Scholars Journal 2020

Scholars’ Journal 2020 A selection of articles written by our Scholars

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Scholars’ Journal 2020

Scholars' Journal 2020 Introduction We are delighted to present the 2020 Scholars’ Journal, which contains a selection of articles from our Academic Scholars in First to Sixth Form. They have each worked independently to explore and refine their understanding of an incredibly wide range of topics, including everything from Japanese manga to nuclear fusion. The diversity of these pieces speaks to the lively academic interests of our Scholars, whose commendable desire to learn, grow and improve is reflected on each of the pages that follow.

While the difficult circumstances in which we have all found ourselves in recent months caused this year’s publication to be slightly delayed, they also highlight the ever more pressing need for rigorous research and critical thinking across all facets of society. Our Scholars’ commitment to discovering, debating and absorbing new ideas demonstrates their impressive ability to face new challenges and adapt accordingly.

We hope you enjoy reading their insights and analysis.

Dr S Harrison and Mr P Rudge

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Scholars' Journal 2020 Contents The Scholars’ Journal is a collection of articles created by pupils from First Form to Lower Sixth Form. The articles combine a selection of work across a wide range of disciplines.

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Can Robots Be Beneficial to Human Lives?

Archie Wilkinson

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How Will Cars Develop in the Next 30 Years?

Simran Panesar

Second Form

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Why is Cancer Such a Difficult Problem to Solve?

Caellum Sharp

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Should we Bring Back the Mammoth?

Aoife Kirkham

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Is Dissection Worth the Lives it Costs?

Rachael Elliott

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Shinto, Shinigami and their Roles in Japanese Culture Millie Pratley

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How is Shakespeare, a sixteenth century playwright, still so relevant in the 21st Century?

Jamie Wehrle

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Biomimicry: The Future of Design Lucas Bennett

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The PirahĂŁ Language: Seeing the World Through New Eyes?

Alex Brown

Third Form

How do Snowflakes Form?

Archie Clarke

First Form Fourth Form Fifth Form

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The Imperfect Notes of Music Emily Mumford

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Unfolding the Folded Harrison Procter

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The Demon Core ZoĂŤ Smith

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Cosmetic Surgery: A Booming Industry, but is this a Positive Thing?

Priya Ahluwalia

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Epigenetics: The Potential Cure for Cancer?

Sam Carter

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Est-ce que les vacances sont toujours les vacances?

Jonathan Cowie and Poppy Werhle

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Is Thermonuclear Fusion a Viable Mode of Energy Production?

Sam Elek

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The Progression and Future of 3D Printing George London

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Does Damien Hirst's Work Deserve to be Celebrated?

Elen Moore

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Introducing the Queen Elizabeth-Class Aircraft Carriers Tom Potter

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Is Universal Basic Income the Future for Societies?

Ewan Short

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The Benefits of a Plant-Based Diet on Humans and the Environment Charlie Symonds

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Corsetry: A History Lauren Thomas

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In Defence of Poetry Mae Topley

Lower Sixth

The Equation of the Schwarzschild Radius Ciara McCarthy

Fifth Form

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How do Snowflakes Form?

Archie Clarke, First Form, Queen Anne.

Clarke and Academic Scholar.

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hat I wanted to find out: I was interested in how a snowflake forms after seeing a documentary (Forces of Nature with Brian Cox) that made me realise that it is far more complicated than it seemed. I therefore investigated the factors that go into the formation of a snowflake, ranging from their shapes and colour to their synchronisation.

What is a snowflake?

A snowflake is a three-dimensional ice crystal.

The molecules in a snowflake are put together in a precise hexagonal formation. Snow crystals display their characteristics in six directions which is the shape we recognise as a snowflake.

Hexagonal prisms can be long, slender, thin, flat or something else around that area. Hexagonal prisms form a simple arrangement of water molecules.

These crystals grow slowly and they are usually quite small. The branches sprout from the six corners and the crystal grows larger.

Growth synchronisation: Nothing synchronises the growth of a snow crystal (snowcrystals.com). The six arms of a snow crystal all grow independently. But since they grow under the same conditions, all six end up with similar shapes. The shape of a snowflake differs if it is in a different climate. For example, if the snowflake falls

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through a colder climate it will form into a needle-like crystal.

Why six?

The six-fold symmetry you see in a snow crystal arises from the arrangement of water molecules.

