gemma Croker, Sixth Form, Gascoigne House.

T

he Olympic Games brings many benefits to a nation’s economy but there are also some negative effects for the hosting country. There are three stages to hosting the Olympic Games: Pre-Olympics, during the Olympics and postOlympics. During each phase of hosting the games the country is faced with different economic challenges that they must overcome for an economy to truly benefit from the games. I will be exploring the strategies of the most economically successful countries and the differences to those countries who were not as economically efficient and what contributed to these factors.

In the Pre-Olympic phases, it is imperative, if a games is to be successful and therefore profitable, that the country prepares appropriately for the influx of tourism, builds good quality infrastructure, manages their operation expenses and most importantly is in a period of economic stability. Hosting countries should account for hosting spectators and athletes. The International Olympic Committee requires a minimum of 40,000 hotel rooms available for visiting spectators and an Olympic Games that can house 15,000 athletes as well as referees and officials. Rio is a country who had to do large amounts of preparation due to their country struggling financially for a couple of decades before hosting the Olympics. By comparing Rio’s position to London or Paris, who were not concerned with pre-existing issues, it is understandable how these games were consequently more successful. Rio had to pay for new subway lines, roads, airports, renovate shipping ports and in addition to this the country had to pay for environmental cleaning costs in the Guanabara Bay to prepare for the Olympics.

Arguably this is a leading factor into why the Rio Olympic games has not been as economically successful as other nations. They had to spend much more on getting the country ready for the Olympics which resulted in them not be able to focus on more detailed and unique investments for the Olympics like previous countries had done. A country who was able to get the most out of specifically spending money towards the games was London, when was preparing to host in 2012, they created the red orbit tower. This 114.5m art piece attracted tourists to overlook the beautiful views of the London skyline. Designs like these are permanent and are constant

reminders of Olympics and how successful they were and is therefore contributes towards part of the countries Olympic Legacy which is often a strong indicator in how beneficial the Games have been for the country. The LA games in 1984 were thought to be the most financially successful Olympics ever. The government spent $719 million on organization but profited by more than $250 million. This was the result of low construction costs and a reliance on private corporate funding meaning the hosting country was in more of a comfortable financial position before even starting the Olympics. Overall countries who had the financial capabilities to host a large event were more prepared to take on the huge task of hosting the games and were usually more successful in doing so. The ability to be completely prepared before hosting the games is crucial and has direct links with countries who have been economically successful and therefore profitable in hosting the games.

During the Olympic games the hosting country accrues many benefits. For example, they receive worldwide exposure through television and also the games create job opportunities for the citizens of the hosting country. The costs of hosting the games are great but it is possible to make them profitable and positively contribute to the country’s economic growth. One of the ways countries have benefited from the games is when there has been an increase their employment through job opportunities the game provides.

This contributes to economic growth. From marshalling on the day of Olympics, building the infrastructure used in preparation for the games or working in any of the tourism industry there is going to be an increase in demand for these

jobs in an Olympic year consequently reducing unemployment levels. In Barcelona, which is considered to be a one of the most prosperous games, unemployment fell by around 60,000 in that Olympic year and in London 2012 70,000 jobs were created as a direct result from the games. Another way countries benefit from the Olympics is the amount of exposure they get from the media. In the most recent games in Tokyo the BBC covered 350 hours of the games.

This meant that Japan was getting coverage worldwide and able to parade their country to the world attracting more tourists into the country which consequently benefits Japan.

After the Olympic games have taken place, it is important for the hosting country to manage their tourism and form their Olympic legacy so the games can leave a positive influence on the country and especially the economy. Tourism benefits the economy of a country as more people want to visit the country after viewing the games either in person or through a screen.

Evidence of this is the tourism in Barcelona doubled in the following decade of the games and in the following summer of the London 2012 games London welcomed more than one visitor a second in the month of June. An Olympic Legacy is the long term benefits the games create for the hosting country. The legacy is split into five categories: sporting, social, environmental, economic and urban. An example of how an Olympics has left a legacy in sport was after the Beijing Olympics and the success of Yan Zi and Zheng Jie in the women's tennis doubles, the sport enjoyed a huge increase in interest and participation. The success of these athletes has helped fuel a 4 billion investment into tennis across China and growing participation, with an estimated 14 million players today. Tennis is just a single sporting case of how the Olympics leaves a legacy in a country hosting the games and this legacy contributes to economic growth.

The Olympic games provides a hosting country with a social benefit. The games provide national pride through many ways. Examples of this are the 40,000 volunteers at the Sydney Olympic games. This meant for Sydney they didn’t have to pay for the employees helping to run aspects of the games and this legacy has continued for big events such as the commonwealth games in Australia. The Olympics also benefits the country environmentally. When China hosted the games there was profound change to the country’s energy supply structure and the renewable

energy scheme was boosted. This was because Greenpeace were working with the country in preparation for large number of visitors. This led to decisions like installing 300,000 new energy efficient lights. There is a vast range of urban impacts the Olympics brings to the hosting country. Stadiums are used in different ways like the London 2012 main stadium which is now used by West Ham football club who paid £2.5 million annually and £15 million upfront to buy and use the high-level facilities. This proves that the Olympic legacy can have a positive impact on the nation’s economy. However, it could also be argued that in some cases, especially those in an unstable economy, there can be some negative impacts. In Rio locals believed that the cost of the Olympics was much greater, and they could have used this money to improve living conditions into the city. For the majority of countries the legacy of the Olympic games is a large reflection of how successful a hosting country has been with the economic legacy being the biggest indicator to a country’s achievements.

To conclude hosting an Olympic Games tends to have large economic benefits however the extent at which a country benefits is largely dependent on the state of the economy and how the hosts chose to finance the games. The Olympic legacy also impacts how beneficial an Olympic games is to an economy as it is the long-term payback a country receives. This can be attributed to the way the legacy infrastructure is utilized. It is also important to consider that along with the vast amounts of benefits hosting an Olympic games brings, there is also the risk of a negative national image if the Olympics is not delivered to the standards passionate viewers and also athletes expect from this large historical sporting event.

References:

Archer S, How the Olympics Impacts business and the economy

Wihbey, J., August 4, T.J.R and 2016. Olympics and their economic impact.

Focus, G., America, L and America, N (2017). Is hosting the Olympics Good or Bad for a nation’s Brand?

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24

To What Extent is China a Developing Country?

Humanities

Will Hansen, Third Form, Queen Anne House.

Allen Scholar

T

o a large extent, China is a developing country due to colossal improvements in the country's economy, which have laid the foundations for an extremely powerful and developed future. There is much ambiguity towards China’s development, with many countries not knowing how to work with China. Much of China’s culture is unknown to most of the world, and their developments and investments are unclear.

There are many other factors that contribute towards a country's development, such as how the population of that country is treated, and in the near future, how that country deals with and helps to halt the drastic climate changes. These ideas will be further explored in the article below and will show you the factors towards China’s development, and the traits of China that may be hold them back from developing further.

Overview China itself is the fourth biggest country in the world with the greatest population. There are around 1.4 billion inhabitants of China, living in its vast 9.6 million square miles. It is currently one of the greatest powers, with a permanent seat on the United Nations council. China is currently run as the ‘People’s Republic of China’ under president Xi Jingping. He first gained rule of China in 2013, succeeding Hu Jintao. Xi Jingping is a member of the Chinese Communist Party, the founding and sole ruling party of the country.

Economic Development One of China’s plans for success in recent times has been the colossal improvement in their economy, and the production of items to be exported. In recent decades, the Chinese economy has improved immensely, now recording the second highest gross domestic product across the globe with a GDP of $18.5 trillion (second only to the United States). There are many reasons for this impressive figure, and many examples they set that the rest of the world could follow. One of the reasons being the fact that all the Chinese workers are working for the country, and for the people of the country, with the idea of communism playing a strong role. This idea of working for everyone is emphasised when China’s first communist

leader, Mao Zedong, stated that the people of his country should work for the ‘common good’ and not progress at the expense of others. With this, the government gained control of factories, businesses, all land, and private ownership, on the behalf of the people.

Advantages of Increasing Economy Levels With this immense economic development, much of the money has been invested towards the benefit of the people (as well as back into the ever-growing economy). An example of this, is China’s realisation of the importance of education. In the recent century, literacy levels in China have risen dramatically and now stand at 95%. This has set the foundations for further economic growth in the future with more Chinese people going through education, and beginning to work for the country, thus increasing China’s economic development. Moreover, the increase in children going to school, by law, has also resulted in an enormous decrease in Chinese poverty, with a 30% decrease of people earning under $5.50 a day, in the last 10 years (MacroTrends).

Treatment of Autonomous Regions Despite the positives towards Chinese development, such as the substantial increase in their economy, there are many traits of China that may be holding them back from developing further.

An example of this is their treatment of autonomous regions such as Tibet and Hong Kong. These regions are currently a part of China but are ruled under their own, separate state laws. Tibet for instance has been ruled by China since invasion in 1949 and is today governed as ‘Tibet autonomous region’.

25 The Tibetan government believe this to be illegal occupation and they are supported by the Dalai Lama, leader of Tibetan’s Buddhist community.

Despite the illusion of Tibet being autonomous, China can strengthen their control over the region by any means; an example being the recent introduction of criminalising traditional forms of socializing, such as supporting worshipping the Dalai Lama. This encages the Tibetans, making them feel as if they are under constant control from a superior government.

Similar stories have been endured in Hong Kong, with increasing control over the Hong Kong electoral system: the Chinese government can now approve or reject candidates, this once again increases China’s control over the region.

Climate Action A massive issue in today’s world is that of climate change. The ongoing change is not stopping anytime soon, and countries need to fight it by any means before the change becomes too great to stop. China will play a vital role in the battle as the country is a large part of the world, with a large part of the inhabitants living under their state rule. This makes them key fighters in the battle. At this moment in time, China is not currently doing enough. Their targets to help are compatible with global warming levels of 3 to 4 °C, if the rest of the world was to follow suit.

Furthermore, their ambitions are declared ‘highly insufficient’ by many global climate trackers (Climate Action Tracker).

Media Control With the world’s online usage increasing, the Chinese government set up a ‘great firewall’ to help restrain what their population sees online, fearful of dangerous media being exposed to them. As well as this, the Chinese media is state owned meaning the government control what news is relayed onto the people. This refrainment from showing the true stories means the Chinese government can ‘hide’ stories from being leaked, and thereby not let the truth come out. This again creates power for the government, for good or for bad (GoClickChina, 2021). Another example of China’s control over social media is their employment of over 30,000 internet police.

These workers are instructed to enforce internet rules, as well as removing any posts regarding civil rights, ownership of Tibet, and other areas of scrutiny. If caught displaying media of this

type, members of the Chinese population can be imprisoned.

Conclusion In conclusion, China is developing as a country but does have certain traits holding it back, including lack of climate action, and treatment of their autonomous regions. These however are outweighed by the booming economy. The money will be further invested into the country’s development, only making them stronger. In the coming decades, China’s impact on the world will continue to increase as they become one of the world’s greatest powers.

References:

BBC Bitesize (2022). How is China Changing? Available at: https://www.bbc. co.uk/bitesize/topics/zydk4xs/articles/zt6cg7h (Accessed 18.05.22) Climate Action Tracker (2021). China. Available at: https:// climateactiontracker.org/countries/china/ (Accessed 19.05.22) MacroTrends (2022). China Poverty rate. Available at: https://www. macrotrends.net/countries/CHN/china/poverty-rate (Accessed 19.05.22) GoClickChina (2021). The Complete guide to the Great Firewall of China.

Available at: https://www.goclickchina.com/insights/complete-guide-tothe-great-firewall-of-china-gfoc/ (Accessed 19.05.22) MacroTrends (2022). China Literacy Rate. Available at: https://www. macrotrends.net/countries/CHN/china/literacy-rate (Accessed 19.05.22)

26

What Would be the Impacts of a Cashless Society?

Humanities

Ollie Herbert, Second Form, Queen Anne House.

A

cashless society will become a reality in the very near future owing to the rapid increase of cashless payments due to Covid-19 and its consequences. A cashless society is a very self-explanatory term: it is a society with no cash. Research suggests that the impacts are greatly positive, but there are a few very negative aspects to it as well. Many sceptics believe that cashless payments will never truly replace physical cash payments. They believe that becoming cashless would only complicate things further and there are too many security difficulties to make it possible; however, there are also many positive effects that have been discovered from going cashless.

It is surprising that none of the more economically developed countries have become cashless yet as cashless payments have increased in the past two years. However, we have clearly not reached the capability yet. This could be because of Covid-19 and the setbacks in the economy that it has caused. Sweden is the closest country to becoming completely cashless in front of Finland, Denmark and the UK with currently more than 80% of Swedish people using a type of online payments; cash is only used for less than 1% of money transactions. This shows that it could be possible if some countries are nearly there already. A downfall of this though would be more money would need to be invested to make the technology for all cashless points and this would increase costs.

When first researching this topic, the evidence showed that going completely cashless would create less spending. Banks usually hire very large and expensive security teams to protect their branches against physical robberies, but this would be a thing of the past in a cashless society due to there being nothing physical for criminals to steal as banks and large businesses that would no longer store large quantities of notes. Also converting to a cashless society would remove the need to print bills and make coins, saving both time and money. Many businessmen are trying to convert to a cashless society as soon as possible to make money transactions easier and quicker by using apps such as PayPal, Apple Pay, Klarna and bank transfers. A cashless society would also save time for businesses as they would not need to store large amounts of money or withdraw or deposit cash.

Becoming completely cashless would foster lower crime rates and less money laundering. A cashless society makes it extremely difficult for people to launder money, tax evade and fund illegal activity. In our current cash society, it is very easy for people to hide large amounts of illegal items in their houses such as jewellery, illegal money or expensive antiques; whereas, in a cashless society, payments can be easily tracked through transfers, transactions and payments.

However, although putting everything online stops physical criminals from taking from you, this only makes you more vulnerable to people who can steal from you through the internet such

27 as hackers, who in one click can take everything you have online. This could be a problem because if a hacker were to drain all your money, then you may not have any other alternatives of paying and it can take banks a lot of time to get your funds back if at all. Also, when using physical money to pay for things you can feel and see the physical money leaving your hand so generally people are more cautious with how much they’re spending but spending online money could lead to recklessness when shopping, as people are not seeing the money leave their hand.

Homelessness and poverty are large problems all around the world. Roughly 1.3 million adults are ‘unbanked’ in America, meaning they are not eligible to create a bank account. However, by not owning a bank account in a cashless society it would be near to impossible to do anything.

Without a house, people have no real address to register a bank account to. Not being able to open a bank account is only the first problem.

The homeless cannot get most jobs due to them having no bank account or address so the only other way to earn money is by asking people walking past on the street or busking. However, with no cash around, the homeless would not have a source of income, which would make the situation much worse for them than it already is. That said, the increase in cashless payments

because of the global pandemic has prompted more and more companies to think thoroughly about how the homeless would cope in a cashless society. Some have already started to let people create a bank account without photo ID or proof of address.

In conclusion, the impacts of a cashless society are generally positive. The greatest impact would be felt in financial crime which would change drastically if we were to become cashless, from thieves using brute physical force to hackers who could have access to all your personal details within the click of a few buttons. According to my research, a cashless society is something we could greatly benefit from due to the overall positive impacts which include less spending, saving time and cost reductions.

References:

Fourtane, S. (2020) ‘Sweden: How to Live in the World’s First Cashless Society’. Available at: https://interestingengineering.com/swedenhow-to-live-in-the-worlds-first-cashless-society Pritchard, J. (2021) ‘The Pros and Cons of Moving To a cashless Society’.

Available at: https://www.thebalance.com/pros-and-cons-of-moving-to-acashless-society-4160702 Xpressmoney (2021) ‘The Pros and Cons of a Cashless Society’. Available at: https://www.xpressmoney.com/blog/industry/the-pros-and-cons-of-acashless-society/

28

Can Countries Justify Maintaining Their Nuclear Arsenals?

Humanities

Joe Norman, Third Form, Feilden House.

T

o the average person, nuclear missiles are frightening, unnecessary and too powerful. This is clear according to the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament UK’s survey of January 2021, which inquired whether the general public agree or disagree with nuclear arms. The results pointed towards a huge dissent with nuclear weapons after 77% of people voted to advocate a global ban on them.

So why aren’t they prohibited? In the 2015 review of the Treaty on the Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, 160 states ratified the Humanitarian Initiative. In spite of this, the conference failed to achieve consensus. There have been many attempts to pass treaties and international laws similar to such from 2015; more recently in 2017 the Treaty on Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW) was approved by the United Nations General Assembly. Outlined in Article 15 of the treaty text, the TPNW would enter into maximum force 90 days after its fiftieth ratification. On the 24th of October 2020, the TPNW reached its milestone after the Republic of Honduras had endorsed the treaty. The pact entered into power on January 21st, 2021. However, the major nuclear powers (great examples being Russia and the USA who own 90% of nuclear weaponry) are yet to sign this treaty. (Information from: James Martin Centre for Non-proliferation Studies – NTI – 2022).

Why don’t major nuclear states support antinuclear campaigns? Nuclear weapons are proficient in inflicting colossal damage on people, structures and the environment, consequently shaping them to be remarkably terrifying and therefore incredibly useful when reaching the point of war. They can be used both as shields, warding off potential threats, and also as proverbial swords, causing maximum destruction to drive an enemy to surrender by reason of the collateral damage and casualties they cause.

What makes nuclear weapons acceptable?

Some would argue that in the past city-states would build walls to protect their populations.

As technologies have advanced, nations have rushed to develop deadlier weapons than their enemies, so that the threat of loss was greater than the reward of taking territory. Nuclear weapons are an example of a line of weapons of mass destruction aimed to deter any threats

towards what is ‘held inside the city walls’. If nuclear weapons are used as dissuasion, they could in theory be seen as appropriate as that would not harm anyone or anything. In fact, they are arguably the reason for continuing peace in current times as they dissuade states from attempting to attack others.

What makes nuclear weapons unacceptable?

Nuclear arms are some of the most destructive weapons ever to have been created and few other weapons can cause the same unspeakable human suffering. The risk of the use of nuclear weapons is at the highest point it has reached since the Cold War. To add to this, nucleararmed states are modernising their arsenals; however, their control and command systems are not keeping up and becoming further at risk of cyber-attacks . A nuclear blast would not only be responsible for thousands of immediate deaths; additionally they would cause many long-term issues. If the nuclear fallout spread far enough it could disrupt the balance of the Earth’s unique ecosystem and reduce global temperatures leading to food shortages around the world. Snow isn’t something we picture when imagining warm Pacific Islands with their crystal-clear waters and palm trees dancing in the breeze. Nevertheless, as ash fell from the sky onto the Marshall Islands in 1954 it felt just as if it had snowed. The sludgy, snowy, powdery

29 sort of ash didn’t just melt away as it touched down on the sand and sea either. It continued to contaminate water, food and as a result animals and people. This was an outcome of the nearby testing of a nuclear bomb. Currently humanitarian organisations would have no plausible response to nuclear attacks and their catastrophic consequences, causing the fear of a nuclear strike to be even more terrifying. (Information from: Rendle, Clementine - ‘Why a World Free from Nuclear Weapons is Worth Fighting For’ International Committee of the Red Cross – 2021).