When snow crystals first begin growing, they are shaped like simple hexagonal prisms. We think that snowflakes are symmetrical, but if you take a closer look each of the six branches are slightly different.

So why are no two snowflakes exactly alike?

No two snowflakes are identical because individual snowflakes all follow slightly different paths from the sky to the ground. They encounter different atmospheric conditions along the way, such as different temperatures and wind conditions, which changes the exact timing of the growth of the ice crystal. The changing temperatures and humidities make each arm grow slightly differently. The shape

of the final snow crystal is determined by the exact path it takes through the clouds.

need to improve in order to save more lives.

The main steps of the formation of a snowflake are: • A snowflake forms when a water particle freezes • First an ice plate forms from the water droplet.

This normally happens around –2*c • This then turns into a dendrite which looks more like a snowflake • These then grow as the ice crystals get bigger forming a snowflake What makes the colour of a snowflake?

I was then interested to find out why all snowflakes appear white as water appears blue. Although ice by itself is clear, snow usually appears white in color due to the scattering of light spectrum by the small crystal facets of the snowflakes of which it is comprised, so to us they look white in colour.

The Shape of a Snowflake A snowflake's shape is determined by the temperature and humidity of when it is formed.

At -3°c the crystals grow thin and flat. At -8°c the crystals grow as needles, hollow columns or prisms.

At -22°c the crystals become plate like again, often with branches or dendrite features. The snowflake physicists Magono and Lee devised a classification of freshly formed snow crystals that include 80 distinct shapes. These include: • • • • • •

The needle crystal The columnar crystal The plate crystal Rimed crystal Irregular snow crystal And, Germ of snow crystal

Each of the main categories above can be further subdivided into more categories which were documented by a micrograph.

Why are snowflakes interesting?

The biggest snowflake ever recorded was 38cm in diameter and 20cm thick, as measured at Fort Keogh, Montana, in 1887. This happened when the snow falling was wet and so lots of snowflakes bonded together to make a much larger one.

It is important to understand what type of snow is falling in order to prevent disasters such as avalanches. Even though the human knowledge to know when an avalanche is about to strike is already very advanced, humans as a species still

Conclusion In this project I have learnt many things including the importance of the path of the snowflake on its journey to the ground. Another thing that I did not know before coming into this project was that snowflakes are not symmetrical; they just grow at nearly the same rate. I also found out that there are many different types of snowflakes because of how the temperatures differ. I have thoroughly enjoyed writing this article and I hope you’ve enjoyed reading it.

Glossary: Molecule- a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction.

Spectrum- a band of colours, as seen in a rainbow, produced by separation of the components of light by their different degrees of refraction according to wavelength.

Atmospheric- relating to the atmosphere of earth.

References: • • • •

Snowcrystals.com www.noaa.gov/stories/how-do-snowflakes-formscience-behind-snow Wikipedia Researcherblogski.wordpress.com

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Can Robots Be Beneficial To Human Lives?

Archie Wilkinson, Second Form, Gascoigne.

Clarke and Academic Scholar.

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obots are an increasingly common part of our lives, whether it is a Roomba cleaning your house or the industrial robots that helped build many of the products you own. Some people find the use of robots concerning and are worried that they may be a threat to the way that we live. However, others find that robots can provide real advantages in some areas where humans have limited abilities. In this article, Archie Wilkinson explores the relationship between robots and humans, and shows how this relationship is exciting, but not always positive.

Robots can be a huge physical help to humans, capable of doing tasks that require superhuman strength, or the ability to replicate the same thing consistently, over and over again. Imagine an array of robotic arms in a factory helping to assemble a car, or a swarm of warehouse robots autonomously picking and packing items you order online. As futuristic as this may seem, these things are already a reality. But although these robots are replacing the work of humans, it isn’t all bad. Robots are consistent, precise, don’t need paying, and don’t have any work life balance to maintain so can work day and night. This makes them very efficient

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and useful factory workers. However, people are concerned that this is resulting in too many workers losing their jobs. Foxconn, the Chinese company that makes many Apple devices, replaced 60,000 human workers with robots. That is more than double the population of Witney. Oxford Economics looked at the rise of robots and have predicted that up to 20 million manufacturing jobs around the world could be lost because of robots by 2030. That is more like the population of Sri Lanka!

Another big growth area in robotics is in assisting people with disabilities. This can completely

transform the quality of people’s lives. Robotic exoskeletons have even managed to help some paralysed people walk again. Whereas robotic arms or legs replace original limbs, exoskeletons are placed over the body to help assist or restore human performance. The ReWalk, a robotic exoskeleton created by ReWalk Robotics Ltd (originally Argo Medical Technologies Ltd), has helped people with spinal injuries to stand upright, walk, turn, climb and descend stairs. Also, bionic technology has made it possible for blind people to see again, and cochlear implants help deaf people to hear again by sending signals directly to the brain. A downside of this is that this technology can be incredibly expensive, so it can’t help as many people as it could. Hopefully, as the technology evolves, the price will come down, making it more accessible.

Another physical use of robots is to help keep humans safe. The military use robots for reconnaissance, surveillance and disarming explosives. These robots perform tasks that may be dangerous or even life-threatening for humans. They can also be programmed to do jobs more effectively than a soldier could. They can make faster decisions without having emotion, and can also see through darkness, fog or smoke, which human soldiers couldn’t do. There is, however, an ethical question around a robot that can autonomously decide to kill a human. Also, military robots could be hacked by the enemy and used against us; without any awareness of right and wrong, they could mistake the user for the enemy. The US Navy has a firefighting robot with arms that can open doors and hoses that can help put out fires on ships.

Similarly, the SmokeBot goes into burning buildings and uses a thermal camera and gas sensors to create a map for firefighters to use when they are fighting fires, making the job more predictable and thus less dangerous. At Sellafield Nuclear Power Station, humans can use alpha glove boxes to move nuclear waste from the safety of their desk, instead of entering a dangerously radioactive environment.

But the problem with using robots in dangerous environments is that they could malfunction at a crucial moment, possibly making the situation even worse than it would be without reliance upon the robot.

In health care, robotics can provide a new level of accuracy, meaning that certain procedures, such as keyhole surgery, have become a lot easier and less invasive. This also means that the outcomes of surgery are improved, and recovery time is reduced.

It has also sped up the time of some procedures, meaning that the surgeon can see more patients.

As well as this, machines can give a more accurate diagnosis; the IBM Watson already has a 99% success rate in cancer diagnosis. Experts are also looking at ways to use autonomous robotic trauma care systems to treat soldiers injured in remote locations. The downside of medical robotics is the prohibitive costs to purchase and install these systems in hospitals. Some that have been installed have had technical complications.

As well as all their physical advantages, robots can also be friendly and mentally supportive towards humans, helping them greatly. Combined with Artificial Intelligence, robots have the ability to interact more realistically with you. Lonely elderly people could be looked after by robotic carers, who don’t need breaks, or any wages after their purchase. The friendly humanoid robot Pepper recognises key human emotions and responds accordingly. It is being used in Belgian hospitals and SoftBank Mobile stores in Japan to welcome and entertain visitors. Buddy is a robot that can protect the home, offer help in the kitchen, act as a personal assistant by remembering information and play with children. The ROBEAR is an experimental nursing robot that looks like a friendly bear. It can perform difficult tasks like lifting patients out of bed, saving humans from carrying out strenuous tasks. Whilst emotionally, robots cannot replace humans; when no humans are available, a friendly robot is better than being alone.

As has been demonstrated in this article, robots have many great uses and they can provide real help in multiple situations. They can be efficient, friendly, provide high levels of accuracy, work long hours, protect lives by doing dangerous jobs, and transform the quality of the lives of people with disabilities. However, if they are used unethically then they can give a lot of power to someone with the wrong intentions. The ethics of artificial intelligence is something that needs to be developed alongside the actual robotic systems in order to help safeguard the way in which we use them. Oxford University recently had its largest donation in 500 years of £150 million to investigate this area; it’s very important. Robots can also go wrong which can be dangerous in certain situations so we must be careful not to overly rely on them. They can also be a threat to jobs so may be a solution that benefits only the business owners rather than the workers.

Overall, I believe that that robots provide lots of exciting opportunities but we must be extremely careful to use and develop them properly and with the very best intentions.

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How Will Cars Develop in the Next 30 Years?

Simran Panesar, Second Form, Queen Anne.

Academic Scholar and Art Award Holder.

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umanity has long been thinking of new ideas for how to get around. In 1885, transportation was changed forever when Karl Benz made the first automobile in history. Nowadays, cars look almost unrecognisable compared to those that were created in the Victorian era – they are certainly far more developed but how will these machines further evolve in times to come?