The nuclear weapons question is one of the greatest dilemmas facing mankind. Even if world leaders were to agree to completely rid their nations of nuclear plans, facilities and warheads, we would not be able to determine fully whether they had really disposed of them all. In 1918 Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles, which ensured that they would be unable to build an army again. There were factors as to why Germany and more importantly Adolf Hitler felt it was acceptable to violate the treaty’s terms and build his army anyway. These could be seen as the frustration of loss in the World War 1, the struggle to achieve economic recovery without Germany’s industrial areas in the Rhineland and the vast amount of money it owed to many European countries . Nevertheless, this illustrates the problem we may see in modern times. You can make governments sign anything, but as control of nations changes some rulers will inevitably seek an advantage by secretly developing nuclear weapons once more. As we saw in the Germany of the 1930s, conditions in a country can spur populations to support military development. Nowadays, in our case, this would likely mean nuclear dominance.

In conclusion, nuclear arms cannot be justified as there is no feasible way to guarantee

that nuclear weapons will be used simply as deterrents; however, arguably there is no way back – because until we can be assured that everyone will abandon their nuclear programs, we can’t abandon our own. We can only go forwards using our current strategies: pacifying governments by providing for certain economic desires, fashioning treaties and international laws combating the use and testing of weapons and we can keep trusting that holding nuclear weapons will prevent what could be the real war to end all wars and most definitely the world as we know it. Of course, whilst nuclear weapons remain there is always the risk that a cyber security breach, or a power-hungry government could take over the world using nuclear weapons to hold everybody hostage. Nuclear weapons in the wrong hands could lead to the one thing they seem to currently prevent: nuclear holocaust.

Whilst we cannot be sure, for now we can hope, pray and count ourselves lucky that we will, with good fortune, never have to suffer the terrible agony and despair felt by those in Hiroshima, Nagasaki and all over Japan.

References:

Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (2021). ‘77% of UK public back global nuclear weapons ban.’ Available at: https://cnduk.org/77-of-uk-public-backglobal-nuclear-weapons-ban/ James Martin Centre for Non-proliferation Studies (2021) . Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW). Available at: https://www.nti. org/education-center/treaties-and-regimes/treaty-on-the-prohibition-ofnuclear-weapons/ Rendle, C (2021). ‘Why a World Free from Nuclear Weapons is Worth Fighting For.’ International Committee of the Red Cross. Available at: https://www.icrc.org/en/document/world-free-from-nuclear-weapons

30

Havana Syndrome - Unexplained or Unbelievable?

Humanities

Ben Orton, Sixth Form, Swift House.

S

trange illnesses that dumbfound medical professionals are nothing new, stories of complex patterns of symptoms and unwieldy behaviours that do not make sense have nowadays become almost commonplace. Throughout history, we hear of possessed women who hear voices, mad mystical monks and unhinged leaders who, perhaps due to underlying mental health issues, were in their time, considered unhinged. So, should we be surprised that now, in the twenty-first century, new stories are arising of a mysterious and unexplainable illness that is affecting U.S diplomats and spies?

What is Havana Syndrome?

At the U.S Embassy in Cuba, initial symptoms have been described as a sudden onset of immense pressure and ringing noise in the heads of the affected, causing officials to claim that they were not able to sleep or suffer from ataxia at night-time in their homes. Alongside the hearing of noises, most people who have been impacted by the illness have also felt dizziness, confusion and nausea. Despite originating in Cuba, the illness has now been experienced by diplomats around the world with US officials, and even their families, in Guangzhou, Russia, the Middle East and unnamed countries in Europe reporting similar experiences. However, many believe that this problem has been in existence long before 2016 and that the cases in Havana have simply brought it into the public eye. Reports of symptoms are now into the hundreds and are having a real impact on the ability of the U.S to operate overseas. The U.S has named it as a top national security priority to understand the root of what some officials have described as, the most difficult intelligence challenge ever faced.

What is it About Cuba?

Since Fidel Castro successfully revolted against an American backed President, Batista, to implement a socialist state in 1959, tensions have been high between Cuba and the United States of America. The Bay of Pigs invasion and the Cuban Missile Crisis being at the heart of the conflict between the nations. After over 50 years of unease, the U.S.A removed Cuba from its terrorism list and the countries restored full diplomatic ties in 2015. This positive relationship, however, did not last long, and within only two years, rising concerns for the welfare of

U.S officials in Cuba, caused the United States embassy in Havana to nearly shut down.

Is This New? Although these reports are relatively new to many of us, events of this sort are not necessarily new to U.S officials. A ten storey United States embassy in Moscow was subject to microwave transmissions of around 2.5 - 4 gigahertz throughout the 1970s. The waves were transmitted from the balcony of a soviet apartment nearby and targeted upper floors, where the more important governmental information was discussed. This became known as “the Moscow Signal”. In 1974, US Ambassador Stoessel reported bleeding from his eyes, believed to be as a result of being subjected to excessive microwaves coming from the nearby balcony, eventually leading to the implementation of screens in the walls of the building to keep the civil servants safe. This story has only recently

31 come to light, with government officials at the time insisting Stoessel remained quiet and refusing to acknowledge any health impacts.

Possible Explanations Robert Baloh is a Professor of Neurology at the University of California, Los Angeles and is an expert on unexplained health problems and the conclusion that he came to when looking into the Havana Syndrome was a mass psychogenic condition. He argues that the individuals reporting symptoms are hyper aware of the situation regarding the syndrome and are fearful when they read stories spread by the media, which results in their linking normal headaches and pain with an imagined condition. This belief grows and results in a legitimate medical condition. He claims that a common cause of conditions like this is an underlying stressful situation, which is certainly the case for many U.S civil servants across the world, and especially in Cuba.

A recent report released in February 2022, provides a plausible explanation for cases of the Havana Syndrome. The study, conducted by the CIA, came to the conclusion that the cases may have been due to an external source or device. They believe the symptoms shown cannot possibly be caused by psychological or social factors alone. Pulsed electromagnetic energy explains the core characteristics of the illness, however there remain many gaps in their knowledge. They established that a moderately low power, easily concealable machine, able to travel through buildings and air, could be responsible. Reporters have claimed that the possibility of Russia being responsible has been mentioned in governmental meetings, but a lack

of evidence means this assertion is not backed up. Due to evidence usually being released decades after events happening it is difficult for America to be definite with their conclusions however, U.S officials have vowed to get to the bottom of this mystery and will continue to research the area.

Why Would Russia Get Involved?

The U.S and Russia have had a turbulent relationship for a long time, with tensions peaking throughout the Cold War. Cuba’s importance in this situation originates from way back in 1962, at the time of the Cuban Missile Crisis. Through the use of spy satellites, the U.S found that the Soviet Union had been building nuclear missile bases on the island of Cuba. This induced a thirteenday standoff, with a real potential for nuclear war. President Kennedy then agreed to withdraw nuclear weapons from Turkey if the Soviet Union did the same in Cuba, which Nikita Khrushchev, Premier of the Soviet Union at the time, agreed to. With the Moscow Signal as an earlier example, it is a very real possibility that Russia, in their quest for knowledge and information, is responsible for this strange onset of illness which academics and officials across the world have their suspicions around the subject.

What Now? The Havana Syndrome is an ongoing puzzle for officials of the United States of America and continues to affect the welfare of their civil servants working globally. It is therefore a priority that their government ensures that they get to the bottom of this mystery.

If evidence can be found to confirm the origins of the syndrome, what are the future implications for the security of nations and modern-day conflict? What are the limitations of new technologies in propelling nations into dominance over others? Could weapons of this sort be the dominant force in the warfare of our futures?

References:

Corera, G., 2022. ‘Havana syndrome ’ and the mystery of the microwaves. [online] BBC News. Available at: www.bbc.com Hanks, M., 2022. The “Moscow Signal”: How Russian Directed Microwave Rays Once Caused an International Incident – The Debrief. [online] The Debrief. Available at: thedebrief.org Dilanian, K., 2022. Expert Panel; Havana Syndrome most likely caused by directed energy. [online] NBC News. Available at: www.nbcnews.com Suyog Utekkar, P., 2022. [online] Medicinet.com. Available at: www. medicinet.com

32

What Are the Effects of Psychopathy and How Dangerous Can Psychopaths Be to Society?

Humanities

Zoe Robertson, Third Form, Feilden House.

Trevis Scholar

P

sychopaths make up approximately 1% of our global population, seemingly a small number. However, this equates to 78,000,000 people. If we are living with so many psychopaths, then we should educate ourselves on the potentially dangerous people that live in our society. It is crucial to know what the effects of this disorder are and how dangerous these people can really be (Fleming, 2019).

Characteristics 1 in 5 CEOs are psychopaths or have psychopathic tendencies. When looking for careers and jobs, psychopaths are attracted to positions where they can be in control and manipulate other people. Stereotypically, psychopaths are outrageous, murderous individuals, but the symptoms can vary in severity. All psychopaths suffer with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD). ASPD comes with a huge number of symptoms including: manipulative behaviour, a tendency to lie, aggressiveness, hostility and a lack of empathy.

Moreover, psychopaths often assess other people’s behaviour patterns. For instance, people who are not affected by psychopathy change their tone of voice whilst speaking without thinking. For psychopaths, this does not come naturally to them and varying their tone of voice is something they must do in order to fit in (Pearl, 2016).

Causes Usually, there is not a sole cause for this disorder, but rather it is caused by numerous circumstances. It is not possible to be born with psychopathy, however children who have psychopaths as close relatives are at an increased risk of developing it. Psychopathy is also influenced by the environment a child is brought up in; a lack of parental care and birth complications cannot cause psychopathy, but it can increase the risk of developing it and can affect the severity of the symptoms. Childhood trauma is often influential to psychopathy.

This can range from parents divorcing to child abuse or drug use by parents. Events that occur in childhood rather than adulthood are what shape psychopaths. These traumatic events in childhood affect the brain’s development and structure, sometimes leading to psychopathy

in later life. An example of this is Ed Gein, who was an American serial killer and notorious psychopath. Ed Gein’s psychological state later in life was somewhat caused by the abuse of his alcoholic father and his overbearing, manipulative mother. Ed Gein is also an example of how psychopathy links to other mental disorders and how that can worsen their condition. He suffered with schizophrenia as well as ASPD. The hallucinations and other symptoms of schizophrenia contributed to his psychopathy and being declared mentally insane (PsychopathyIs).

Differences in the Brain Despite many people’s beliefs, psychopathy can be proven scientifically. Brain scans have made it easier to diagnose people with ASPD or psychopathy as there is scientific evidence.

For instance, psychopaths have a less active amygdala. The amygdala’s purpose is to handle our emotions. The amygdala particularly handles fear; it also helps to detect dangerous behaviour.

When the amygdala is not functioning properly it becomes harder to control emotions and may lead to being in dangerous situations subconsciously. Another part of the brain affected by this disorder is the Ventral Striatum.

Vital for decision making, the ventral striatum is also responsible for the ability to ‘time leap’. This where we can envision the consequences to our actions before we do anything. With psychopaths not having this brain function, it means that it is difficult for them to know that some actions are morally wrong. These differences in the brain are what cause psychopaths to act in a different way. When seeing a disturbing video, a person not affected by psychopathy may feel fear or sadness, however in severe cases psychopaths are not affected at all.

33 Psychopathy in Youth It is not possible to diagnose psychopathy until the age of 18, but children can still show psychopathic tendencies. Although psychopathy is often less severe in youth, there are still many indications that need attention brought to them. Thinking they are superior, blaming other people, showing no guilt and becoming bored or distracted easily are things to look out for in a child. However, many of these symptoms overlap with other disorders; ADHD also comes with being distracted easily and becoming bored easily. Therefore, it is hard to determine whether a child is psychopathic or not even though some scientists believe psychopathy can become evident in people as young as 2 years old. In their teen years, psychopathic children often partake in petty crime such as shoplifting and stealing bikes or more significant crime like gangs, drugs and assault. The reason for this is not being able to identify their behaviour as wrong or illegal.

Dangers of Psychopaths The stigma around psychopaths is damaging because psychopathy differs in severity; some people with psychopathic tendencies get jobs and lead fairly normal lives. Nevertheless, it is understandable to be cautious of psychopaths as 93% of them go into some form of illegal activity. There is a lot of uncertainty when it comes to what we should do with psychopaths in our society. Many believe they are damaging our society, and this is justified by Dr Robert Hare who estimated ‘violent psychopaths are responsible for around half of the violent crime committed’. However, they did not choose to have psychopathy and cannot control the things that they do, therefore many argue that psychopaths should not be punished. Overall, psychopaths cannot be arrested and locked in a mental institution unless they have done something to suggest this is necessary. It is argued that psychopaths should be isolated as they are a ‘threat to society’. However, anyone could potentially be a threat to society and isolating psychopaths has historically proven to be harmful. This is because some psychopaths are in stable professions and are skilled at their work, tearing them away from this due to something they cannot help is unjustified and wrong.

Treatment Therapy is one of the two main treatments for psychopathy. However, this disorder cannot be cured at this point in time no matter what treatment is used, and it is highly unlikely that it will ever be curable. Therapy often proves to be ineffective especially in adults. This is because their brains are fully developed, and therapy cannot change this. On the other hand, therapy, such as family-based and individual therapy, can be effective for children with psychopathic tendencies. Their symptoms are usually less severe and therefore are easier to treat with therapy. The other treatment option is medication. There is no set medication for psychopathy yet, but in some cases, they are prescribed ADHD medication to treat some symptoms such as hyperactivity. The mindset that psychopaths cannot be helped has resulted in little money being put towards this treatment especially in comparisons to other brain disorders.

In conclusion, the effects of psychopathy are very significant but can vary regularly. Concerning public safety, being cautious is expected but it is also helpful to have a clear understanding of psychopaths before making any judgements. I believe that psychopaths should not be arrested or sent to mental hospitals without justification.

Regarding treatment, I think that more money should be put towards developing new care and how psychopathy can be prevented in the first place.

References:

BBC, ‘What makes a psychopath?’ Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/teach/what-makes-a-psychopath/z79f2sg (Date visited: 10/01/2022) Fleming, E. (2019). ‘How many psychopaths in the population?’ Available at: https://www.sidmartinbio.org/how-many-psychopaths-are-there-in-thepopulation/ (Date visited: 10/01/2022) Hare, R. ‘The Damage Psychopaths Cause in Society’ Available at: https://psychopathsinlife.com/the-damage-psychopaths-cause-in-society/ (Date visited: 10/01/2022) Psychopaths In Life, ‘The Damage Psychopaths Cause in Society’ Available at: https://psychopathsinlife.com/the-damage-psychopaths-cause-insociety/ (Date visited: 10/01/2022) PsychopathyIs, ‘What Causes Psychopathy?’ Available at: https:// psychopathyis.org/what-causes-psychopathy/ (Date visited 10/01/2022) Radford University, Psychology Department, ‘Edward Theodore Gein’ Available at: http://maamodt.asp.radford.edu/Psyc%20405/serial%20 killers/Gein,%20Ed.pdf (Date visited: 26/01/2022) Should Psychopaths be Locked up?, Quora, Available at: https://psychopathsinlife.com/the-damage-psychopaths-cause-in-society/ (Date visited: 26/01/2022)

34

What Would Happen to Earth if All Humans Suddenly Vanished?

Humanities

Liam Rowe, Second Form, Harcourt House.

M

ultiple different events could cause the extinction of humanity: omnicide, plagues and diseases, and deadly asteroids are all examples of this. However, the problem with the listed events is that most of these would result in causing a negative effect on planet Earth and possibly the wildlife as well. Of course, we do have the possibility of relocating from Earth to a different planet or solar system but the chances of every human being alive having the possibility to do this would be very unlikely as some wouldn’t want to and some would be too poor (assuming a trip would cost money). The effect humanity has had on the planet is extremely large and we have caused many problems for the planet, yet, for some species, we have been helpful. But, this raises a question, what would happen if we all just vanished completely off the face of the earth? Would the ending of our effects become a positive or a negative for Earth?

Cities and Structures The result of our disappearance would leave most buildings in more temperate areas to ignite and catch fire or start crumbling to the ground within 100 years, especially buildings constructed with wooden materials as they will ignite considerably quicker than that of metal or brick. These metal, brick or glass buildings would follow, however, as they will eventually succumb to erosion, leading them to shatter and rust. In locations that feature more desert-like biomes, not all buildings will rust quickly as there is no moisture in the air the speed up the process.

The end result of this would be a positive event for the environment as this would allow more vegetation to grow, producing new habitats for the animals previously removed from their homes by urbanisation.

Animals The vast majority of the animals alive today would continue to live like they did before human development. They would begin to thrive in their new habitats given to them by our disappearance.

However, our disappearance would influence a small percentage of the animals living now and would even result in the extinction of some of the animals that rely on us to provide their nutrients.

Rats and cockroaches are a prime example of this: they would quickly become extinct without us as they would sorely miss our waste and garbage, causing their numbers to plummet dramatically.

Another example of this that must be mentioned is our pets because, sadly, all of our beloved pets and show dogs would die quickly as they are not built or trained to survive the dangers of the wild and would most likely become an easy food

supply to more resilient mixed breeds like wolves and wild cats. Contrary to the other examples, zoo animals would probably thrive in their new territories and possibly even benefit because of their newly acquired freedom.

Environment Truthfully, the nature and environment around us would, for the most part, continue to grow and thrive and soon overcome our cites. With all this fresh new habitat opening up, nature would stoically march in, pasting over the formerly concrete jungle with grasslands, shrubbery and dense stands of trees and create a pleasant green and blue world where animals could live like they did years before.The only downside to this is that with our current CO2 levels, it would already take thousands of years before the CO2 in our atmosphere is removed. Furthermore, greenhouse gases will remain in the atmosphere if the ocean reaches its capacity, resulting in the release of more greenhouse gases from softening permafrost. Thus, we can confidently assume that the effects of climate change will persist long after we disappear.

Dangerous Buildings One of the more dangerous buildings that could possibly harm the earth would be power plants. Most people have probably seen a story of dangerous power plant failure or explosions such as the Chernobyl and Fukushima power plants, so what would happen if nobody was there to stop these explosions? Well, some will still burn long after we disappear and huge amounts of heat trapping gas will continue to be discharged into the atmosphere and only a few would actually explode. This is because of safety protocols inside the power plants called SCRAM. These protocols, if needed to, can shut down the power plant if the reactor becomes unstable to prevent such disasters occurring. Although most power plants are updated enough to keep the reactor in a stable state until the fuel runs dry, this could be a long time still running. Though,

this is only possible if the mainline and backup power remains present during the whole process, but with nobody around to keep the power present, the power will soon disappear leaving the power plant to explode. So eventually, some power plants would indeed explode, releasing radiation into the atmosphere and some would remain stable or shut down with no further consequences.

Our Last Trace As previously stated, our buildings and structures would soon rust, shatter, crumble or burn to the ground within the first hundred years or so without maintenance, but other signs of our existence would remain for much longer. Our plastics and rubber will sadly be a contender for our last traceable record as eventually the plastics and rubber will be swept into the ocean to then, after a while, settle in the sediment layers of the rock and seabed. After millions of years, the plastics would integrate into the lower rock layers and become a geological record of the earth, lasting extraordinarily longer than our large city structures and buildings. Hotspots for radiation will be able to be detected even later than that of plastics but they could not be easily, if at all, traced back to humans. Technically, these hotspots would be our possible last trace, yet nothing would be able to recognize these traces as 'human traces' because they would just be seen as natural. Records of our pollution could be found even after hundreds of millions of years after our disappearance.

Conclusion In conclusion, the effect of our disappearance would be massive in the first two hundred years as this would be the time frame where the buildings crumble and set ablaze; power plants may explode, though this is up to chance and the safety protocols; the animals in farms and zoos will escape and nature will cover our cities, leaving a massive change. After this, not much would change except the eventual process of our cities becoming unrecognisable as cities, but more of a stony rural plain. Thus planet Earth would become a more beautiful, green and blue world still lingering with our effects for millions of years, reminiscent of the times when humans hadn't affected it so badly.

References:

Cormier, Z. 'Can captive animals ever truly return to the wild?' BBC Earth.

Dickerson, K. (2015). ‘Earth would be totally chaotic if humans suddenly disappeared.’ Business Insider.

'Urban Threats'. National Geographic.

35

36

What Drives Us to Lie?

Humanities

Caellum Sharp, Fourth Form, Vanbrugh House.

A

s human beings, lying comes naturally to many of us. Even if this is not the case, it is certain that everyone has lied more than once in their life. However, lying is considered by many to be deceitful and untrustworthy. However, most people do not understand what lying actually is, or why we find it so disgusting. In fact, many people do not understand the effect a simple or ‘white’ lie can have on other people.

In order to answer this question, we need to take a look at the brain. The brain consists of four main parts that are all essential for effective lying . The frontal lobe is responsible for problemsolving and judgement; in the case of lying, it is responsible for judging whether or not to lie. If the brain decides to lie it needs to lie effectively – this is where the parietal and temporal lobes come into play. The parietal lobe is responsible for handwriting, sensation and body position.

The temporal lobe is responsible for memory and hearing. In the case of lying, the common saying “every good lie has a grain of truth” comes into play. In order to form an effective lie, the brain draws on past experiences to form a more believable lie. The parietal lobe also plays a part - body position and facial expressions can also make the lie ineffective so the lobe is responsible for supressing these. It seems that even our own bodies can betray us sometimes.

Another section of the brain that switches on at full power during a lie is the limbic system. The limbic system is situated beneath the cerebral cortex (the cortex which contains the frontal, temporal and parietal lobes) but above the brainstem. The limbic system is responsible for feeling anxiety and the ‘fight or flight’ mechanism.

‘Fight or flight’ was inherited from our original Stone Age ancestors who were not at the top of the food chain – they had to fight or flee to survive. Few people can lie without anxiety, especially when telling a lie that has more serious consequences; this probably explains why telling the truth is sometimes such a relief.

There are three types of lies that humans tell.

The most common lie is a lie of commission – a plain untruth. These are easy to spot as the story varies from time to time. The second type of lie is controversial as some question whether it really is lying. This lie is called the lie of omission, which

occurs when a person leaves an essential part of the truth out. For instance, a 12-year-old boy goes to a coffee shop and buys a hot chocolate and a cake. When his parents ask him what he bought, he tells them “a hot chocolate”, not wanting to be told off and receive the consequences of eating an unhealthy food he was not allowed to eat. Is this a lie? According to George Orwell, ‘‘the most powerful form of lie is the omission, and it is the duty of the historian to make sure that those ties do not creep into the history books.’’ The final type of lie is a lie of influence – a truth that is told to make it seem like the teller is not the culprit. For instance, a bank has been robbed and the robbers had some inside help. A detective is called in and interviews all the workers with this simple question: did you help rob the bank?

An employee is called in and he answers with this: ‘‘I’ve been working here for twenty years!’’

Although this is true, he hasn’t actually answered the question. It seems highly unlikely he helped rob the bank, but it turns out it was him; his ‘lie’ clearly didn’t pay off.

There is no perfect definition of ‘truth’ as many different things can be true. In science, truth is discovered from testing again and again until a seemingly definitive result is produced. There can only be one ‘truth’ in science – for instance, hydrogen only has one electron. In Philosophy, there is a common definition of ‘truth’. It is put down to only three things – a quality (like red or black), a thing (like a chair or a human), and a relation (the chicken can be frozen). However, in subjects like History and English, the ‘truth’ is different yet again – in these instances ‘‘the truth is in the eye of the beholder’’ (Ruth Hubbard – 1998 science, facts and feminism).

The representation of truth is up to the definer.

Everyone’s definition of truth will differ slightly, yet the overall sense is the same.

37 In a recent research project conducted by psychologist Bella DePaulo of the University of California, she found that out of 1000 Americans, 96% have lied to get out of work for reasons such as sickness and family emergencies. 91% weren’t caught and, of these 91%, only 27% regretted lying, but the other 41% would do it again. The statistics are quite shocking and say something about human nature and the way the human mind works. Not surprisingly, the majority of lying to get out of work happens between the ages of 18-29; indeed, teenagers lie the most. All this points to the immaturity of younger adults and how they differ from older, more experienced workers who don’t often feel the need to lie and in fact cannot lie very well at all. Perhaps, this could also be why promotions often occur over time, after people have proved how trustworthy they can be.

There is a reason why older people’s ability to lie is worse than that of the younger generation . It is for the same reason that babies cannot lie.

In order to lie confidently, humans must use two

skills: deontic reasoning and theory of mind.

Deontic reasoning is the ability to recognise and understand social rules. In the instance of lying, this means understanding that confessing to a crime equals a punishment whereas lying could possibly dodge the bullet. To get past this obstacle, a baby or child will simply not answer you as their theory of mind is not yet developed enough. As for the older adults, their skill in deontic reasoning is out of practice and needs practice again. Theory of mind is the ability to imagine what someone else is thinking. Babies develop this because they realise that their parents know certain things they don’t – or more to the point, their parents don’t know everything they know. This is key to lying with a good story.

Finally, response inhibition also plays a part in a baby’s ability to lie. Response inhibition is the ability to supress one’s initial response. Babies don’t start developing this until the age of around three or four, which is why asking a baby a question will result in the answer ‘yes’ or no answer at all. These are all forms of a lie or truth.

In conclusion, lying is done for most people’s self-interest. However, lying is not an innate ability most people have. Instead, it is a skill which many practice. One of the reasons that people regard it with disdain is because it requires active thought and decision-making, and is an easy way to escape blame and responsibility. In the real world, lying has a much bigger effect on other people. If an effective lie is used, innocent people will be blamed and this could lead to distrust in the judicial system, or even instability in the government. The way to combat this is to simply be more honest.

References:

Comaford, C. (2020) ‘Why We Lie and the Neuroscience Behind It’.

Available at: https://www.forbes.com/sites/christinecomaford/2020/10/17/ why-we-lie-and-the-neuroscience-behind-it/ (Accessed 16 May 2022).

Vitelli, R. (2013) ‘When does Lying Begin?’ Available at: https://www. psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/media-spotlight/201311/when-does-lyingbegin (Accessed 16 May 2022).

Schaarschmidt, T. (2018) ‘The Art of Lying’. Available at: https://www. scientificamerican.com/article/the-art-of-lying/ (Accessed 16 May 2022).

38

Is America Still the World’s Greatest Superpower?

Humanities

Archie Wilkinson, Fourth Form, Gascoigne House.

Clarke Scholar

I

n recent history, America has been considered the world's greatest superpower, but with recent global events, could this balance of power be starting to shift? This question is arguably more important than ever, with the global spotlight turning on Russia and its invasion of Ukraine. During this period, the influence of other leading nations has been observed as well, with the USA greatly condemning Russia for its actions, but China refusing to do so. These countries have been named as the three most powerful (U.S. News, 2022), and the aim of this article is to give an insight into which of these countries is the world's greatest superpower by assessing many different factors of ranging significance, as well as creating context for opinions and conclusions.

The first and one of the biggest factors is military power. For a long time, the USA has been up front - in 2020 alone they spent over $778 billion on their military, which is over a third of the total defence spending of the entire world. However, China is rapidly catching up, having spent $252 billion on their military, which is over six times more than they spent in the year 2000. China also has the most personnel in their military with 4,015,000 total staff. Russia still has the fourth largest military spending in the world below India, having spent $61 billion, a substantial amount although dwarfed by that of its competitors (World Population Review, 2022). Russia did statistically have the strongest ground force with the most tanks, artillery, and ground vehicles, but since the invasion of Ukraine its military has been proven less powerful than originally thought,

with the Russian army having to retreat from Kyiv due to strong Ukrainian resistance. This statistic may also have changed as they have lost a lot of units in Ukraine. On the other hand, the USA still holds the strongest Air Force and Navy, as their geographical position means that a ground force is less important to them. However, when it comes to nuclear power, China is left behind by Russia and the USA as combined they have the most warheads in the entire world by more than ten times. Vladimir Putin has been using nuclear threats in the ongoing war as an attempt to create fear and decrease resistance. Russia also holds possession of the most powerful nuclear weapon ever created and tested, the Tsar Bomba, with a force of 3,333 times more than the bomb dropped on Hiroshima during WWII.

39 Another key factor is the political aspects of the countries. America has recently gone through a period of political turmoil with the Obama administration being followed by Trump and now Biden. Throughout this China and Russia have both taken advantage of this instability and attempted to build up their political power as much as possible, particularly in Africa and developing nations. However, Putin's decision to invade Ukraine has created outstanding issues in global politics. Many countries have been dependant on Russia; the EU gets over 40% of its gas from there, costing £118 million per day (McGrath, 2022). The REPowerEU plan to make Europe entirely independent of Russian fossil fuels by 2030 would lose Putin a lot of money and give him much less power in Europe.

The USA has political influence in a different manner. It is a leading/founding member of many international organisations, demonstrating that its priority is overseas alliances, although China and Russia do not always share this priority. One of these organisations is NATO, which has been increasingly in the spotlight during the invasion of Ukraine. As Ukraine is not a member of NATO, countries that are members have no requirement to help in the war. However, Finland and Sweden have been talking about moving to join NATO as they cannot trust Putin, with Russia even warning of nuclear threats if the two countries do decide to join the alliance (BBC News, 2022). China has also been attempting to increase its influence in the South China Sea and has partnerships that assist them economically. China and Russia have in recent years been considered to have an informal alliance against the United States, which may be the reason China has not criticized the invasion of Ukraine.

The size of a country’s economy also helps determine their power. The USA has had the world’s greatest economy since 1871. It has a leading GDP with $20.95 trillion, whilst China has $14.72 trillion and Russia $1.48 trillion. The USA also has a larger GNI per capita than China and Russia with $63,206 compared to China and Russia’s similar amounts of $10,434 and $10,126 (The World Bank, 2022). Yet when it comes to global trade, America is drastically far behind China; so much so that trade has lost them tens of millions of dollars, whilst China is making large profits. Russia is in a very different situation to

40 usual, when it would have been making vast amounts of money from resources, as it is not trading with lots of countries that it was before, as well as facing many significant sanctions.

The USA does still have an exceptional global economic influence, as it is home to some of the largest international companies, such as Apple and Microsoft as well as providing the greatest amount of international aid.

One of the reasons Russia and China have made so much profit out of trade is that their land is home to plentiful resources. Russia is the world's number one location for gas reserves and many countries are, as previously mentioned, dependent on them for this. A noteworthy defiance to this is Germanys cancellation of the Nord Stream 2 project, a 1,234 km long gas

pipeline being built in the Baltic Sea between Germany and Russia since 2011. Russia also has major deposits of metals, minerals, and timber, and despite much of its land being under permafrost, its size makes it third in the world for arable land supplies. China is a major producer of coal and is one of the world’s largest producers of many rare materials, such as gold, graphite, vanadium, zinc, tungsten, and antimony, to name a few. As well as this, China also has rich plant and animal resources, and is estimated to have the most natural resources in the world, worth over $23 trillion (Migiro, 2018). America is also home to some of the largest reserves of coal and easily accessible oil but is slightly less rich with resources than its competitors.

41 The demographics of the countries are a slightly less important factor in determining its power but can give a good perspective on size and workforce. The USA has a population of 334 million and has historically had the world’s largest skilled work force and educated population, but this is greatly threatened by China. China has had the world's largest population for many centuries with a current 1.4 billion people – nearly 18% of the entire world population (World Population Review, 2022). It also had the most rapid sustained burst of economic growth in human history due to large-scale capital investment and rapid productivity growth. Between 1975 and 2010 China’s working age population doubled, plus its health and educational attainment rose dramatically. However, Chinas working age population is set to decrease and the proportion of elderly people is set to rise. Russia has a population of only 145 million, and it has an ageing, shrinking population, meaning it is failing in knowledge production outputs.

A final factor in this case is cultural influence.

This is considered soft power rather than hard power as it is not coercive changes but rather subtle integrations that adjust international exposure to different cultures. In the USA, after World War Two, consumer spending power and the ‘American lifestyle’ made American culture renowned across the world. An estimated 2 billion people speak English around the world and the popularity of American films and TV programmes has led to many people growing accustomed to American life and culture. China, on the other hand, has caused concerns in many countries who disagree with their stance on many key areas, including human rights. However, China has also had many cultural influences on the world, including cuisine, sports, and traditions. Russia's soft power has collapsed in many parts of the world after their decision to go to war with Ukraine, whilst support for Ukraine has soared. Nevertheless, prior to this drastic change Russia did have a significant soft power output, with their literature, dance, philosophy, and more being recognised around the world (Brand Finance, 2022).

Having compared all three nations, many inferences can be drawn. Some of the most evident are that on the whole Russia's power is decreasing rapidly since its invasion of Ukraine,

with its damaged economy and military being some of the most harmful changes. Despite the ongoing nuclear threat, at the time of writing it appears that they may have indefinitely taken away the possibility of being considered more powerful than their rivals. On paper it appears that China does still fall marginally behind America when everything is considered.

However, in many ways this is a fragile standing, with China's power increasing constantly and rapidly, and America coming close to a plateau of outputs. Thus, especially given the situation with Russia, it is evident that a lot can change in a short period of time, and it cannot be said for certain that America will remain the world's greatest superpower for the foreseeable future.

References:

BBC News. (2022) Ukraine War: Russia warns Sweden and Finland against NATO membership. Available at, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/ world-europe-61066503?at_medium=RSS&at_campaign=KARANGA (Accessed: 12/05/22) Brand Finance. (2022) Global Soft Power Index 2022. ¬Available at, https://brandfinance.com/press-releases/global-soft-power-index2022-usa-bounces-back-better-to-top-of-nation-brand-ranking (Accessed: 12/05/22) McGrath, M. (2022) Climate Change: EU unveils plan to end reliance on Russian gas. Available at, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/scienceenvironment-60664799 (Accessed: 12/05/22) Migiro, G. (2018) Countries with the most natural resources. Available at, https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/countries-with-the-most-naturalresources.html (Accessed: 12/05/22) The World Bank. (2022) World Bank Open Data. Available at, https://data. worldbank.org (Accessed: 12/05/22) U.S. News. (2022) Most Powerful Countries. Available at, https:// www.usnews.com/news/best-countries/rankings/power (Accessed: 12/05/22) World Population Review. (2022) Military Spending by Country 2022.

Available at, https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/militaryspending-by-country (Accessed: 12/05/22) World Population Review. (2022) 2022 World Population By Country. Available at, https://worldpopulationreview.com (Accessed: 12/05/22)

42

Is Cancel Culture Stifling Creativity in Young Adult Literature?

Emmeline Black, Second Form, Feilden House.

Clarke Scholar

Languages and Literature

P

eople have always had strong opinions, but, thanks to social media, they can now spread them more efficiently and broadly. This can lead to positive awareness of minority issues, but sometimes it leads to the vicious practice of 'cancelling'. 'Cancelling' is when a large number of people decide to boycott or stop supporting a particular person or organisation because they deem their views to be socially unacceptable. This often takes place through social media. The fear that authors have of being cancelled can prevent them from writing anything that could be controversial. Arguably, this means their work can then contain very little diversity, which publishers don’t want to publish.

Sometimes, the books haven’t even been published when they receive ‘hate’ on social media. This happened to Amélie Wen Zhao with her book Blood Heir. Blood Heir was rumoured to be racist and anti-black. The plot was also criticised for playing into typical ‘white saviour’ racial stereotypes: the white protagonist saves a girl (assumed to be black) from the slave trade, who subsequently dies so the white girl can live. Saying the reaction on social media was “devastating”, Wen Zhao issued an apology and, in an act of self-censorship, put the Blood Heir publication on indefinite hold (Hoggatt, 2019; Benedictus, 2019).

the second attempt and gave feedback, but the publishers never gave it to Drake, feeling that she had already been through too much. (Goodreads, 2018; Shapiro, 2018).

Arguably, the criticism faced by both Wen Zhao and Drake could be justified, but in 2017, Black Witch by Laurie Forest got “cancelled” Keira Drake was faced with very similar criticism, by people who although her book, The Continent, had received hadn’t read the positive reviews by early readers of advance books and left copies. However, when the book was published negative reviews to the public, it received very different reviews, based on what including one by fellow author Justina Ireland other people had said. Black Witch is about a calling it a “racist garbage-fire”. One reader noted girl who is raised to believe other fictional races that the book was full of racial stereotypes: were inferior to her own. As she gets older, she “Magic Black people, Ninja Asians, and questions these beliefs and fights against them in uneducated, ruthless Natives who get drunk and what has since been described as “a thoughtful try to rape the precious white girl”. Whilst another exploration of prejudice in a fantasy world” said the entire thing had “vibes of colonization”.

(Jones, 2017). Many of the initial book reviews The tribe 'Topi' was interpreted as a racist version and Twitter comments misinterpreted the of the Native-American tribe, the 'Hopi', although novel and used out-of-context quotations from Drake said this was “100 percent unintentional”. racist characters in the book as evidence of the After these damning reviews, Drake then author’s own prejudice. Some of the subsequent revised the book in an attempt to make it less Goodreads reviews criticised the book for stereotypical. Sensitivity readers (people who not going far enough in its discussion of the read books to check for insensitive or offensive systemic nature of racism, and for using fictional content before they are published) reviewed abuse of People of Colour to further the white

43 protagonist’s character development (Williams, 2017). Despite the criticism, both Forest and her publishers held firm, and she is about to publish the fifth book in what has become an incredibly successful series.

‘Cancel culture’ can affect already established authors in different ways from new, unpublished authors. Nicky Singer wrote a book about a transgender child but didn’t publish it because of the recent transgender rights discussions.

She said this was not because she was worried about herself or being ‘cancelled’ but about her transgender son. She knew that if she published this book, she would be putting her son in a position where his (very public) work, wellbeing, and possibly even his life could be at risk.

Although she was extremely proud of her book, she felt she couldn’t possibly publish it and put her son in that position (Singer, 2021). Sir Kazuo Ishiguro has expressed his concerns for those who “rightly, perhaps, feel that their careers are more fragile, their reputations are more fragile and they don’t want to take risks.” He believes that as an already established writer, he has a lot more freedom to speak his mind (Spiked, 2021).

In conclusion, ‘cancelling’ may not be intended in a damaging way; often the reason for ‘cancelling’ is to boycott those who promote dangerous notions about marginalised groups.