Electric Cars Owing to global warming, and other contributing factors, electric cars are becoming more and more popular. They are a lot quieter than the cars that have been driven for the past 115 years. They can charge at home, in car parks or at fuel stations.

These cars used to be the cars of the future for some, but now they are being driven all over the world. Eventually cars will not use petrol or diesel to power their engines and, by 2030, electric vehicles’ prices will fall below that of a regular car. They do not emit CO² and are much more environmentally friendly. However, the emissions that are made during the production of their batteries, are higher than many are comfortable with. Nevertheless, despite some flaws in electric cars, they seem to

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be taking to the roads quite rapidly. There are now more than ten thousand registered electric vehicles in the UK including hybrids and all-electric cars. A year or two ago, people would have been debating whether electric cars would ever take off in the market, but now, it is certain.

Hydrogen-Powered Vehicles Hydrogen-powered cars are also thought to benefit the environment as they only emit water vapour or H2O. They are also more practical for people who use their cars often because a full tank provides a 300-mile drive compared to a 100-mile average for electric cars.

However, there are some downsides, such as their

cost. It is said that these cars each cost one million dollars to make. Although some companies have lowered the price, they are still very expensive to buy. Along with this, hydrogen is very hard and expensive to make for the fuel. Therefore there would be fewer places to refuel your hydrogenpowered car compared to electric vehicle charging stations.

Hydrogen vehicles are theoretically perfect for the environment and could be the next big thing in the transport world; however, their economic drawbacks might prevent them getting the recognition they deserve. Either way, they offer another idea as to what our transportation future might look like.

Flying Cars Flying cars have long been a popular futuristic vision for transport, but they might move from fantasy to reality sooner than people think. In fact, there are already flying cars that exist today, such as those emerging from a collaboration between Porsche and Boeing.. However, they are said to be quite tricky to fly and they might not be suitable for short journeys.

Although the electricity produced for the cars is

mostly made by power plants that produce CO², electric flying cars produce little to no emissions, which offsets their environmental impact.

At first, there would only be a few, very expensive models, as with many other products. However, over time enough people would buy them until the flying car has its own working traffic system. Fuel stations would be replaced by charging ports.

Conclusion Diesel- and petrol-powered cars are the most common vehicles in today’s world, but will they keep up as we enter the 21st century? Research says that it is not likely and they will no longer be on sale within 30 years. Cars have been powered with fossil fuels for a very long time; in fact, they have been powered this way since the start of the automobile’s timeline. Now there are even more ways to travel and soon the world will say goodbye to this mode of transport and its legacy will be passed onto the new generation of cars. Although some cars may not take off immediately, these vehicles will definitely be used in our future.

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Why is Cancer Such a Difficult Problem to Solve?

Caellum Sharp, Second Form, Vanbrugh.

Academic Scholar and Music Award Holder.

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verybody in the world has heard of cancer and the problems it causes. However, many people do not know just how deadly cancer is. Cancer causes more deaths worldwide than murders and plane accidents. Globally, it is one of the worst diseases. So why has this problem not yet been solved? In this article, Caellum Sharp explores why cancer is so difficult to treat and how research is progressing.

Many people do not know that cancer is not a virus.

Cancer is produced by a malfunction of a normal cell in the human body. You can’t ‘catch’ cancer (unlike a virus) but you can be more likely to be affected by cancer if someone in your family has had cancer before. The problem is that cancer likes to grow. In fact, cancer likes to grow very fast. This then means that your body has no space to grow other useful cells, which inhibits essential physical processes.

Cancer's Defences In the body, there is a defence mechanism: the immune system. The immune system combats problems like cancer and Ebola through the

use of cells; specifically, T and B cells. These fight viruses and problems that arise. They do this by latching onto a special receptor (similar to a hand or foot for cells) called an HLA. These receptors present a special protein called a peptide which is a bit like a passport for cells. When someone has a simple virus, the T and B cells signal this so that it can be attacked and expelled.

What goes wrong with cancer though, is that it is a microenvironment. This means that it is more than just one cell and has more than one HLA. Therefore, the T-cells will in probability not latch onto the ‘nasty’ HLA. Even if they did find the right HLA, it would be killed by the cancer before they could call in backup.

Cancer doesn’t just stop here though. It is able to alter the PH of its environment. The PH scale is from 1-13. It is used to classify acids and alkalis. At 13, we have the most alkaline substances and at 1 we have the most acidic substances. At 7 (the middle) we have what we call neutral substances. This is

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mainly water. When you put 1 and 13 together they should become neutral. This is called neutralisation.