However, when cancelling is practiced so often that it becomes not just culturally acceptable but encouraged, it can have devastating consequences. On occasion this culture has led to widespread unjust criticism and vilification of authors who have attempted to write about events outside of their own lived experiences.

Orange Prize winner Lionel Shriver recently spoke of her “dislike of this ostensible presence of cultural appropriation, which can mean all you end up writing is a memoir” and summed up the arguments for authenticity as “basically anti-imagination” (Platt, 2021). There is no doubt that authors should be

held to account for promoting racist, misogynistic or homophobic views, and hate has little place in twenty-first century literature. Nevertheless, as a society we may be in danger of creating an environment where young authors are afraid to speak their views, explore their own creativity, or write about experiences or cultures they haven’t lived. As Mary Watson, a mixed-raced author, said, “I absolutely agree that sloppy representation should be spoken out against, but I think this should happen in ways that encourage constructive dialogue rather than cancellation.”

References:

Benedictus, L. (2019) “Torn apart: the vicious war over young adult books” URL: Torn apart: the vicious war over young adult books | Young adult | The Guardian Date visited: November 3rd 2021 Goodreads (2018) “The Continent” URL: The Continent by Keira Drake (goodreads.com) Date visited: January 13th 2022 Hoggatt, A. (2019) “An Author Canceled Her Own YA Novel Over Accusations of Racism. But Is It Really Anti-Black?” URL: Blood Heir controversy, explained: Why Amélie Wen Zhao canceled her own YA novel. (slate.com) Date visited: November 8th 2021 Jones, T. (2017) “The Black Witch: A thoughtful exploration of prejudice in a fantasy world” URL: The Black Witch: A thoughtful exploration of prejudice in a fantasy world | Fantasy Literature: Fantasy and Science Fiction Book and Audiobook Reviews Date visited: 13th January 2022 Platt, P. (2021) “Lionel Shriver: Arguments about authenticity are ‘antiimagination’” URL: Lionel Shriver: Arguments about authenticity are ‘antiimagination’ (msn.com) Date visited: November 6th 2021 Shapiro, L. (2018) “Can You Revise a Book to Make It More Woke?” URL: Keira Drake on ‘The Continent’ and Its Twitter Backlash (vulture.com) Date visited: November 12th 2021 Singer, N. (2021) Interview.

Spiked. (2021) “Kazuo Ishiguro is right: cancel culture kills creativity” URL: https://www.spiked-online.com/2021/03/01/kazuo-ishiguro-is-right-cancelculture-kills-creativity/ Dated visited: November 20th 2021 Williams, S. (2017) “Vermont Fantasy Novel 'The Black Witch' Sparks Internet Fury” URL: Vermont Fantasy Novel 'The Black Witch' Sparks Internet Fury | Books | Seven Days | Vermont's Independent Voice (sevendaysvt.com) Date visited: November 4th 2021

44

What is the Value of Studying Modern Languages?

Monty Bolton, Fourth Form, Vanbrugh House.

Trevis Scholar

Languages and Literature

I

n a growing world, language is ever evolving. It is intrinsically built into our society and is used for many different purposes. Learning an additional language also provides many crucial values: intellectual, personal, social and political. These all combine to make language learning a beneficial practice. This article will discuss whether the negatives of learning a language outweigh the positives. The influence of English continues to be spread through pop culture and business, causing more people to learn it. In foreign workplaces, many workers speak English, whether fluently or not. This has caused English speakers to become desensitised to the need for language learning. When it comes to English-speaking countries like the UK, only 38% of Britons speak a language other than English, whereas in a country with a fast-growing economy like China, over 50% of the population speak English (Education & Training Foundation). This is the reason this topic needs to be discussed, as people need to try to communicate in a way that makes everyone feel safe, respected and represented.

Cultural Value 'Culture' refers to the joint characteristics and patterns of a group of people. Language and culture are heavily connected, both greatly influencing each other. Different cultures not only have different languages, but they also use different paralanguage. According to the Oxford Languages Dictionary, paralanguage is ‘the non-lexical component of communication by speech.’ This includes pitch, tone, gesture, and so on. Bilingual people tend to change their vocal patterns when switching languages, which can cause changes in gesture. One website stated: 'Language changes often represent a culture's changing values. Language and culture are inextricably related. And you can't learn one without first knowing the other' (The Language Doctors, 2021). This describes the complex and intrinsic relationship between language and culture. By allowing one to explore and understand different cultures and ways of life, language learning is an important tool in combatting misunderstandings, prejudice and discrimination.

Social Value Verbal communication allows us to convey simple or complex emotions, as well as express our ideas and thoughts. As there are around 6912 living languages, being able to speak another one

allows people to make connections with others all around the world (Vistawide). Nick Kristof writes: ‘One of the most rewarding aspects of the human experience is our ability to connect with others. Being able to communicate with someone in his or her language is an incredible gift’ (Languages, 2020).

Additional languages are a huge aid when it comes to travelling. Being able to fully experience the wonder and culture of a foreign country is essential, and this may be difficult without languages. A full understanding of the inner working of a country's dialect isn't required, but it certainly helps to read signs, or talk to foreign citizens. When one travels, there tends to be a language barrier. This divide separates the tourist from the authentic experience. Regarding this kind of divide, Nelson Mandela once said: 'If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to his head. If you talk to him in his own language, that goes to his heart.' This perfectly outlines another key point when it comes to this argument. People across the world, feel more comfortable when spoken to in their mother tongue. This is mainly because conversation becomes easier, as when speaking in other languages, research shows core conversational skills tend to be forgotten, or less emphasised.

45 Jobs and Opportunities Another positive aspect of learning a foreign language is the opportunities it creates. All of these are experiences that can be achieved normally, however are aided with the ability to speak another language. Take occupations for example – there are countless jobs out there.

Many jobs can be assisted with language such as tourism and hospitality, education, politics, policing and even finance. These are all varying paths in life, and all are easier to pursue if understanding and speaking an additional language is part of our skillset.

Intellectual Value A person who can speak two languages is called bilingual. There have been countless studies on bilingual people and the way they think, and the intricacies in which they decipher information is incredible. An article states: 'Bilingual speakers process information more efficiently and more easily than those who know a single language.

The benefits occur because the bilingual brain is constantly activating both languages and choosing which language to use and which to ignore’ (EurekAlert, 2014). This shows the effect language learning has on the brain. This is more prominent in the developing brains of younger children, who grow up in a multi-lingual household.

Viorica Marian is a psycholinguist, cognitive scientist, and psychologist who has built a reputation around her extensive research on bilingualism and multilingualism. Marian states: ‘It's like a stop light, Bilinguals are always giving the green light to one language and red to another. When you must do that all the time, you get good at inhibiting the words you don't need.’ So being able to speak, or at least understand multiple languages aids your brain when it comes to processing information. This was confirmed when a current Spanish A-level student commented: ‘I thought learning a foreign language would simply help break down barriers of communication and permit me to experience other cultures. Since electing to pursue Spanish at A Level, however, I have begun to realise that the complexities of the language help develop more of an understanding of the etymological roots of words and phrases - adding a new dimension to the English language.’ This gives us a clear idea of the practical use of languages, as

well as the effect it has on the development of one's mother tongue.

Negatives And whilst languages are useful, I also wanted to explore the negatives of learning modern languages, as that side of the argument isn't as commonly explored. One recurring argument is that learning a language is time consuming and requires dedication. This is confirmed by a comment from the same student: 'There is only one negative to learning a language that comes to mind; learning a language is a timeconsuming endeavour and requires a lot of repetition. However, I would say that the benefits far outweigh this, as working hard to learn some vocabulary will later help to flavour your experiences of the diverse and wonderful world, we live in.' this view is shared across the globe, and it does pose a good point, however.

When it comes to the negatives of learning languages, the most common thoughts people have when it comes to downsides of languages are cost, time-consuming or they're simply not interested. Learning a language is hard and takes ages to master. There is no exact measurement of how long learning a language takes, however it can take anywhere between 2 months or 2 years.

Conclusion In conclusion, there are a variety of reasons to learn a foreign language and the positives greatly outweigh the negatives. As English speakers, we need to be able to communicate with people from all parts of the world. Whether for business, travel, or even education, it is crucial to develop an understanding and respect for foreign languages and cultures.

References:

Education & Training Foundation. (n.d.). British Worst at Learning Languages. Retrieved from Exellencegateway.org.uk: https://esol. excellencegateway.org.uk/content/learners/skills/reading/british-worstlearning-languages EurekAlert. (2014). Bilingual brains better equipped to process information. Retrieved from EurekAlert: https://www.eurekalert.org/newsreleases/506634 Jumpspeak. (2021). 8 Science-Backed Benefits of Learning a New Language. Retrieved from Jumpspeak: https://www.jumpspeak.com/blog/ benefits-of-learning-a-new-language Lead With Languages. (2020). Retrieved from LeadwithLanguages.org.

Richards, R. (2021). The Disadvantages of Learning a Foreign Language.

Retrieved from The Classroom: https://www.theclassroom.com/ disadvantages-learning-foreign-language-7932356.html Target Jobs. (n.d.). Career Benefits of Being Billingual. Retrieved from targetjobs: https://targetjobs.co.uk/careers-advice/finding-a-job/careerbenefits-being-bilingual The Language Doctors. (2021). Language And Culture Relationship - A Detailed Guide. Retrieved from thelanguagedoctors.org: https:// thelanguagedoctors.org/what-is-the-language-and-culture-relationship/ Vistawide. (n.d.). Language Statistics and Facts. Retrieved from Vistawide: https://www.vistawide.com/languages/language_statistics.htm

46

To What Extent Did the Romantic Poets Influence Society at the Time They Were Writing?

Ella Cripps, Sixth Form, Harcourt House.

Languages and Literature

T

he question I have chosen to explore is indeed complex, as the romantics did not directly affect society like a war or rebellion, but the birth of the new set of ideas influenced people on a global scale and major transitions did in fact take place in society. Romanticism was an intellectual and artistic movement in Europe from the late 18th century until the early 19th century. The movement was characterized by a heightened interest in nature, emphasis on the individual’s expression of emotion and imagination, and rebellion from the social rules and conventions.

Romanticism was a response to the scientific rationalism during the Age of Enlightenment. The Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason and logic contrasted with the Romanticism movement, which stressed the concepts of emotion, originality, and nature against reason and technological advancement.

The romantic movement was important because it was part of the evolution of consciousness.

The romantics had a more intense awareness than previous human beings. Their awareness was more intense in that they felt a strong sense of connection with nature, an intense sense of empathy and compassion (which gave rise to their social idealism), and also an intense subjective awareness. The Romantics were inspired by the environment and encouraged people to venture into new territories – both literally and metaphorically. In their writings they made the world seem a place with infinite, unlimited potential. An example of the influence the romantic poets had on the public through their writing is an essay called "The Necessity of Atheism” by the English poet Percy Bysshe Shelley, printed in 1811 by Charles and William Phillips in Worthing while Shelley was a student at University College, Oxford. Percy Shelley’s

“The Necessity of Atheism” was heavily influenced by Shelley’s religious belief, atheism. In “Necessity of Atheism” Shelley argues that there is no evidence for a God based on observation or experience. This line of argument indicates the major influence of the Enlightenment philosophers on his perspective, but religion is still the main influence because his religious belief is the foundation of the writing. To conclude, religion was often mentioned in the romantic poet’s writing, and they stressed the importance of God and it’s abilities of creating creatures like tigers which Blake explores in his poem “Tyger, Tyger.” This poem explores the two life elements, innocence, and experience, and how to synthesize these two things, more specifically, though, he highlights how the tiger can restore innocence.

One of the most influential poets, John Keats, is an English Romantic lyric poet whose verse is known for his incredibly vivid imagery and great sensuous appeal. “Ode to a Nightingale” by John Keats is a well-crafted poem of his, where emotions of sadness and despair are explored, along with ideas of transience and the passage of time. Keats’ work is in reaction to the industrial revolution from 1750-1830, a movement away from agriculture to industry. In this dense and synaesthetic poem, Keats is struck by the singing of a nightingale bird, and explores the melancholy he feels so intensely, “my heart aches, and a drowsy numbness pains my sense.” The nuances

47 in Keats’ work are significant, he considers the sense of injustice and movement for change, inspiring ordinary people to look to a better time.

Although not directly saying these things, Keats implies it in figurative way, which is why he is seen as an impressive poet. Blake was radical in his political views, frequently addressing social issues in his poems and expressing his concerns about the monarchy and the church. His poem ‘London’ draws attention to the suffering of chimneysweeps, soldiers, and prostitutes.

William Wordsworth was an archetypal romantic poet, who expressed, “that best portion of a man’s life, his little, nameless, unremembered acts of kindness and love.” Wordsworth was significant as he expressed aspects of romanticism other poets had not. He originated a new kind of poetry, whilst previous poets had mainly dealt with political and moral issues (often in a satirical and whimsical way), Wordsworth believed that poetry should be subjective, an expression of the inner life of the author, or a lyrical description of the beauty of the natural world. He defined poetry as "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings.” Wordsworth was concerned about the elitism of earlier poets, whose highbrow language and subject matter were neither readily accessible nor particularly relevant to ordinary people. He maintained that poetry should be democratic; that it should be composed in ‘the language really spoken by men’ (Preface to Lyrical Ballads [1802]). For this reason, he tried to give a voice to those who tended to be marginalised and oppressed by society: the rural poor; discharged soldiers; ‘fallen’ women; the insane; and children.

One of the most notable successes of the romantic poets was that they highlighted the healing power of the imagination. They believed the power of the imagination could transcend people’s troubles and circumstances. Their creative talents could illuminate and transform the world into a coherent vision, enabling them to regenerate humankind spiritually. For the world to be regenerated, the Romantics said that it was necessary to start all over again with a childlike perspective. They believed that children were special because they were innocent and uncorrupted, enjoying a precious affinity with nature.

To conclude, the romantics influenced their audience greatly. They also influenced political ideology, inviting engagement with the poor and oppressed with the ideals of social emancipation.

Their influence, as a reaction to the technological advancement in the Industrial Revolution and Age of Enlightenment, to the people of Britain was definitely inspiring. Most importantly, though, they provided hope that Britain was in a transition of change. After the Peterloo Massacre, and the French Revolution, this was what people could read to provide a sense of hope.

References:

Bartleby Research (2020) ‘Influences of the Romantic Period’ www. bartleby.com/essay/influencesoftheromanticperiod Stephanie Forward (15 May 2014) Discovering Literature: Romantic & Victorians ‘The Romantics’ www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/ the-romantics ‘Romantic influence Of the Romantic Movement’ (2018) www.ipl.org/essay/Romantic-Influence-Of-The-Romantic-Movement ’10 Key characteristics of Romanticism in literature’ (2016) www.examples.yourdictionary.com/10-key-characteristics-of-romanticismin-literature

48

Why Did Orwell Use the Allegorical Form to Critique Communism in Animal Farm?

Sam Farr, Fourth Form, Swift House.

G

Languages and Literature

eorge Orwell’s compulsion to critique communism is most likely borne from when he fought in the Spanish Civil War, specifically Catalonia. As he later declared, he went there “to shoot at ‘Fascists’” (Orwell, 1942). The campaign of lies and distortion carried out by the communist press had a profound effect on him as he witnessed first-hand the kaleidoscope of selfishness and dangers that can accompany communism. His experience in the Spanish Civil War not only influenced his 1938 book Homage to Catalonia but consequently influenced Animal Farm (1945).

George Orwell wrote Animal Farm in the allegorical form because he wanted to warn everyone about how communism could affect and damage nations and leaders. He wanted his message to be translatable to any generation, so that the wrongdoings of the leaders in the book can be noticed in everyday life. Any person at any age can read or listen to the novella. He wanted young children to see that what the pigs did was wrong, and he wanted adults to read it and understand that the idea of communism is not always as perfect as it seems. He suggests that this ideology can easily be manipulated to a leader’s will and threaten all of society.

Throughout the novella, there are references to real life events through characters and settings.

For example, the Windmill in the book represents the tireless work the animals had to go through, and when it fell, they were forced to rebuild it again. This represents collectivism in the USSR during the 1920’s and 30’s, where workers were forced to work to increase Russia’s large industries and their production. He used the Windmill to symbolise collectivism as it shows how once the animals have served their purpose, they are disposed of. The way the pigs force the other animals to work show how skewed the pigs’ idea of equality is, much like Stalin’s ideas of communism.

49 Similarly, the Barn is portrayed as a place where decisions are made and, as the story progresses, opinions are silenced. This represents the Kremlin and the oppressive nature that accompanied it, with Stalin’s climate of fear not only extending to the public, but those in the Communist Party. The way Orwell translates this into his book shows the danger in communism, and how easily it can be twisted and manipulated to make some more powerful than others. Through the farmyard setting, Orwell wanted to symbolise how perfect an idea can appear. We see how the animals react to their liberation from Mr Jones, just like the population of Russia felt after the introduction of communism by Lenin.

By presenting these political leaders as farm animals, Orwell encourages the reader to view their own political leaders in a more critical fashion. If he had chosen to write this book revolving around humans, neglecting the symbolism of each character, the story would be mundane and less engaging. By enabling the reader to relate the actions of the farm animals to events that happen every day, Orwell helps everyone notice faults in the people they trust and rely on. Hence the novella’s enduring power today.

The parallels between fictional characters and real-life characters are another important aspect of the book with Old Major being Vladimir Lenin, Snowball being Leon Trotsky and Napoleon being Josef Stalin. We see their actions in the books mirrored in real life, with Snowball’s downfall after The Battle of the Cowshed representing how Stalin and his commissars denounced Trotsky’s commitment and involvement in the October Revolution, as he raised the Red Army and started the Civil War to overthrow the Bolshevik government. Vyacheslav Molotov represents Squealer, who frequently changes the commandments initially set. Molotov was Stalin’s protégé and subsequent Head of Propaganda for Stalin.

Perhaps most important are the Ten Commandments. They are a set of rules Napoleon and Snowball create to make sure everyone on the farm is equal and retains their communistic views. However, by Squealer’s and Napoleon’s hand, they are changed and manipulated, as only the pigs can read. This represents how Stalin used his influence in a secret way to grant his will. For example, using the NKVD. He undermined all the rules he initially set, much like Napoleon does.

The constant changing of the commandments to fit Napoleon’s will ends with one single commandment. It reads: ‘All Animals are Equal, but some Animals are more Equal Than Others’.

This ultimately means nothing, which shows how the pigs use contradictory statements that make no sense. They twist language to try and confuse the other animals and gain power over Animal Farm.

References:

Orwell, G. (1945) Animal Farm. London: Secker and Warburg.

Orwell, G. (1938) Homage to Catalonia. London: Secker and Warburg.

Orwell, G. (1942) ‘Looking Back on the Spanish War.’ Available at: https:// www.orwellfoundation.com/the-orwell-foundation/orwell/essays-andother-works/looking-back-on-the-spanish-war/ (Accessed 26.05.22)

50

To What Extent do the 2021 Nobel Peace Prize Winners Promote Peace?

Finn van Landeghem, Fourth Form, Vanbrugh House.

T

Languages and Literature

he Nobel Peace Prize is one of the most prestigious prizes in the world and its recipients have supposedly made a significant contribution to the progress of humankind. However, we as a society often do not question the credibility of large charitable institutions such as the Nobel. The first prizes were awarded in 1901. Every year, the Nobel Committee awards the Nobel Prizes to nominated candidates. The Nobel Committee is comprised of five individuals appointed by the Norwegian parliament. After the committee is chosen, academics and government officials globally can nominate people for the prize.

In fact, the origins of the prize are not without conflict. Alfred Nobel was the Norwegian inventor of dynamite. Although he first intended his invention to be used for civil purposes, it was soon weaponised and used in conflict. Not wanting to be remembered for the destruction brought by his invention, he set up the Nobel Prizes to encourage good deeds. Nobel died in Italy in 1896 and in his last will and testament he wrote that he wanted much of his fortune to be used to award an annual prize in Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature and Peace. Unfortunately, Nobel’s family objected to the will and Nobel's lawyers had to convince the family for four years until they let the will be followed through.

In subsequent years, the Nobel Peace Prize has been awarded to some great causes. Nelson Mandela received his prize with Fredrik Willem de Klerk in 1993 ‘for their work for the peaceful termination of the apartheid regime and for laying the foundations for a new democratic south Africa’. In 1964 Martin Luther King Jr won the prize ‘for peaceful opposition to racial discrimination’. Amnesty International was awarded the prize ‘for its work in preventing torture and abuses of human rights’.

The first co–recipient of the Prize in 2020 was Dmitry Andreyevich Muratov, who cofounded the newspaper Novaya Gazeta in 1993. The newspaper soon became known for its investigations into corruption, human rights abuses, electoral fraud, police violence, and other misuses of power. For example, Novaya Gazeta was partly responsible for the release of

the Panama papers in 2016, which exposed how Russian officials close to Putin were deflecting from paying taxes. Muradov began as deputyeditor in chief, but later served as correspondent for the 1994-1995 conflict in Chechnya where he sympathised with the violent rebellion against the Russian forces.

As a result of their investigative journalism Novaya Gazeta has been targeted many times. In 2018 a funeral wreath and severed sheep’s head were sent to the paper’s offices with a note addressed to a staff member who reported on the secretive Wagner mercenary group.

Recently Novaya Gazetta claim to have been subject to a chemical attack. Despite this, Novaya Gazeta has continued its investigations, exposing the atrocities of the Russian army in Chechnya and defending people of different ethnic backgrounds and sexualities who are being persecuted by the government.

In total six Novaya Gazeta reporters and contributors have been murdered for their work.

51 The other co-recipient of the Prize was Maria Angelita Ressa, who started her journalistic career as the CNN correspondent in Manila.

During her time at CNN she reported on major political events in South-East Asia, such as the ratification of the Philippine constitution. After the 9/11 attacks, Ressa moved to the USA and she investigated the growing number of terrorist groups in South-East Asia. In America she wrote a book about the growing use of social media to radicalise terrorist groups. In 2012, she moved back to the Philippines and founded Rappler, a free digital media platform where she served as editor in chief and CEO. Rappler became popular quickly, being known for criticising the government and exposing corruption and human right violations. In 2015, Ressa interviewed future president Rodrigo Duterte. In the Interview he admitted to having killed three people. When in 2016 President Duterte came to power, Rappler was one the few media companies to criticise his policies and write about how the Philippine government misuses social media to spread false information and discredit opponents.

In 2020, Ressa faced charges for cyber-libel and was found guilty but was able to post bail.

The 2020 recipients, while having the right intentions, cause more violence than change.

While expressing their freedom of speech against violent governments, the Prize winners do three main things.

Firstly, the Prize winners endanger themselves and their colleagues, which is demonstrated by the murder of Novaya Gazetta journalists. Secondly, the prize winners encourage change, which in the context of non-democratic government means their actions either result in violent coups and protest and in turn a violent reaction from the government.

On the one hand, it could be argued that the journalist is not responsible for the consequences of their work and thus cannot be held accountable for the non-peaceful conditions they create. However, I would argue all people who are able to influence their reader are responsible for the consequences of their words. This can be seen with how we feel towards political figures such as Donald Trump and his misuse of power to incite the Capitol riot of 2021. He, like these journalists, used his position as an influential figure to insight the violence and non-democratic conditions. As a result of his words, Donald Trump got banned from Twitter and many people concur that Donald Trump is, at least partly, to blame for the riot. While the journalists may not have malintent with their words, they should, like any influential figure, be held accountable for the consequences of their words.

Furthermore, you could argue that protest is not necessarily violent. However, in the case of the journalists, protest would almost certainly mean violence because direct criticism of a government official is never accepted. In the case of Novaya Gazetta, at least a dozen journalists have been killed for their criticism to the government since the founding of the newspaper. In the case of Maria Ressa, she was detained for her criticism on false cyber-libel charges.

In sum, these journalists undoubtedly play an important role in reforming their countries into a true democracy. However, while having peaceful intentions, they are also responsible for the violence which often stems from their words and therefore they do not promote peace. Thus, they should not receive the Nobel Peace Prize, but rather a different prize related to bravery and promoting democratic values.

References:

‘All Nobel Peace Prizes’. Available at: https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/ lists/all-nobel-peace-prizes/

52

How and Why do Writers use Allegory in Their Work?

Oscar Luckett, Fourth Form, Vanbrugh House.

W

Languages and Literature

riters make selections from hundreds of different literary techniques in order to make their works more exciting, gripping or intriguing. One of the most effective, and arguably most difficult, of these techniques, is allegory. But why is this literary device such an effective tool in crafting a meaningful piece of work?

And how is it used?

What is Allegory?

The word allegory actually comes from the Latin word “allegoria” meaning: “speaking to imply something else.” Put simply, allegory is a literary device used to add a hidden layer of meaning or subtext to a story, poem, painting or any form of creative work (literarydevices.net, masterclass. com) It is often used subtly as a means of adding moral, religious or ethical messages to a piece of work. The important point to remember about allegorical work is that, by design, the message is not incredibly obvious; in fact, it is usually so subtle, that it is possible to miss it completely if you aren’t conscious of it. Where allegory is used, it often remains possible for the work to be taken at face value and to function without discovery of the deeper meaning. Take Plato’s “Allegory of the Cave” as an example. At face value, it is a story about a prisoner escaping from a cave and emerging into the real world, but look deeper, and you find hidden messages about the blindness of man, and the importance of philosophy.

Why do Writers use Allegory?

As mentioned previously, writers select allegory to convey a deeper, often covert message to the reader. In Aesop’s Fables (fable being a type of allegory) all of the stories contain deep moral messages which are still entertaining even when the message is not understood. In the tale “The Lion and The Mouse”, we read about a mighty lion who captures a tiny mouse and decides to set him free; the lion is then captured in a net by hunters. The mouse comes along after a while and gnaws through the net setting the lion free.

Taken at face value, that’s a fairly entertaining story, but read more deeply and you learn lessons about strength coming in many forms, and good deeds being rewarded.

But why do writers not make their messages more obvious? Why disguise the morals behind

lions and mice? The answer is simple: allegory is also used to convey messages in an approachable manner. No one wants to read a story about how lying always causes more problems than it fixes, and about how government systems are unfair. Hide that behind witch trials, and devils, and affairs, and it suddenly becomes something we want to read. We read what we want to read, while subconsciously (or consciously) thinking about the issue the writer is trying to raise.

A less morally justified reason for using allegory is simply to show off. Allegory is a very difficult technique to master. When an author gets it right, it’s quite an impressive feat, and definitely something worth boasting about.

Allegory Vs Symbolism Allegory and symbolism are two very similar devices which are often confused with one another. In truth, the differences between them are subtle, and almost negligible, but they do exist so it is important to recognise them.

Symbolism is a device which allows a writer to make certain places, people or events have a more significant meaning. In other words, specific elements in a work are symbols for something else. For example, you will often find villains wearing black items of clothing, this is because black is typically used to show something is evil or malicious.

In allegory, however, the entire work is a symbol for something more profound or meaningful. In “The Lion, The Witch and The Wardrobe” by C.S. Lewis, the entire storyline and all the characters, act as symbols to help tell the Christian story.

The best way of describing the difference is that allegory is symbolic in entirety, however work containing symbolism is not necessarily an allegory.

Literary Allegories A very well-known example of allegory is

Plato’s “Allegory of The Cave”. In brief, there are prisoners trapped in a cave, who are forced to stare at the back wall of the cave where shadows are projected. The prisoners know nothing of the world other than the cave and the shadows, they become the prisoners’ reality. One day, a prisoner breaks free from the cave and emerges into the real world. At first they can see nothing as their eyes have not grown accustomed to the bright light. When they do finally see, they see real animals, and real trees, and real plants. They are so amazed and overjoyed by this that they rush back down to the cave to tell the other prisoners.

But the escaped prisoner cannot see in the darkness as his eyes are accustomed to the light, so he returns to the bright place.

Taken literally, it is a fairly interesting story, however, it contains deeper philosophical messages. In the story, the prisoners represent average people, the cave is the world we live in and the things we perceive are represented by the shadows. The escapist is Socrates, the man who popularised philosophy. When Socrates emerges into the real world, it is a symbol of the way philosophers see things, they believe that they see things for what they truly are. Stumbling in the darkness represents the fact that once you open your eyes and mind to philosophy, there is no going back from it.

An example of more modern allegory is “The Lion, The Witch and The Wardrobe” by C.S. Lewis. The story is about four children who enter a magical land called Narnia. They find out that the rightful ruler of the world is gone and that Narnia is ruled

by Jadis, an evil witch. The children learn to know the rightful ruler Aslan and they help him to retake his land from the evil that grips it.

C.S. Lewis, was a committed Christian, so it should come as no surprise that this story is an allegory for the story of Christ. Aslan represents Jesus, the godly saviour who comes to save Earth from the Devil, the Devil being portrayed by Jadis.

Edmund Pevensie, one of the children, betrays his siblings to Jadis, he is Judas. Aslan’s death and resurrection bears a strong resemblance to Jesus’ crucifixion and resurrection at Easter.

The children knowing Aslan is a suggestion that knowing God can make things better for the world and yourself.

with allegorical themes. Originally, Roddenberry wanted to make a show which explored the issues he was concerned with in an overt manner, but no production companies would take the idea. So he returned to the drawing board and decided to make a more allegorical version of the show set in…The Final Frontier! Through the use of aliens, star ships, first contact, and the principles of the future, Roddenberry managed to create an entertaining TV show, which was still profoundly important. Roddenberry created a 23rd century universe where issues of race, religion, and sex weren’t issues anymore…in fact, Star Trek was one of the first TV shows to air an interracial kiss.

A final example of allegorical writing is The Matrix. The Matrix can be considered as both a philosophical and biblical allegory. The main character, Neo, can be viewed as Jesus in this scenario. He comes from another world into the real world in order to save them from a great evil, in this case AI. Neo has a group of people who follow him and believe that he is the chosen one, these people can be seen as the Disciples although there is not twelve of them. One of these “Disciples”, named Cypher, can be seen as the Judas of this story as he betrays Neo and his betrayal eventually leads to many deaths including Neo’s…sort of. The films are also filled with biblical references, for example, the last human city on Earth is called Zion, in Christianity, Zion is one of the names given to the kingdom of heaven. Morpheus, another main character in the story, owns a ship called the Nebuchadnezzar, Nebuchadnezzar was the king of Babylon from 605 – 560 BC and appears in the Bible as an evil tyrant who massacres Jews. (ahhsfilm.com) In conclusion, allegory is a clever and effective literary device which is not only a means of showing off, but can also allow people to grasp far more complex and challenging ideas and themes which might be difficult to accept when presented more directly. It is a device that allows readers to experience stories in ways that they might never have considered before, and it opens people’s eyes to issues and lessons that we all need to learn.

Allegory in Popular Culture Allegory can also be found in popular culture. For example, Gene Roddenberry’s “Star Trek”, and other iterations of it, contained many episodes

Masterclass.com (2021) available at: https://www.masterclass.com/articles/ what-is-allegory-types-of-allegory-in-writing-and-5-tips-on-usingallegory-in-writing#quiz-0 (accessed: 2 November 2021)

References:

Literarydevices.net (2019) available at: https://literarydevices.net/allegory/ (accessed: 1 November 2021)

Ahhsfilm.com (2000) available at: http://ahhsfilm.weebly.com/movies-asallegory.html (accessed: 3 November 2021)

53

54

Exploring Organic Architecture’s Effect on a Building’s Sustainability.

Lucas Bennett, Sixth Form, Queen Anne House.

C

STEM

oined by American architect Frank Lloyd Wright in the late 1930s, Organic Architecture is any design which has a minimal impact on the surrounding environment. Given the recent emphasis placed on having a greener future, Organic Architecture has been pushed into the spotlight of the media. For context, cities produce 60% of the world’s carbon emissions, while using 78% of its energy.

Undoubtedly, this is a systemic issue which cannot be tackled by any-one solution; however, through using organic architecture, new building designs can play their part in realizing a greener future. My research has split Organic Architecture in to two main sections: The use of greenery and more engineering focused solutions.

Greenery Breaking up walls of glass, incorporating greenery into a city landscape has many benefits, however I think that it is better to make clear from the offset that its main effect is changing the population’s mindset towards climate change.

Used by many buildings as a tool for aesthetics, green facades promote carbon neutrality while simultaneously affecting your brain. Taking data from a recent WIT talk by Professor Katherine Willis, colour psychology shows that the brain is less strained when perceiving wavelengths of green light, causing it to relax. Proven through large-scale studies, other relevant factors include a plants scent, as well as its mid-range fractal patterns. While soothing the brain, this alleviates stress and subconsciously improves your emotions.

Although plants usage within organic architecture is mostly aesthetical, there are some applications where they can be relevant for improving the environment. In a city landscape, glass-reflectedlight causes the urban heat island effect, which can be mitigated using plants to cool the surrounding air. Research shows this can drop the temperature by up to 7°C due to transpiration from the plant’s leaves as well as casting of shade over reflective surfaces.

Algae Algae is an often overlooked as a plant due to its invasive nature and unicellular structure, yet it is surprisingly effective at filtering polluted air. As seen outside of the recent COP21 meetings algae can be cultivated in panels, then cycled through external air to act as a natural filter. Accounting

for more than 50% of the photosynthesis which takes place on Earth, algae are more efficient than regular plants at converting CO2 into oxygen, making them perfect for compact filters due to their small form factor. Furthermore, at the end of an algae cell’s life cycle, they can be compressed with wool and natural polymers to be fermented into a carbon-neutral brick. Using algae with these other biopolymers reduces the risk of deformation as they act like rebar within concrete.

Photo-Catalytic Coatings On the other hand, “plant-less” technologies, such as Photo-Catalytic Coatings can offer the same benefits of plants, with less maintenance and higher efficiencies. Similar to algae filters, Photo-Catalytic Coatings are activated by light, causing them to decompose and release oxidisers, destroying organic pollutants and killing microorganisms.

Commonly used in water purification, TiO2 is mixed with activated carbon to be as applied as

55 a paint on a wall or filter. Light energised titanium dioxide (TiO2) works by attracting water and oxygen together in the air, splitting them into two powerful oxidisers (OH- and O2-). These violently attack VCOs removing any microorganisms or pollutants from the surface. Already adopted by eight European countries to battle Covid-19, this has applications in anti-pollution coatings for buildings, helping to greatly reduce airborne pollution in cities.

Passive Cooling As more new buildings incorporate modern technology, changing their general design can help to greatly improve their energy efficiency.

Passive cooling is the process of reducing a building’s energy usage by controlling the internal temperature through physical design choices. In hot countries such as Hong-Kong, where having a cold establishment is seen culturally as a sign of prosperity, reducing AC usage through the buildings design can have a massive effect. For example, AC makes up over 60% of Hong-Kong’s energy usage during the summer, a number which could be greatly reduced through clever passive building designs. Although not taken directly from nature, the most efficient building designs - developed through simulation - tend to share a striking resemblance to plant’ structure and natural formations. As discussed earlier concerning greenery, this helps to make passive cooling both efficient and aesthetically pleasing.

The main principles required for success in a passive cooling design are the use of rising air and the thermal capacity of the materials. Certain materials can be used like a thermal battery due to their ability to store heat (thermal capacity) one common example of this is concrete. These are useful to designers when planning the interior topography of a building as by changing key design points relating to these features, they can massively affect the building’s energy efficiency.

A common practice is placing elevated vents with an open foyer. Allowing hot air to rise up, and out of the building, this also creates low pressure zones where the air used to be. Using an open layout, the building can effectively “suck” in cool air to equalize the pressure, reducing the temperature. Similarly, thermal mass flooring allows a building’s designers to control how well it holds heat. This can be used in 2 ways: A material with a low thermal capacity can be chosen, causing less heat to be retained and the building to consequently be cooler during

nights. On the other hand, using a material such as concrete as a base causes building to passively absorb heat from the sun during the day, then dissipate it at night. This greatly reduces heating costs and increases the building’s sustainability.

Both of these concepts can be supplemented by parts made from shape-memory-alloys (SMAs).

By controlling the chemical structure of these materials, the shape can be “programmed” to change depending on external conditions. In this use-case, using temperature as the control, SMAs can regulate the building’s temperature, by opening or closing vents to change the internal air pressure. This lets a building “organically” adapt to maintain ideal internal conditions whilst also having a minimal impact on the environment.

The main downside to Passive cooling technologies is that buildings must be meticulously designed from the ground up to function as intended. As this cannot be realistically implemented by destroying existing cities, it’s better to start improving what we have already invested resources into before they can be replaced by a more efficient alternative.

Photo Voltaic Glass Complementing Passive Cooling, PV (PhotoVoltaic) glass enables buildings to offset their carbon footprint by producing their own energy.

PV glass is essentially a regular pane which can be used to cover the massive vertical real estate of a skyscraper. Acting as a transparent solar panel, they are able to generate energy through specifically filtering out UV and Infrared wavelengths, while still allowing visible light through. Although only 80% the efficiency of a regular solar panel; the main benefit of using PV Glass within cities is that the panels will not take up valuable green-areas within the countryside.

Conclusion In conclusion, Organic Architecture is a step in the direction of a sustainable future, however the benefits of its technologies in projects must carefully be evaluated for it to be worthwhile.

Although some greenery can be effective at changing people’s viewpoints towards the environment, it is misleading to say that it has a sizeable environmental effect. Therefore, it is often less obvious technologies such as passive cooling which are the main driver towards making a sustainable future.

56

Are There Benefits to Gaming?

Archie Clarke, Third Form, Queen Anne House.

Clarke Scholar

M

STEM

ost people know about gaming, children spend hours of their life doing it, and adults normally wonder why. You often hear on the news that gaming is ruining children's childhoods and making them more aggressive. I am willing to challenge that view because I and many others believe that there are many benefits to this enjoyable pastime. Playing video games can boost the brain and its ability to think, reason and problem solve. Studies such as this one “Gaming may not be as bad as you think”, Oxford Research suggest that this topic needs to be looked into in more detail. Many video games are complex and get increasingly more difficult as the player progresses such as Fifa 22. In this game, as you go up the divisions you get more challenged and have to learn more skills so that you can win more games.

Some involve interaction with others in collaboration toward a goal. These are games such as Fortnite and Call of Duty Warzone.