Cancer is able to change the PH of its surroundings, so it looks like it was made in that environment. This is one of the things T-cells check before they latch onto HLAs. However, cancer is very clever and so if T-cells discover it is dangerous it will change its PH so that it kills off the attacking cells.

Treatment Problems A problem that doctors face is that cancer is very hard to diagnose when it is in its early stages. It is especially difficult to detect prostrate and brain cancer. What’s more, these two are amongst the hardest to treat. This means that when the cancer gets serious, doctors don’t have enough time to deal with it. This is because the treatment for cancer is not like the treatment for a virus such as measles.

One of the least dangerous solutions to cancer is cell therapy. For this, doctors need to take out samples of blood before they can engineer them.

Whereas chemotherapy and immunotherapy are fast, but not specific to the person being treated, cell therapy is slower but more targeted. Speed is the main problem doctors face when fighting cancer.

They are fighting the growth of cancer because if it grows too large, it can become almost impossible to stop. In addition, the government must approve all new treatments before they can be implemented, which requires additional discussion and time.

Treatment Progress Despite the difficulties of treating cancer in a timely and effective manner, there are companies all over the world that are fighting the disease and these companies are making progress. In 2010, there was a 50% survival of 10 years once diagnosed.

This went up during 2014, when there was a massive increase of survival and 80% of early diagnosed patients survived with it until they died of old age. Last year, there was a 59% survival rate for more difficult cancer types and 90% chance of survival for more common cancers like liver and kidney cancer.

Cancer will be cured and I believe it will be in my generation’s lifetime. Even today there are patients being cured. There is a way forward because we now know what we face when we are talking about cancer.

Sources: Adaptimmune.com Cancerresearch.co.uk

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Should we Bring Back the Mammoth?

Aoife Kirkham, Third Form, Feilden.

Clarke, Trevis and Academic Scholar, DT Award Holder.

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he woolly mammoth vanished from the earth 10,000 years ago, but recently we have been hearing scientists claiming that it might be making a mighty return.

Scientists say that they are able to resurrect this ancient beast. But should they?

This article will discuss the potential of bringing this creature back from extinction and the multitude of positives and negatives that surround this idea.

Scientists across the world have been working on the prospect of bringing back long extinct creatures for years, but now they seem closer than ever before by using an ambitious feat of genetic engineering. In 2013 a team from Yakutsk, Russia, uncovered the almost complete carcass of a young female mammoth, then named Buttercup, buried in the permafrost on the New Siberian islands. She had three legs, the majority of her body, part of her head and the trunk relatively well preserved. More excitingly, when dislodging this amazing specimen, the team noticed dark, sticky blood ooze from the remains. The red colour of the liquid comes from the surviving haemoglobin.

Woolly mammoths evolved a special type of haemoglobin that was resistant to the cold which allowed them to survive the drastic temperatures. The scientists were able to collect a vial of blood and hoped to then extract living cells that would yield intact DNA. They believed that this was the missing link to bringing this ancient behemoth back. Past mammoth carcasses have also oozed blood but ultimately, they didn’t contain enough DNA to reconstruct or clone the mammoth genome. Unfortunately, scientists have been unable to use the DNA they have found in Buttercup as it was not as intact as they had hoped. However, some efforts are still aimed towards finding DNA that could be used to clone a 100% mammoth.

Mammoths belong to the genus Mammuthus which first appeared in Africa around five million years

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ago and then migrated through Eurasia and North America. The best known mammoth species M. primigenius, commonly known as the Siberian, Northern or Woolly mammoth, arose around 250,000 years ago. Its extinction was around 10,000 years ago, however small populations may have survived longer. Carbon dating revealed Buttercup lived 40,000 years ago and the measuring of growth rates of the teeth and tusks revealed that she lived until her mid-fifties and gave birth to eight calves, possibly losing an additional one. They speculate that she in fact came to a rather gruesome ending as she was most likely to be eaten alive by wolves and other predators due to becoming trapped in an ancient peat bog. So far, the scientists working with Buttercup’s remains have yet to find a complete copy of the mammoth genome.