Positive Effects 93% of Children in the UK play video games(childrenscommissioner.gov.uk) and they are a cause of ongoing debate in our modern society.

Although they are entertaining, a debate remains as to their positive or negative impacts on individuals and society. The studies of this are relatively new, they can still provide valuable information into the benefits and drawbacks of this popular form of entertainment. Gaming affects our brains reward system and increases the production of dopamine. Furthermore, the hippocampus in the brain ensures skills needed for movement, depth and distance perception and spatial navigation is enlarged when gaming.

For example, the right hippocampus was enlarged in long-term gamers. Numerous studies have examined the pros and cons of video gaming.

Gaming is sociable. ‘The days of playing a singleplayer shooter alone in your parents’ basement are long gone’ (bbc.co.uk), these studies have found positive effects that give a positive advantage to the player. Playing video games has been found to enhance hand-eye coordination, lengthen attention spans and improve both working memory and rapid decision-making abilities, this will also help in many sports such as rugby, football and cricket. Gaming can also increase your problem solving skills by improving an individual's ability to rapidly an efficiently solve problems-(techtalk.currys.co.uk).

Negative Effects While video games can have their benefits and positive effects, they also have some that may be detrimental. If an individual plays a game for too long it reduces the amount that individual can focus and also research has found a link between violent games and an increase in aggressive behaviour. This will cause for that individual to be more likely to get in trouble or even go to prison for their aggressive behaviour (sciencedaily.com).

One of the most common health issues that is faced by most individuals addicted to playing video games is obesity. Computer games make teenagers hungry and

57 more likely to become obese, scientists claim.

They stimulate youngsters’ appetites encouraging them to raid the fridge and cupboards for snacks.

Addicted gamers also tend to be sat in one place for a long time and therefore their body misses out on physical activity whilst they are playing the game. Obesity will then increase the risk of developing other ailments such as high levels of cholesterol, diabetes, hypertension and so on.

In addition to video games helping your social health , in certain scenarios it can weaken it by people using games as a place where they can get away with online bullying, this may cause the individual that is being bullied to feel depressed and isolated. A study carried out by an antibullying charity found that 57% of the young people it surveyed had experienced bullying online when playing video games. In addition, 22% said they had stopped playing a game as a result.

Why is gaming so addictive?

The reward centre in the brain releases dopamine in response to a pleasurable experience or hyperarousal. When a person experiences hyperarousal while playing video games it gives them a feeling of accomplishment, and then the brain recognizes the activity and then releases dopamine. The person who experiences this then would want to experience it again and again.

Addictive games often have online features meaning that the person using the game cannot pause it, these games are addictive because they encourage you to keep on playing otherwise you will automatically lose. Some of the most popular games that have these features are Fortnite, Call of Duty Warzone and Rocket League. However, reports indicate the number of addicted gamers in the UK has tripled because of the pandemic.

With 36 million Britons playing video games regularly, we estimate between 700,000 and 1 million UK gamers struggle with a video game addiction-gamequitters.com. The gaming companies want you to spend more time on the game because it means that you have more time to spend money on fictional items.

How can a parent create a positive gaming experience for their child ?

Parents can begin by finding out what video games their children are playing. Parents might

find that some of them contain material that they would prefer the child not to be exposed to. If they have objections to the content of the games, facilitate an open discussion with your children about this and, if appropriate, put in a few boundaries (parentzone.org.uk). There are three physiological needs which children have, which researchers refer to as competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Gaming boosts a child's selfesteem which may help to create a confident student. If a parent is worried about their child playing games with violence in them, then the parent should play the game themselves to see if it is suitable for their child. The games also have age ratings that parents can easily follow and a parent can easily stop a child from playing games that aren’t suitable for them, by placing restrictions. You can also manage who your child is allowed to play with, you can set it to no online, friends, friends of friends and then everyone it’s your choice.

Conclusion I think that there are more benefits to gaming than negative effects, this is because gaming is an enjoyable and fun activity to participate in, providing social and emotional benefits which include boosting self-esteem and giving someone a feeling of accomplishment. There can also be negative effects; game developers could make gaming more helpful to people playing the game by including more problem solving and cooperative objectives to complete but this would probably cause a decrease in the number of players playing that game and therefore decrease profit. There are benefits to gaming and I think it is a fun activity no matter what age or gender you are. You can still get bullied online or get addicted to a game, but game developers are progressing towards stopping this by banning people from playing the game if they use inappropriate language or are bullying other players.

References:

Childrens Commissioner Report (2020) Available at: Annual report 2020-21 | Children's Commissioner for England (childrenscommissioner.gov.uk) (Accessed: 29th April 2022) Oxford University Research (2020) Available at: Gaming may not be as bad as you think – Oxford research | University of Oxford (Accessed: 5th May 2022) bbc.co.uk (2020) Available at: Horizon: How video games can change your brain - BBC News (Accessed: 17th May 2022) Science Daily (2019) Available at: New light on impact of video gaming on the brain -- ScienceDaily (Accessed: 20th May 2022) dailymail.co.uk (2020) Available at: How the internet is affecting the human brain: Multitasking and relying on Google to jog memories | Daily Mail Online (Accessed: 28th April 2022)

58

In What Ways Did Niels Bohrs Discoveries on the Atomic Structure Influence the World of Physics?

Freya Coughlan, Sixth Form, Harcourt House.

B

STEM

orn in Copenhagen in 1885, Niels Henrick David Bohr was a Danish Physicist who followed his father’s legacy in the world of Physics. Bohr was the first of the quantum innovators to truly recognise and confront the philosophical problems behind his theory. Much like his father, Christian Bohr, he delved deeply into the theory behind electrons and made significant discoveries. His model depicts the structure of an atom and investigates how the electrons travel and how they orbit the positive nuclei of an atom. Bohr’s discoveries surrounding the electron helped the evolution of physics, correcting some of the most famous theories by proving them to be simplistic (for example he challenged and proved Einstein’s theories based on quantum mechanics to be wrong). Bohr, using his theory of quantum mechanics, researched further the movement of electrons and the light which they produced when shifting between orbitals. Bohr’s advancements in the world of physics led to him being awarded a Nobel prize in 1922 as well as a Copley Medal in 1938 as a recognition of his excellent work. His significant discoveries are still used to this day and act as a framework for all new discoveries on the atomic structure.

Bohr collaborated very closely with Albert Einstein in developing the theories based around quantum mechanics. In fact, one of the most famous bouts in science history involved Niels Bohr and Albert Einstein. This endured two contradicting views objective reality and the uncertainty of quantum Physics; where objective reality is the theory which stares that you can make a statement about the physical world independent from what you may observe. The debates between these two good companions were remembered because of their importance to the philosophy of science. In the development of their discovery of quantum mechanics the debates were reported to be heated due to Bohr and Einstein having extremely strong opinions.

From the 1920s to the 1930s these two scientists fought over the future of science. However, in most debates between the two men Einstein refused to accept the outrageous randomness and unknowability of the quantum indeterminism and decided that the best way forward would be to demonstrate that this theory could be violated. On the other hand, Bohr used the quantum theory as a basis of his philosophical discoveries to prove that Einstein was wrong. In the experiments that both scientists completed, Bohr obtained far more precise knowledge which he was able to use as evidence to prove his theories existed. Most of the evidence was based upon observations, these observations were made upon particle movement and velocity looking closely at how they vary when they are in an excited state to when they are in a stationary

orbit. Einstein decided to spend most of his time on trying to prove Bohr wrong he did this by looking more closely at the conservation of energy laws and momentum of the particle, but despite his work quantum mechanics overruled and became the theory that we know of today.

One of Niels Bohr’s discoveries was the planetary model. The reason that it's called a 'planetary model' is that the electrons move around the nucleus much like the planets move around the sun (except that the planets are held near the sun by gravity, whereas the electrons are held near the nucleus by something called a Coulomb force). Much like the planets around the sun, electrons orbit the positive nucleus elliptically.

They are held in their fixed and stable orbital by the Coulomb force. The Coulomb force also known as the electrostatic force within the atom it refers to the internal, conservative force between the negative electrons and the positive nucleus. Depending on the size of the atom (the atomic radius), the number of protons in the nucleus and the degree of shielding will determine how great this force is and how easy it is to manipulate.

Another one of Niels Bohr main discoveries what The Bohr model of the Hydrogen atom.

In this model Bohr proved that all electrons are quantized. Which in this case means that when an electron moves from one orbit to another it must emit or absorb the same energy that was either lost or gained; this is also based on

59 the theory that the energy must be conserved.

Electrons move to a lower energy level by emitting energy and they move to a higher energy level by absorbing energy. Bohr purposely used the atom hydrogen as it only has one electron and is therefore in the simplest form; meaning the light emitted off is also simplistic too which allowed Bohr to notice any changes easily. Using the simplest atom, allowed Bohr to work as efficiently as possible. His experiment consisted of observing the light emitted by hydrogen when an electrical current was passed through it. Bohr used the Light Emission Spectra. That when the electrons turned into what is called ‘an excited state’ they begin to make transitions which release photons. The transition of the electron is based on the distance it must travel between each orbital hence and how far away the electron is from the nucleus of the atom. The further away from the nucleus the more readily the electron can move to a different energy level.

This is due to the shielding effect and therefore the electrostatic force of attraction between the negatively charged electron and the positive nucleus decreases. Much like the energy released from electrons photons are also quantized. Each transition made by an electron releases a specific proton where each has a different frequency and therefore an assorted colour of light can be observed. If the electron in an excited state gains enough quantized energy to completely remove itself from the orbit, then it moves into an ionisation state. This process happens when an atom becomes electrically neutral or electrically charged. In this case we know that hydrogen is negatively charged due to it having one electron. When the electron makes the transition the electron itself doesn’t emit the light it is the photon; this photon is released when the electron loses energy.

Bohr’s in-depth developments into the theory of atomic structure were later proven by the theory of ionisation. Ionisation refers to the energy needed to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of an element in its gaseous state. The first ionisation is the energy required to remove the first valent electron of an atom in a gaseous state and the second ionisation energy refers to the removal of the second electron of the atom in a gaseous state. Successive ionisation energies provide evidence for the existence of quantum shells. His model predicts the presence of several set orbits for the electrons to elliptically orbit the nucleus. Each orbit is at a fixed distance from the nucleus which therefore means that each orbit also represents fixed energy. Using the Bohr formula for energy quantization, one can calculate the ionisation potential which refers to the energy when the atom is in its ground state.

Proving that all atoms consist of electron shells.

These ionisation energies vary between groups

and show the effect that atomic radius, nuclear charge and shielding have on the amount of the energy required to remove the first electron. For example, moving across period 3 the ionisation energy of silicon is greater than that of aluminium as the nuclear charge of silicon is larger, but the degree of shielding remains the same. This therefore means that the electrostatic force of attraction between the valence electron and the nucleus is greater and there is more energy need to break this force resulting in a higher ionisation energy.

Bohr's theoretical work also contributed significantly to scientists' understanding of nuclear fission. Nuclear fission is the process at which a nucleus of a heavy atom splits spontaneously with the release of energy.

The release of energy is more likely when the nucleus splits as the neutrons within the nucleus are bound very loosely. In fission, the nucleus splits, because it has been bombarded by other subatomic particles known as neutrinos (an exceedingly small subatomic particle that has little mass and no charge). The resulting pieces have less combined mass which is converted into nuclear energy. According to his liquid droplet theory, a liquid drop provides an accurate representation of an atom's nucleus.

The liquid drop model, treats the nucleus as an incompressible fluid drop with a remarkably high density that is kept together by the nuclear force (a residual effect of the strong force), with a structure that resembles that of a spherical liquid drop. The liquid drop model, though primitive, accounts for most nuclei's spherical shape and allows a rough prediction of the binding energy. The mass formula is solely determined in terms of the number of protons and neutrons it includes. This theory was instrumental in the first attempts to split uranium atoms in the 1930s, a crucial step in the development of the atomic bomb.

As expressed in this essay Niels Henrick David Bohr had many outstanding and important discoveries proven to be extremely useful in the world of physics today. Niels Bohr delved deeply into the world of colour and that if it wasn’t for him our perception of colour wouldn’t be as it is today. Would we be able to understand why colour exists and where it comes from? Many of his discoveries influenced how we interpret colour these discoveries included: the planetary model, the theory of ionisation and the model of the hydrogen atom all of which proved his theory of randomness of how electrons are spaced and how they move in set quantities proving his theory based upon quantum mechanics.

60

What Effect Does Mathematics Have on Gymnastics?

Eva Graves, First Form, Lower House.

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or many people, when they hear ‘gymnastics’ their minds will go to words such as ‘creative’ or ‘artistic’. However, if they hear ‘mathematics’, they tend to think of words such as ‘logical’ or ‘concrete’. Whilst the worlds of gymnastics and maths seem far apart, as a gymnast, I have found that there are many interesting links between the two. In fact, gymnastics becomes impossible without maths. Not only do both mathematics and artistry appear in gymnastics, but the artistry appears because of the maths. Amongst the most important effects that mathematics has on gymnastics are the areas of angles, the artistry of geometry, and innovation.

STEM

The largest impact maths has on gymnastics is around the area of angles. They are used in coaching, judging and other areas, and are a crucial element to gymnastics. When a coach wants to describe a skill to a gymnast, they may say things such as “Get to your nice 45° angle first”. The angles created by a clock are also used in skills that go a full 360°, as this makes more sense, especially to younger gymnasts. Giants on bars or saltos (aerial flips) are a good example of this, and you will often hear coaches say, “Twist at 5 o’clock”, or “You should be finished with your kick by 7 o’clock, but make sure you don’t start it before 5 o’clock.”

hit. Some examples are that casts must hit 45° or 90° to the bar, or splits must hit 180°. The Code of P0ints (CoP) requires a cast to handstand to be within 10° of vertical to be credited the full Difficulty Value (DV). If the cast is 30 - 45° away from vertical, 0.10 is taken from the Execution score (EV). If it is more than 45° away from vertical, 0.30 is lost.

But judges do not only use angles when scoring.

Basic maths is incredibly important. A gymnast’s score is worked out by adding all deductions together (these can come from bent legs – you can lose up to 0.3 each time, a fall – for a fall, you lose 0.5 to 1.0 each time, and others such Angles are also a very important component of as flexed feet or leg separation), and then judging. In routines, gymnasts will be required to subtracting them from the original 10.0 execution hit certain angles for the skill to count. This means score. Next, difficulties of all the skills performed that judges must estimate the angles gymnasts are added together to get the difficulty score.

Finally, the execution and difficulty scores are added together.

We still cannot get away from angles in gymnastics though! They are crucial in the fundamentals of making a skill work. For example, when vaulting, a gymnast will be running up to the springboard, usually leaning slightly forward at a 5° angle. But as soon as they reach the board, they will move to leaning slightly backwards at a 5° angle. This is called blocking, and it is how gymnasts change direction, in this case, from forward to upward. Another example would be when the gymnast is going to leave the floor to do a tuck, handspring or cartwheel, or any other gymnastics move that requires your feet to come off the floor, they have angular momentum (blocking) from their push off.

61 Moving away from the scientific to the artistic impacts of maths, research shows that we are naturally inclined to enjoy looking at something or watching something which is geometric (Lu, 2019). We enjoy seeing symmetrical faces and find beauty in the geometry of nature.

And we especially love seeing the geometry and symmetry of dance. This can explain why gymnasts (and dancers) work extremely hard to be as geometric and perfect in their lines as they can. In the newest CoP, gymnasts can lose up to 2 points on their dancing and overall performance, once more giving them a reason to strive for perfection, symmetry, and geometry. Interesting videos and projects have been produced providing stunning, concrete illustrations of how the symmetry and precision of geometry have a direct connection to the artistic beauty of gymnastics and dance. An interesting example is the short film, Ballet Rotoscope, by Japanese design firm EUPHRATES. This video overlaid geometric lines, curves and shapes on a person doing spins, leaps and jumps, and helped the viewer to see the geometry being created. These very same moves are used in even the most basic floor routine.

Another large aspect of maths in gymnastics is creating new equipment. This involves finding what works best, what does not work so well and continual innovation. Designers are always trying to get the balance between safety and the ability for gymnasts’ skill advancement just right.

A few examples are creating springier floors to allow more advanced skills without sending gymnasts flying helter-skelter; or how, after some improvements since the mid-1990s when the Dutch first invented it, a wider vault was used in the 2001 World Championships to allow harder vaults and losing its name of the vaulting “horse” to the vaulting “table”. Innovators are always working on creating bars that will propel the gymnast, but in a safe and secure way; or highdensity foams that absorb shock without causing gymnasts to lose momentum or fall over.

They are not just making equipment for the gymnasts though; they are also working on equipment for the judges. Fujitsu is a multinational Japanese corporation who release information and communications technology, equipment, and services. They are currently working on perfecting their new 3D Sensing

Technology, which will allow judges to no longer have to estimate the angles gymnasts hit. It uses 3D laser sensors and skeleton recognition technology to measure and accurately digitize human movements in three dimensions, without the use of markers. This will be extremely helpful for judges, as it will improve their ability of accurate judging.

Gymnastics is impossible when maths is taken away. Of course, there are elements of gymnastics that do not involve maths as obviously, and you could take away the geometry of dance, but if would look scrappy, undefined, and uncontrolled.

Everything from leaps, spins, and jumps, down to the angle a gymnast is at when they leave the floor involves maths.

In fact, there seems to be an aspect of mathematics in every element of gymnastics. I have only scratched the surface of this important connection.

The interactions between mathematics and gymnastics seem almost as endless as numbers themselves!

References:

Gymnastics HQ (2012). Common Gymnastics Deductions (Optional Levels). Available at: https://gymnasticshq.com/common-gymnasticsdeductions-optional-levels/ (Accessed: 19.11.21) Gymnastics HQ (2012). Common Gymnastics Deductions (Compulsory Levels). Available at: https://gymnasticshq.com/common-gymnastics-deductions-compulsorylevels/ (Accessed 19.11.21) Rich, H (n.d.). FAQ: How Does the Olympic Gymnastics Scoring Work?

Available at: https://www.kgdcgymandcheer.com/answers-to-questionsabout-gymnastics/faq-how-does-the-olympic-gymnastics-scoring-work. html (Accessed: 21.11.21) Mathnasium (2019). Math and Gymnastics. Available at: https://www. mathnasium.com/denville/news/math-and-gymnastics (Accessed: 12.01.22) Pulver, K (2014). Math in Gymnastics. Available at: http://kelseypulverblog. weebly.com/blog/math-in-gymnastics (Accessed: 23.11.21) Xin, L (2019). On Shape and the Computability of Emotions. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6749614/ (Accessed: 13.01.22)

62

Why are White Rhinos So Vulnerable to Poaching?

Luella Hickey, First Form, Lower House.

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hite Rhinos are one of the largest (in size) surviving species of Rhino, and consist of two species which are the Northern White Rhino and the Southern White Rhino.

There are only two female Northern White Rhino left in the world. They are Najin - aged 29 and Fatu – aged 18. The species will be extinct soon.

There are approximately 20,000 Southern White Rhino they are mainly found in the following four countries. Kenya, South Africa, Namibia, and Zimbabwe.