In 2015 a team led by well renowned molecular engineer and geneticist, George Church of Harvard University, had been working on a method to produce a mammoth-elephant hybrid as an alternative to a clone. They planned to do this using ‘synthetic biology’, otherwise known as splicing the genes of a woolly mammoth with those of an Asian elephant. Asian elephants are the closest living relative of the mammoth sharing an astonishing 99% of its DNA. To do this, they are using a geneediting technique known as CRISPR/Cas9, which Church helped develop. Derived from a system that bacteria uses to defend against viruses, the tool

allows geneticists to ‘cut and paste’ strands of DNA more precisely than ever before.

Up to now, Church and his team have stopped at the cell stage, but they are moving on to creating embryos blending the mammoth traits with Asian elephant DNA. The resulting hybrid, sometimes referred to as a ‘mammophant’, would be part elephant, but with distinctive mammoth traits, such as small ears, subcutaneous fat, shaggy hair and blood that enables the animal to survive in freezing temperatures.

Despite their progress, the team said it would be many years before they make a serious attempt to produce a living creature. They are planning to grow the embryo within an artificial womb in the laboratory, rather than find a female elephant as a surrogate mother, an ambitious plan that may take more than a decade.

However, in South Korea’s Sooam Biotech Research Foundation, headed by veterinarian and cloning expert Hwang Woo-suk, scientists have long mastered the process of cloning your beloved pet dog. Barbra Streisand is just one of the celebrities that have cloned their pet for the humble price of $100,000. Hwang has also donated some of his experimental puppies to become Russian police dogs. Why not clone a mammoth then? This is

because, despite their best efforts, scientists have not yet been able to find viable mammoth DNA but still they continue to persevere. DNA is extremely fragile and must be stored at low temperatures with uniform humidity in order to survive intact.

In addition to Sooam scientists, researchers in Russia are still searching for living mammoth cells within Buttercup and other specimens. Those who are looking to see the mammoth walk the earth once more should place their hopes with synthetic biology rather than cloning. Within this new decade Church and his team expect to create the first mammothelephant hybrid.

This is not to say that cloning would be impossible as the specimen is of such high quality. If the scientists were to find an intact cell nucleus with the full genome, they could then insert the nucleus into an elephant egg and implant the egg into the mother elephant.

As these efforts continue, some in the scientific community strongly oppose the idea of cloning on ethical grounds and point out the problems involved in using female elephants as surrogate mothers for the prospective mammoth clones.

Paleobiologist Dr Tori Herridge of London’s Natural History Museum said, “Cloning a mammoth will require you to experiment on probably many

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Asian elephants�. A successfully cloned mammoth would instantly become an endangered species and therefore a high-profile case which could be targeted by poachers and end up on the black market which makes you question the quality of this creature’s welfare. As well as this, it would have to contend with modern environments and face a life in captivity.

A leading reason for bringing these mighty creatures back is their potential to combat climate change. Scientists say that creating hybrids of the mammoth could fix the Arctic tundra and stop greenhouse gas emissions. The Mammoth Steppe was an environment that stretched from Spain across Eurasia and the Bering Strait to Canada and was covered in grass, devoid of trees and populated by bison, reindeer, tigers and, of course, the woolly mammoth. Both mammoths and the mammoth steppe ecosystem have long since disappeared. Geneticists from Harvard claim that reintroducing mammoth-like creatures to Arctic tundra environments could help stop the release of greenhouse gases from the ground and reduce future emissions as temperatures rise due to climate change. Scientists have been experimenting with a similar idea for over twenty years. Arctic land covered by the permafrost that has been frozen since the Pleistocene contains vast amounts of carbon. It is estimated that in these frozen stores there is twice as much than happens to currently be in the atmosphere. If it thaws microbes will break down the soil and organic material to release carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere and this would raise global temperatures even further than currently projected.

Mammoths and other large herbivores of the

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Pleistocene continually trampled mosses and shrubs, uprooting trees, disturbing the landscape inadvertently acting as natural geoengineers maintaining highly productive steppe landscapes full of grasses, herbs and no trees. Mammoth-like creatures in the tundra could therefore in theory help recreate the steppe ecosystem more widely. As the grasses absorb less sunlight than trees, the ground absorbs less heat from the sun, keeping the carbon pools and greenhouse gases on ice for longer. Large numbers of animals would also trample snow cover stopping it from acting as insulation for the ground, allowing the permafrost to feel the arctic winds once again. This form of mammoth de-extinction and reintroduction could promote grasslands and simultaneously slow the thawing of these important frozen soils. So surely all this time, money and effort is worth it?

This theory is already an existing experiment in the Siberian Arctic which has been underway since 1996, focused on investigating the processes previously mentioned. Called the Pleistocene Park, this is where the Harvard team are hoping to release the first resurrected mammoth hybrid within the new decade.