Building and Poaching are the main causes of the decline. The Rhinos habitat is being lost by the vast quantity of buildings being built on their habitat. The other cause is poachers hunting and killing them. With their habitat reducing, there are less places to hide and live. This causes the rhinos to live in large unaggressive herds (increasing the chances of being hunted and killed).

STEM

Rhinos Horns The horns grow from the skin and is a compacted mass of hairs which continues to grow through its life. The horn is not attached to the skull and can grow back within 3 years if broken away, but not if the animal’s skull has been damaged/cut into.

Rhino horns are similar to horses’ hooves, turtle beaks, and cockatoo bills. They are made of keratin and contain large quantities of sulphurcontaining amino acids, particularly cysteine, as well as tyrosine, histidine, lysine, arginine, and the salts calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate.

Rhino poaching is driven by the demand for Rhino horn in Asian countries, particularly China & Vietnam. Rhino horn is used in Traditional Chinese Medicine. It is also seen as a status symbol to display wealth.

Populations The last six Northern White Rhinos used to live in the Czech Republic. The last two females (Fatu and Najin) were flown to Kenya to mate with the last two males. Unfortunately, no Rhino calves were born. In 2013 one of the males died from a heart attack leaving just one male and two females. In March 2018 the last male died, leaving

only the two females to be last of the Northern White Rhinos species.

Living in protected areas and private game reserves, Southern White Rhinos were thought

to be extinct, but in the year 1895 a group of 100 Rhinos were discovered in South Africa. This group of Rhinos expanded, and they are now classified as Near Threatened to be extinct.

South Africa has the largest population of Rhinos in the world. From 2007-2014 1,000 Rhinos were killed each year causing the Rhino population to drop by 60%.

Rhino populations have had no time to recover from this poaching, but in 2020 South Africa’s poaching figures decreased for the sixth year in a row with only 394 recorded poaching incidents.

Perceived Medicinal Use of Rhino Horn Rhino horn has been used in Chinese medicine for more than 2,000 years and is used to treat fever, rheumatism and gout. It is also claimed to cure snakebites, hallucinations, typhoid, headaches, vomiting and food poisoning.

People who use Rhino horn to cure medical illnesses really believe it works. When used, the horn is shaved or ground into a powder, before being dissolved in boiling water and becoming consumed.

63 A famous author (Richard Ellis) wrote in 2005 “It is not clear that rhino horn serves any medicinal purpose whatsoever, but it is a testimony to the power of tradition that millions of people believe that it does.”

Globally wildlife crimes are not taken as seriously as other crimes. Deterrents are limited. For example, in 2017 three women were caught with 43 kg ivory and 2 kg Rhino horn was sentenced to 2 months in prison.

Poaching Poachers are being supplied by international criminal gangs with sophisticated equipment to track and kill Rhinos.

Conclusion White rhinos are so vulnerable to poaching because of the new villages and towns that are being built in the rhinos habitats, limiting the space for the rhinos to hide away, making it an easy job for the poachers to find them.

Frequently a tranquiliser gun is used to make the Rhino sleep, before its horn is hacked off, leaving the Rhino to wake up and bleed to death.

This poaching crisis began in Zimbabwe, where the population is very poor. Once all the Rhinos were killed in Zimbabwe, gangs turned to South Africa greedy for money. In 2013, the crisis spread to Kenya and Namibia.

For Africa as a whole, the total number of Rhinos poached was the highest it had been in twenty years. Poaching numbers have decreased since then, but on average a Rhino is killed for its horn every 22 hours.

Armed conflict across Central Africa in the 1970s and early 1980s wiped out most of the remaining northern white rhinos except for a small population in Garamba National Park in DRC. Prices of Rhino Horn The scarcity of Rhinos and their small numbers makes the price high. Poachers in Africa earn a few months’ salary for selling a horn, which makes it easily accessible money.

There has been a recent surge in demand for Rhino horn in Vietnam where Rhino horns are bought to gift to family members, business colleagues or people in positions of authority as a status of wealth Deterrents It has become easier for poachers to kill Rhinos in countries where political conflict and corruption is rife. There is little police presence and limited ground protection to deter the poaches. The poachers take advantage of this where normal law and order has broken down, and criminals are not held accountable for their actions.

To try and stop innocent rhinos being killed we need to stop all the poaching gangs and arrest them for their wrongdoings. On that note, more police and drones should surround the Rhinos habitats so when a poacher or a gang is spotted they are found and immediately put in prison, the poachers and gangs should all serve a longer time in prison for example the rest of their lives, for what they are doing.

To stop all the deaths of White Rhinos from poachers we need to teach Asian communities that the horn does not posses any medicinal properties and does not cure the sick.

Rhino experts are now exploring the possibility of artificial reproduction technologies and Southern White Rhino surrogates as a way to preserve and maintain White Rhino genes into the future.

Unfortunately, for the Northern White Rhinos there Is nothing you can do to prevent them from becoming extinct.

References:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_white_rhinoceros https://rhinos.org/about-rhinos/rhino-species/white-rhino/ https://www.savetherhino.org/what-we-do/reducing-illegal-trade/ https://www.savetherhino.org/rhino-info/poaching-stats/ https://www.savetherhino.org/rhino-info/threats/poaching-rhino-horn/ https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/facts/whiterhinoceros https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/how-rhinoprotectors-in-south-africa-became-threat-to-species

64

What is WENERGY and How Can it Combat Climate Change?

George Keates, Fourth Form, Vanbrugh House.

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STEM

limate change is one of the largest problems humanity has ever faced. Every day we see the stark realities of it. But there are ways of slowing and tackling this issue. For example, by reducing our waste, investing in the electrification of cars or creating new innovations. In the last few years, we have seen huge increases in new technology such as those in the solar industry, which is already making significant impacts on climate change. But there is still room to grow and expand this market, and for future generations to innovate more products. This is where WENERGY shines.

WENERGY is a new way of powering homes, electric vehicles and, in fact, anything that uses electricity. WENERGY is a hydroelectric generator which is linked to a water tank in a self-contained box that is situated halfway down a downward drainpipe. It works when rainwater runs through the drainpipe system of your house, which flows into the downward pipe where it reaches the box. Inside the WENERGY box there is a four-litre water tank which has the pressure to spin the turbine twice, which has a release mechanism for when it fills up. Once released, it is then passed into a pipe network until it reaches the main component: the turbine. The current turbine is a modified hydroelectric generator which can power a standard LED light for two hours with two rotations of the turbine. The electricity is stored in rechargeable batteries so the electricity can be stored or used and refilled.

This project has played a substantial part in my life for the past four years; since First Form, I have been designing, redesigning and then actually producing a working prototype. I have already begu n the patenting process. From research I have conducted over the last four years, I have made huge discoveries that I would never have otherwise known about. My calculations show that WENERGY could in fact combat climate change. Of course, it could not achieve this on its own; however, with other technologies such as

solar and wind harnessing, there is a good chance that we could slow and possibly stop climate change from destroying our planet for good.

Some may think that WENERGY is another expensive way of creating renewable electricity.

It’s not. WENERGY is, on average, 48% cheaper than solar panels and 37% cheaper than wind power. The reason behind this is that the product uses materials that are cheap and easy to source compared to solar panels, such as reusable plastics that have been recycled and put into plastic sheets. This is a huge factor as it appeals to more people; therefore, more people would get the boxes installed and help climate change.

Of course, there are some negatives and downsides to this, the first being the scale at which it would have to be rolled out in the coming years. At the moment, it takes a few days to put a WENERGY box together. O ver time, however, this process will get faster and more efficient. Another negative is that there is a way of producing eighteen times more electricity from one spin, but this new method would take a significant amount of time to redesign and install. Thirdly, given that many people do not fully realise what is happening concerning climate change, much new technology does not receive full backing from the general public.

65 If WENERGY were to be installed in all UK homes and the UK experienced a rainy day every day for a whole year, emissions could be cut by 26%, which is a colossal amount. Add this to the amount cut using solar and wind power and this is on track to potentially save the planet. If a WENERGY system was to be installed in an average three-bed house with four occupants, they would be able to save 18% on household bills each year with prices in the 2020 year. This additional benefit of WENERGY would make a huge difference for families.

Considering the negatives and the positives of WENERGY, I believe the latter outweigh the former. I may be slightly biased, but I see it as a way of combatting climate change. In the years t0 come, we are going to face unprecedented problems, but science and innovations are there to save us.

66

Are Concerns About the Safety of the COVID-19 Vaccines Justified?

Alex May, Second Form, Vanbrugh House.

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ince the authorization of the first COVID-19 vaccines in December 2020, there have been many health concerns from the public about the COVID-19 vaccination. Taking the public’s concerns into consideration, the UK has discovered more about its safety through thorough testing. Despite the extensive research, there are still unclear areas that pose a mystery. Each of the vaccines have their own side effects, whether they be minor or threatening. Knowing this, the question remains unanswered: are these concerns justified?

STEM

The government made it clear that people of all ages can have reactions to any of the COVID-19 vaccines, whether they be minor or major. Some side effects include: blood clotting, inflammation, hypersensitivity, seizures, and more (NHS, 2021).

However, according to studies, the chance of most of these effects is miniscule. Knowing this, the public should not be afraid, but instead further examine the advantages and disadvantages of what it could cause to their health.

For blood clotting in particular, the NHS has said that “it’s unclear why it happens, but it does.” The MHRA is also carrying out a detailed review of reports of these extremely rare side effects, particularly affecting people who had received the Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccination.

There are also other health concerns that have been confirmed to be linked to the vaccines, including anaphylaxis (a type of allergic reaction), thrombosis, hearing loss, rapid ventricular heartbeat, abnormal liver function, and skin disorders. Unfortunately to say, the list continues.

The vaccine released on December 2nd 2020, Pfizer-BioNTech, had many, mostly less severe, side effects. These include joint and muscle pains, low energy, chills, headache, injection site pain, and more infrequently – fever, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea etc. (roughly 1 in 10), but these are mostly consistent throughout the multiple different vaccines. The rarer side effects can include inflammation, appendicitis, anaphylaxis, angioedema, hypersensitivity, and others such as itching, rashes, difficulty sleeping and excessive sweating (more than 1 in 1,000 people may develop these) (WebMD; HSE IE, 2020).

The second vaccine to be released, using a

different technology to the Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna vaccines, was the Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine, shortly following on December 30th 2020. This doesn’t use the mRNA technology as the others; it is a viral vector vaccine (WHO, 2020). The Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine also shares the same roughly 1 in 10 side effects, joints and muscle pains, low energy, chills, headache, injection site pain, and more infrequently – fever, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea etc. – but also other very rare side effects, which include Guillain-Bare syndrome, capillary leak syndrome, decreased blood platelets and more (WebMD).

Next to come was the Moderna vaccine, approved not long after the Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine, on January 8th 2021. As one of the lesser-used vaccines, fewer side effects have been discovered especially that are known to be linked to the vaccine itself. The Moderna vaccine uses mRNA technology, so it is one of the more recommended vaccines if available. Some of the higher-risk side effects of the Moderna vaccine include: inflammation of the covering of the heart/pericardium, inflammation of the middle tissue heart muscle, anaphylaxis (common throughout the vaccines), and hypersensitivity to some drugs. Aside from these, there are still the less severe, more consistent and common side effects, such as joint and muscle pain, low energy, chills, headache and of course mild pain at the site of injection (WebMD). Side effects aside, the CDC still recommends this vaccine (and PfizerBioNTech) for its mRNA technology and reliability.

Finally, the Janssen vaccine was approved later on May 28th 2021. This was developed using the same technology as the Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine as a viral vector rather than mRNA. This

67 vaccine is the least used of all due to its bad reputation, specifically with blood clotting. This Janssen vaccine also has the most common side effects throughout all the vaccines, but more severe are the rarer side effects, which are more common than rarer side effects in the mRNA vaccines. These are: decreased blood platelets, Guillain blood syndrome, lung clots, blood clots, seizures, anaphylaxis, drug hypersensitivity, narrowing of the portal vein (caused by blood clotting), thrombosis with thrombocytopenia syndrome (WebMD).

Now that we know the scientifically proven side effects, what is the whole ‘scare’ about? If we look at the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine, which is most widely used across the UK with the government ordering over 189 million doses (UK Gov, 2021), statistics show that the chances of developing the ‘rarer’ group of side effects is more than 1 in 1,000 people, and some as little as 1 in 100,000 people (CDC, 2021). This leaves us wondering, what is the safety concern about, if most aren’t affected?

We know there is a scare over the OxfordAstraZeneca vaccine and the Janssen vaccine, as they are viral vector vaccines developed using an adenovirus technology to train the immune system to fight coronavirus (CDC, 2021).

These have been known to be linked to a blood clotting condition known as thrombosis with thrombocytopenia syndrome (TTS). “I really cannot recommend a vaccine that has been associated with a condition that may lead to death,” said Dr. Pablo Sanchez, a paediatrician at Nationwide Children's Hospital in Ohio. 54 people in the US, mostly women, were hospitalised due to this condition, 9 of whom died. The CDC’s advisory panel voted unanimously to declare the mRNA vaccines, from Pfizer and Moderna, the "preferred" options for adults, ultimately concluding that the mRNA vaccines provided greater protection and fewer risks than Janssen and Oxford-AstraZeneca.

Although there is a lot of scientific evidence resolving some concerns about the safety of the COVID-19 vaccines, it’s not just the case of people worrying about potential side effects, but also ‘anti-vaxxers’ and conspiracists spreading hoaxes, particularly on the internet, threatening their safety. People claim that the vaccine, and even

COVID itself, is a cover-up by the government.

The reality is that the Covid-19 vaccines don’t change your DNA, or make you magnetic, or let billionaires implant microchips in you. They don’t contain foetal cells. They don’t have any effect on fertility (Department of Health, 2021).

These studies show that there is some concern to have over the coronavirus vaccine and caution to be taken, especially if you are more at risk. It is recommended to use the mRNA vaccines as they tend to cause less concern primarily. It’s your decision whether to get the jab, but please make an informed choice, based on information from trusted sources.

References include:

EMA (2021). ‘COVID-19 Vaccine AstraZeneca: benefits still outweigh the risks despite possible link to rare blood clots with low blood platelets.’ https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/news/covid-19-vaccine-astrazenecabenefits-still-outweigh-risks-despite-possible-link-rare-blood-clots CDC (2021). ‘Myths and Facts about COVID-19 Vaccines’. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/facts.html NHS (2022). ‘Coronavirus (COVID-19) vaccines side effects and safety’. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/coronavirus-covid-19/coronavirusvaccination/safety-and-side-effects/ UK Gov (2021). ‘COVID-19 vaccination and blood clotting’. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/covid-19-vaccination-andblood-clotting/covid-19-vaccination-and-blood-clotting#table WebMD. ‘Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine (EUA) Vial’. https://www.webmd.com/drugs/2/drug-180345/moderna-covid-19-vaccinepfeua-intramuscular/details/list-sideeffects D. ‘AstraZeneca COVID19 Vac(Unapp) Vial’. https://www.webmd.com/drugs/2/drug-180610/astrazeneca-covid-19vaccine-pfunapproved-intramuscular/details/list-sideeffects NBC News (2021). ‘CDC recommends people not get J&J vaccine if Pfizer, Moderna are available’. https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/cdc-panel-recommendspeople-not-get-jj-vaccine-pfizer-moderna-availabl-rcna8987 BBC News (2022). ‘Covid vaccine: How many people are vaccinated in the UK?’. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-55274833 Leeds CCG – NHS. ‘Which COVID-19 vaccines are being given by the NHS? https://www.leedsccg.nhs.uk/health/coronavirus/covid-19-vaccine/whichcovid-19-vaccines-are-being-given-by-the-nhs/ The Guardian (2021). ‘What COVID vaccines does the UK have and which are in the works?’. https://www.theguardian.com/society/2021/apr/26/whatcovid-vaccines-does-uk-have-valneva Department of Health (2021). ‘Covid vaccine fact file – bogus claims and side effects’ https://www.health-ni.gov.uk/news/covid-vaccine-fact-filebogus-claims-and-side-effects#skip-link

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What Causes Allergies and How Are They Related to Other Conditions?

Simran Panesar, Fourth Form, Queen Anne House.

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llergies are a chronic disease which affect one in three adults in the UK and come in many forms. They can develop from numerous factors, and some people are more prone to allergies than others. Besides this, it is not uncommon for them to appear alongside other medical conditions, and there has been correlation between a certain few, which can affect the symptoms and likelihood of allergies.

STEM

What is an allergy?

An allergy is a reaction in the body against a substance which is usually harmless, by producing antibodies called Immunoglobulin E (IgE). There are a wide range of types of allergies, such as food allergies, dust and pollen, some pets, latex, and even certain medicines, like aspirin or penicillin. Some symptoms of an allergy include sneezing, wheezing, hives, and itchiness when coming in contact with the allergen. More severe allergic reactions can also cause swelling or breathing difficulties, which can sometimes be fatal (Carolina Asthma, 2021).

The eight most common food allergies are: wheat, milk, fish, eggs, peanuts, tree nuts, shellfish, and soya. Some less common ones include mustard, celery, and some fruits. As well as allergies to food, there are many others. One of the most common is allergic rhinitis, or hay fever, which affects over 10 million people in the UK. Pet allergies are also a well-known type, but although they are assumed to be triggered by a pet’s fur, it is in fact a reaction to its skin cells, saliva, or urine (NHSa).

Why do people develop allergies?

There are numerous reasons for developing an allergy, one of these being genetics. Genetics have an impact on most medical aspects of our lives, from the likelihood of catching a disease, to eyesight and hearing. It has been proven in many cases that that our genetics can influence these things, and allergies are no exception. It is not always the case, but families with a history of allergies will have a high chance of passing this down to their children, even if the parents do not have any allergies themselves. It is possible for a child to ‘outgrow’ an allergy, but it depends on what kind of allergy they have, and the severity of it. For example, a child who is allergic to eggs,

milk, or wheat (not to be confused with lactose intolerance or celiac disease), is much more likely to outgrow their allergy, with 60-80% of children outgrowing them, than somebody with a peanut/ tree nut allergy, where only 20-25% of children outgrow them, and the same goes for somebody with both or all of these (Wada, 2017; Smith, 2021).

Testing There are various ways that somebody can test to see if they have a food allergy. The most common is the skin prick test, where a drop of liquid containing a trace of the food, that you may or may not be allergic to, is put onto your forearm; if you are allergic to it, then within around 15 minutes, a red itchy bump will appear. This method can be carried out with multiple different substances along the forearm. One other way to test for a food allergy is an elimination diet where you eliminate the potential allergen from your diet to see if the symptoms are reduced. Once this has been confirmed, then start to reintroduce it back into your diet. This way you can see whether the symptoms return and determine if you are allergic to that food or not (Hill, 2021; Wada, 2017).

Treatments There are different ways to treat an allergy depending on the type. For allergies such as hay fever, most people take antihistamines, which most know as allergy tablets, or something similar. People with food allergies, or severe bee sting allergies, are prescribed with an autoinjector, Epi-Pen is the most common brand although there are others. When the food that they are allergic to, enters the body, its response is to release adrenaline, which reduces throat swelling, opens up the airways, and maintains blood pressure and heart function. An autoinjector aids this process by injecting more

69 adrenaline into, usually, the upper thigh, which has the most blood supply, and is one of the largest muscles in the body. This, however, is short term, and is only used when a patient is having a severe allergic reaction, also known as anaphylaxis, or anaphylactic shock (EpiPen).

Another way of treating severe food allergies, is allergen immune therapy. This is where small amounts of for example, if the patient was allergic to peanuts, peanut protein every day over a period of several months. This causes them to become desensitised to the allergen, and eventually, they will no longer be allergic to it. However, this is mostly used in more extreme cases, where it is difficult to avoid, or the reaction is very severe, and although it works in majority of cases, it is not 100% guaranteed to succeed completely (NHSb).

Related Conditions Two medical conditions which are commonly seen in people who also suffer from allergies are asthma and eczema. Asthma, a respiratory disease, can be triggered by many different factors, allergic reactions included. This condition will amplify some symptoms of the reaction, or make others have a more severe impact, such as swelling, wheezing, and itchiness near the throat or mouth. In addition to this, asthma can be triggered, or worsened by illnesses, such as the common cold, the flu, or Covid-19. Eczema, an inflammatory skin condition, is also something which can be related to allergies, and also

asthma. It usually occurs behind the knees, and in the crooks of the arms, but it can appear in other places too. These three conditions, eczema asthma and allergies, often come as a triad, and when this happens, it is usually diagnosed early on in life, eczema as an infant or very young child, and the others usually show up later in childhood.

Some early research into this triad of chronic diseases showed that IgE played a part, but it has now been revealed that it is not always present in all of them. There is a big correlation in these three diseases, but although the likelihood of developing another increase when somebody develops one of these, it is not always the case, as is such for many other things. (FARE; Conaway, 2020; Villines, 2021; Bantz, Zhu and Zheng, 2014) So far, immunotherapy has been the main treatment for getting rid of allergies all together, and genetics plays a part in whether somebody is more likely to develop one, although underlying health conditions, like eczema and asthma, especially together, increase these chances much more than this.

References:

NHSa (no date) ‘Allergies’, Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/ allergies (Accessed 12 May 2022) NHSb (no date) ‘Treatment’ Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/ allergies/treatment (Accessed 12 May 2022) EpiPen (no date) ‘How EpiPen Works’, Available at: https://www.epipen.ca/ how-epipen-works (Accessed 12 May 2022) Wada, K. (2017) ‘How to know a food allergy has been outgrown’, 1 December, Available at: https://wexnermedical.osu.edu/blog/how-toknow-youve-outgrown-a-food-allergy (Accessed 12 May 2022) Carolina Asthma & Allergy Centre (2021) ‘What Causes a Person to Develop Allergies’, 15 April, Available at: https://www.carolinaasthma.com/blog/ what-causes-a-person-to-develop-allergies (Accessed 12 May 2022) Hill, L. (2021) ‘How Does a Doctor Diagnose an Allergy?’, 6 February, Available at: https://www.webmd.com/allergies/allergy-test-facts (Accessed 12 May 2022) Smith, Y. (2021) ‘Allergies and Genetics’, 14 April, Available at: https://www. news-medical.net/health/Allergies-and-Genetics.aspx (Accessed 12 May 2022) Food Allergy Research & Education (FARE), (No Date) ‘Related Medical Conditions’, Available at: https://www.foodallergy.org/resources/relatedmedical-conditions (Accessed 12 May 2022) Conaway, B. (2020) ‘Allergies and Eczema: What’s the Link?’, 2 June, Available at: https://www.webmd.com/skin-problems-and-treatments/ eczema/eczema-allergies-link (Accessed 12 May 2022) Villines, Z. (2021) ‘What to know about the triad of asthma, eczema, and allergies’, 29 November, Available at: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/ articles/asthma-triad (Accessed 12 May 2022) Bantz, S., Zhu, Z. and Zheng, T. (2014) ‘The Atopic March: Progression from Atopic Dermatitis to Allergic Rhinitis and Asthma’, 7 April, Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4240310/ (Accessed 12 May 2022)

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To What Extent Has the Lack of Inclusion of Women in Clinical Trials Impacted Our Current Understanding of Their Cardiological Health?

Amelia Pratley, Sixth Form, Swift House.

Allen Scholar

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STEM

espite accounting for approximately 55% of deaths by cardiovascular disease in Europe, the lack of understanding surrounding women and coronary heart disease has become increasingly prevalent within recent years. Throughout medical history, women have been consistently misrepresented in clinical trials, which has not only had a significant impact on the way we approach treatment, but also on their reactions to medicine. Between 1997-2000, 8 of the 10 drugs for which the FDA withdrew its approval had harmful side effects on women, which highlights the disregard that certain researchers have for their complex, biological systems. Even in the most recent decade – which bustled with important cardiological studies - it was noted that women accounted for a mere 38.2% of participants. Although efforts are now being made to ensure the fair representation of both sexes in clinical trials, the consequences of a non-inclusive past are still evident to this day and will be addressed throughout the main body of this article.

A disregard towards women’s health is something that has been prominent since 5th century BC, when the Greek physician Hippocrates first coined the terms ‘hysteria’ (stemming from the Greek ‘υστερία’ meaning ‘that which proceeds from the uterus’) and ‘wandering uteri’ to describe health problems in women. Within the ancient world, women were excluded from partaking in the political office and city-state due to their complex biology. Their erratic moods and excessive, emotional behaviour, referred to as ‘hysteria’, rendered them incapable of making rational decisions and therefore unable to undertake positions more suited to their sensible and logical male counterparts. Greek physicians believed that circumstances such as sexual abstinence, menstruation, exhaustion, and malnutrition were enough to send the uterus wandering throughout the abdomen, wreaking havoc on the physical and mental wellbeing of every female. This cultivated the ideas that all female diseases stemmed from the uterus and was soon used to cement this intrinsic, long-lasting belief that they are too sensitive and psychologically volatile to uphold the same positions as men. “Hysteria has been a label used for potpourri of female ailments alike since antiquity… the Greek and Romans called almost all female complaints hysteria, and believed

the cause of all these female maladies to be a wandering uterus…” (King, 206).

It is quite awe-striking to try and fathom just how much of an affect Hippocrates’ ideas have had on our approach to women’s health, today. The Ancient Greeks limited every female medical issue (both psychological and physical alike) to the uterus and even now, women fail to be represented in many medical case studies and atomical drawings unless related to reproductive biology.

However, this tendency to blame women’s hormones for the quality of their health is not at all limited to Ancient Greece and Rome. In fact, it was only up until 1993 – when the FDA lifted its ban on women participating in clinical research – that women’s hormones were believed to render them too difficult to study as trial candidates. As a result, due to unfounded claims that hormones would influence results, women were excluded from clinical trials for decades. “Given that women have fluctuating hormone levels month to month, it was thought that including women in clinical trials would introduce a lot of complicated factors,” - Natalie DiPietro Mager, professor of pharmacy practice at Ohio Northern University.

Rather than dedicate time to researching

71 women in a solitary category, they were instead disregarded entirely, leading to a subsequent dismissal of any separate reactions they may have to individual drugs and a ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach to both sexes.

Inevitably, the cracks in this dismissive approach began to appear when observing the effects of zolpidem, an immediate-release sedative used to treat insomnia by adjusting unbalanced chemicals in the patient’s brain. After an increased number of traffic accidents, it was soon discovered that the medicine lingered longer in women’s blood than it did men’s, causing significant cognitive impairment and hazardous drowsiness. In addition to this, more than 90% of cases saw women experiencing drastic side effects such as headache, seizures, and cardiac anomalies. Given the exact same dose as men, it was noted that the concentration of zolpidem in the bloodstream of women was much higher, leading to these detrimental side effects. This provided evidence for a drug dose gender gap later validated in Dr Irving Zucker’s journal ‘Biology of Sex Differences,’ which he confirms to be caused by a ‘historic disregard of the fundamental biological differences between male and female bodies.’

Furthermore, a hesitance to include women in medical studies was not at all limited to pharmacodynamics. After concerns about the effects of novel drugs on foetuses, researchers

adopted a more cautious approach towards women of childbearing age. This followed the catastrophic consequences of the thalidomide tragedy (1950s-1960s), where a sedative unapproved in the US caused severe limb defects in thousands of infants across Europe. After these events, the FDA recommended excluding young women from early phases of drug trials, even avoiding women who were taking contraception or completely sexually inactive.

Further still, researchers became even wearier upon noticing that a form of synthetic oestrogen – diethylstilboestrol – caused a noticeable increase in cancer risks in children exposed to the drug during gestation. Therefore, they made the preventative decision to completely exclude pregnant women from all stages of clinical research for several decades.

Although precautions surrounding the health of foetuses were undoubtedly warranted, this once again resulted in a huge data disparity, preventing women from receiving medicine that was tailored correctly for their bodies. So how has the lack of inclusion of women in clinical trials ultimately affected the way we examine their cardiological health and the drugs we prescribe them? A historic underrepresentation in cardiological research has had a negative impact on the way women are treated for cardiovascular research, particularly regarding heart disease. When it comes to this illness, the differences between

72 men and women are not only obvious when referring to treatments and reactions to individual drugs, but also the symptoms themselves. For women, a heart attack feels closer to severe indigestion – a striking difference to the classic image of chest pains, more commonly linked to men. Nevertheless, this lack of understanding is not at all surprising when you consider that women account for less than 40% of participants in cardiovascular research – a disparity that has contributed to the fact that women are far more likely to die of heart disease, especially when treated by a male doctor. Therefore, a lack of clinical research has not only impacted our fundamental understanding of a woman’s pharmacodynamics, but also the very symptoms she experiences.

Even so, efforts have been made to start mending this drastic misunderstanding in our knowledge.

After noticing that the National Institutes of Health – the primary agency responsible for public health in the United States – had failed to encourage academics to factor gender into their data analysis, the ORWH (Office of Research on Women’s Health) was established in 1990.

Further still, having recognised the differences between the presentation of heart disease in opposite sexes, Dr Bernadine Healy launched the ‘Women’s Health Initiative’ in 1991. These were a series of clinical trials enrolling only women which spanned over a period of 15 years and aimed to test the effects of hormone therapy

and diet modification on heart disease. In fact, the efforts to close this gap in representation are now fortified by laws that ensure both women and minority groups in included in all clinical research, invalidating cost as an excuse for a lack of inclusion. Trials must be conducted so that it is possible to identify whether certain variables affect women and minorities differently than other participants, and there are outreach efforts to encourage both groups to take part in clinical trials more often.

In conclusion, a disregard for women’s health on its own is an issue that has been prevalent for centuries, but also one that continues to have detrimental consequences when treating CVDs and other conditions. A lack of understanding surrounding the female body is one that stems from the prejudiced beliefs of the Ancient Greeks yet has still failed to be completely amended. This not only emphasises just how much we have yet to learn about health as medics and researchers, but also how long-lasting the effects of harmful, historical beliefs and stereotypes can be.

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To What Extent do Animal Markings Provide Protection Against Predators?

Rebecca Waite, Sixth Form, Harcourt House.

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ome animals have extraordinary ways to change the exterior of their body.

Some animals have incredible patterns which are designed for numerous reasons from camouflage to thermoregulation. These animals are clever, impressive, and astonishing in the way they present themselves. Some of these animals that I have investigated are zebras, giraffes, chameleons, and octopuses.

STEM

Although many people think that the zebra’s stripes are designed for camouflage, zoologists believe stripes offer zebras protection from predators in a few different ways and overall, not for camouflage. The stripes have been found to repel biting flies as the black and white lines confuse the flies and so they do not land on the zebra. This is due to the stripes setting up an optical illusion that disrupts the expected pattern of movement the fly experiences as it approaches the zebra, preventing it from landing properly.

Flies don't see the zebra as a solid entity but a series of thin black objects. Some farmers paint their cattle to repel biting flies and stop their cattle potentially gaining diseases that these flies may carry. The same can been seen with people who own horses, where they use rugs instead to achieve the same result.

Moreover, the stripes don't just hinder the eyesight of predators, a theory suggests that thermoregulation places a part in their survival.

The black stripes absorb heat radiation from the sun, thus warming the zebra up in the morning, and the white stripes reflect light, therefore keeping them cool as they graze and roam around hours a day in the sweltering sun.

However, some would contradict this statement and argue that the colour of the stripes would cancel each other out during the day. The stripes are also found to be an adaptation and were originally a mutation in the zebra’s fur. Each zebra is unique, and no two types of stripes are the same, like a human fingerprint. This outlines that zebra's stripes aren't just for puzzling predators but are used for thermoregulation too.

Giraffes, similar to zebras, have adapted their skin markings mainly for camouflage. Their beige/tan colour is hard to spot in the environment they live in, due to the yellowness of the grass and the tall

trees they graze from as they blend in with the patchy bark and dappled light. When they walk, their moving spots look like swaying branches, which makes them harder to spot by a predator.

I'm sure many safari participants agree with this statement!

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The patches aren't just used as camouflage as they also benefit the giraffe with thermoregulation. A giraffe sends blood through small blood vessel branches which progresses into the middle of the patch and releases heat for it to cool down. Each patch acts as a thermal window to release body heat which is vital in the scorching sun of African savannahs.

Like zebras and human fingerprints, no two giraffes are the same, but their spots are inherited, and studies have found that the spots can be traced back to their parents and that they may impact the chances of a calf surviving its first few months of life. Calves with larger spots and irregularly shaped spots camouflage better, therefore surviving while being so young.

Scientists found that some characteristics, like roundness and smoothness, were strongly linked between mother and offspring and likely to be heritable. Where does the extraordinary pattern come from? The pattern arises from an initial distribution of melanin-producing cells in the

embryo, and later the melanocytes release their dark pigment, thus creating the spots.

This demonstrates that giraffe's spots aren't just for camouflage and hiding from predators, they are also an adaptation for thermoregulation and help young giraffes to survive in the first few months of their life, as their markings are essential in bypassing harmful predators.

Although many people would believe that chameleons change their colours to camouflage themselves from predators and blend in with their surroundings, it is actually quite the opposite. In fact, chameleons change the colour of their skin to regulate their body temperature or to signal their intentions with other chameleons.

However, some chameleons, like the Madagascan species, do use camouflage to blend into the colours of the forest.

76 How do chameleons change their colours?

Chameleons possess special types of cells in their skin called chromatophores and are organised in layers within the skin. They reflect light energy which bounces back into the retina, which shows us their colours as the chromatophores contain sacs of different coloured pigments. The layers of chromatophores are as follows: red and yellow sit on the upper layer while the cells with dark melanin pigment like blue, black, and brown are on lower layers. The distance between each layer helps to determine their colours too as the light waves need to travel a certain distance. If the distance is small, light reflects small wavelengths, like blue, and for larger distances, light reflects larger wavelengths like red. Below the red and yellow chromatophores is a layer of iridophores (iridescent chromatophores) which produce structural colour. Iridophores do not contain pigment but instead contain an organised transparent lattice of guanine nano-sized crystals which reflect specific wavelengths of light, this reflected light is what we perceive as colour as I mentioned beforehand. Underneath this, a second layer of iridophores reflect near-infrared light which helps to keep chameleons cool as it reduces the amount of light energy absorbed.

Chameleons can control and change the spacing between these nanocrystals as the cells are under neuromuscular control. This means they can change colour for communication or impressing a potential mate. Male chameleons will turn bold, bright colours when they are ready to mate, this is of course to impress the female. They also have the ability to control their body temperature due to the second layer of iridophores reflecting near-infrared light. Involuntary colour changes however show that when there's a change in external temperatures or their mood, the

chameleon's nervous system triggers an expansion or contraction of the nanocrystals, thus changing the spacing between them which again changes their colours.

For thermoregulation, a cold chameleon will turn a darker colour to absorb heat radiation and a hotter chameleon will turn a paler colour to reflect light and the sun's heat, but as said before, chameleons contain a layer underneath the nanocrystals which aids in the process of cooling down. The chameleon’s mood will also generate certain colours; therefore, you can tell if a chameleon is relaxed or agitated in some way. If a chameleon turns darker colours, then it is stressed and unhappy, this could be due to an enemy chameleon being nearby. Black coloured throats will show if the chameleon feels threatened. However, if the chameleon turns bright green, red or blue then it is happy.

The green colour is produced when light reflects off the crystal layer and travels through the yellow pigment and blue pigment. This shows that chameleons mainly use their evolution in colours and markings on their skin for mating, thermoregulation, and communication with other chameleons, rather than for camouflaging from predators.

How do octopuses change their colour and texture of their skin to blend into their surroundings? Like chameleons they have specialised cells in their skin called chromatophores. These chromatophore cells have a stretchy sac called cytoelastic sacculus which is filled with pigment in each one. The coloured pigment can either be red, yellow, brown, or black. Due to neuromuscular control (where each cell is attached to a nerve and controlled by the nervous system), the muscles around each chromatophore can tighten, pulling the sac wider, displaying more pigment on the octopus' skin. When the muscles relax, the pigment sac shrinks and thus less pigment is shown on the octopus' skin. When the octopus sees a predator or even prey, a colour change occurs, and the octopus' brain sends a signal to the chromatophores.

For prey, octopuses use colour to trick them as they change colour and shape to fool prey into thinking the octopus is a different animal, like a sea snake or flatfish. A well-known type of octopus that uses a colour change to warn

77 predators is the blue ringed octopus. This highly venomous octopus flashes its blue rings to tell other animals to stay away. Another octopus however uses a different technique: a study has shown that the California two-spot octopus can sense light without the use of its brain. This octopus possesses light-sensitive proteins in its skin that can detect changes in brightness and prompts a colour change. They do this for predators such as an angler fish, also known as, the headlight fish.

Octopuses can also change their texture using small regions in their skin known as papillae to camouflage from predators. In these papillae, muscle fibres run in a spiderweb pattern, using both radial spokes (multi-unit protein structures found in the axonemes of eukaryotic cilia and flagella) and concentric circles (two or more circles which have the same centre point). When these fibres contract, they draw the soft tissue in the papillae towards the centre. And since that tissue doesn’t compress very well, the only direction it can move is upwards. By arranging the muscle fibres in different patterns, the octopus can turn two-dimensional skin into threedimensional shapes, including round bumps, sharp spikes, and branching structures.

Another way in which octopuses protect and camouflage themselves from predators is

through using their suckers on their tentacles to grab objects around them and 'bind' them to themselves. This helps to blend into their surroundings as they appear to be the seabed, coral, rocks, or sponges to predators. The octopus uses shells and rocks, or a coconut, as armour for camouflage and protection in case the predator does recognise them and attacks.

Sometimes an octopus might even carry its armour around with it, tucking the shell under its body, sitting on it like a bowl, and moving around on tip-tentacles. This shows that their animal markings, changes in colour and being clever are essential in protecting themselves against predators.

Throughout the research I have conducted these animals have shown how intelligent they are in protecting themselves from predators.

Although many people feel as though markings on an animal are primarily for camouflage, my studies have demonstrated otherwise. This article shows how markings are not just for there for camouflage, but essential for regulating body temperatures, attracting mates and communication.

References:

‘How do chameleons change colour?’ - Mary Bates (April 11th, 2014) How Do Chameleons Change Colors? | WIRED ‘How octopuses and squids change colour’ – Fox Meyer (October 2014) How Octopuses and Squids Change Color | Smithsonian Ocean (si.edu)

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