The park was founded by Russian geophysicist Sergei Zimov. It is a sixteen square kilometre park and is filled with one hundred animals roaming free including bison, musk ox, moose, yaks, horses, and reindeer. The park is designed to determine if the animals can disturb and fertilize the current ecosystem where little grows into highly productive pastures. As well as slowing permafrost thaw, this could even reverse it. Limited financial and available personnel has made building and monitoring the project’s success difficult. However early evidence with the extant species suggest that animal presence

is changing the park landscape and structure and actually cooling the ground.

The park’s grasslands have been shown to reflect more sunlight than the surrounding larch forest which will reduce the amount of heat that penetrates the ground. To prove this, scientists have taken three-hundred-metre-long ground samples from across the landscape to measure the carbon storage in the park and work out if it differs from that of the vast surrounding non-disturbed landscape.

Much of this work relies on public crowdfunding and the park is now seeking money to fill it with temperature and light sensors. It has already managed to install a flux tower which continually measures and monitors levels of methane, carbon dioxide and temperature in the park’s atmosphere.

Collecting convincing evidence to back up the theory takes time and huge effort. We will soon know if this bold and ambitious plan could make a realistic solution to climate change.

Some scientists and conservationists have questioned whether resurrecting the mammoth is really worth it, comparing the high costs with the relative lack of funding for saving the world’s elephants. Key questions surrounding this solution are whether we need the mammoth specifically to make the project work and could we not simply knock down trees manually and then go on to

use the existing animals? This depends on how we decide to expand such an approach across far greater swathes of the Arctic, where human intervention will be costly or even impossible in places.

In conclusion there are two clear sides to this argument. Developing genetic experimentation could have endless possibilities such as selective DNA immunities, but once we start to control the way things are made what is to stop humans creating some Jurassic Park equivalent? Why stop with just the mammoth? We could then go about bringing back the dinosaurs. This would lead to further experimentation on our existing species which would lead to questionable animal welfare. Bringing back a long-lost species is dangerous and would therefore need masses of protection, forcing governments to dig deeply into their pockets when there are other things that need their attention. Morals are questioned as how far can we take this project before it is considered wrong? If this equipment gets into the wrong hands and is exploited, we would be facing catastrophe on a huge scale as they could adapt these creatures and turn them into weapons.

This is an interesting solution to climate change as there is no other challenging idea. But the worry is, would it be going too far and opening a Pandora’s box of future problems and dilemmas?

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Is Dissection Worth the Lives it Costs?

Rachael Elliott, Third Form, Feilden.

Academic Scholar.

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issection is used all over the world to help people learn about the anatomy of animals and humans. It teaches all types of students from Year 7 school pupils to medical students at university. While some people recognise the benefits of this process, many others disagree with it. They believe it is unethical to take another’s life or, in the case of human dissection, that it is disrespectful to those that are dead. Although everyone is entitled to their own opinion, research to date makes a compelling argument that dissection is, in fact, worth the lives it costs.

Educational Benefits of Dissection During their time in university, medical students will dissect a whole human body. Some people think that it is unholy for someone to dissect another’s body even if it has been donated to science with their consent. Advocates argue that if someone has chosen to give their body away, then surely that is acceptable. In fact, this process is strictly regulated by the Human Tissue Authority.

In the US alone 17,500 people donate their body to science each year. When someone donates their body to science, they put it towards a scientific discovery that could help others. For example, human dissection can aid in understanding muscle development, which has implications not only for our daily lives, but also for sporting activities. Most medical students will graduate from university to then become a doctor. Without dissecting a human, they will not be able to become the best doctor they can be. They could save many appreciated lives using the knowledge gained from dissection.

If someone dies, there is sadly nothing that doctors and scientists can do about it, but they can dissect their body to prevent others from dying.

Also, most schools will use dissection to teach children about the anatomy of humans and animals.

This form of hands-on education is essential not only for pupils’ biological knowledge, but also to encourage more young people to train as doctors, nurses and vets, all of whom will help society in the future.

In the UK, dissecting is part of the national school

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curriculum. It takes place in secondary school many times. Most pupils will dissect two to three animals or organs, such as frogs, rats and pigs’ trotters. Animal dissection can be an exciting part of the curriculum for some, but a terrifying lesson for others. Many people dislike the idea of killing animals just to learn from them before throwing them away never to be used again. Teachers also need to be careful that children are taught to show respect for the animals even though they are dead.

They need to understand that animals’ lives are just as precious as human lives.

What are the alternatives to dissection?

Online computer programs teaching dissection have now been created. Virtual frogs, rats and many other animals can now be used as a different way of educating children about human and animal bodies. For some, this is a welcome alternative to dissection, especially if they are squeamish. The online programming means there is only the sight of the animal rather than having the smell as well, which could put many people off. Much of the time the virtual animal is rendered as a cartoon, meaning it is less realistic and less upsetting.

However, this method is not as educational as performing dissection in person. It has been proven that hands-on learning is by far the best way to study the human anatomy and internal organs much better than watching a video or being told about it. So, while virtual dissection has some benefits, particularly in a school setting, it is not a viable alternative in every circumstance.

The Need for Rules and Regulations In many places around the world there are very few laws around dissection, which lends weight to the idea that it could lead to the maltreatment of animals. For example, in a 1994 raid on a Mexican chicken farm, more than 1,000 cats had been found

killed in a barn on the premises. Their throats had been slit, leaving blood all over the place. The company responsible had paid a bounty of just $1 per cat that was given to them. All of the cats were destined for to be sold for dissection in classrooms in the United States.

Since there are no real control measures in place and little oversight, there is no way to determine how animals have been obtained and killed so that they can be studied. Given that over a million animals are dissected in the United States each year, it is imperative that this is addressed. Animal dealers only need to be inspected once per year. This allows unscrupulous people to now use dissection as an illegal yet easy way to make money. It is essential that dissection does not become a front for animal abuse. Much greater attention needs to be paid to this aspect of the argument to ensure that dissection upholds high ethical standards in all circumstances.

Many people could argue that dissection is a waste of precious animals, but without it we would not have the healthcare and animal protection we have today. Along with the right to choose if we agree with dissection, we also have the right to choose to donate our body to science and people should respect that. While dissection raises some difficult questions, its benefits clearly outweigh its problems.

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Shinto, Shinigami and their Roles in Japanese Culture

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Millie Pratley, Fourth Form, Swift.

Allen and Academic Scholar, Music Award Holder.

magine. Imagine a world where blood-thirsty ghouls run rampant throughout the streets of London, ruthlessly harvesting the souls of innocent passers-by and inflicting abhorrent wounds in every opponent they pass. Or perhaps, you’re one for a more innocent and frail universe like the one found in Aneko Yusagi’s ‘Rising of the Shield Hero’, a tale that sees innocent humans much akin to ourselves plunged into a land of magic and splendour, where they are soon deemed humanity’s sacred paladins. Although a hidden treasure to the eyes of many, it is no secret that Japan’s lucrative creation of both manga publications and anime have influenced the word massively.

Whether it be by uniting dedicated masses of fans or cashing in an impressive tourist income of around 1.84 billion yen (approximately £8,000,000,000) each year, manga – the characteristic Japanese publication much akin to the more Westernised ‘comic book’ – has surged throughout society like a huge economic hurricane. But did you know that while accumulating an impressive fanbase across the globe and proving itself to be one of Japan’s greatest creations, this traditional art form can reveal a plethora of information about the history of Japan itself, also opening eyes to more morose, contemporary beliefs?

In this article, we will be taking a steady navigation through the ancient history and myths regarding Shinigami and their origins. Sullen yet oddly gripping, the word itself utilises two kanji (logographic characters with an almost childlike relationship to Mandarin, sourced within the Japanese language) or ‘shi’ meaning death, and ‘kami,’ meaning spirit. From this dissection, the meaning of the word Shinigami can be interpreted as either ‘god of death’ or ‘death spirit’. Much akin to the widely known ‘grim reaper,’ these ethereal

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beings are spirits or supernatural incarnates that lead ill-fated humans to their death in certain aspects of Japanese religion and culture. Although featured scarcely in classical literature, Shinigami are described in Chikamatsu Monzaemon’s works of ‘ningyo joruri’ as both creatures of demise and fallen angels and from this, we can infer that Shinigami do in fact hold importance throughout Japan’s rich lore. But what exactly are their origins, and how can this be linked to comic books?

In relatively simple terms, the answer to this question is both a rich fanbase and the authors that strive to nourish it, taking advantage of their large following in order to enlighten other people with historical accuracies and context. For example, despite being heard of quite uncommonly in a contemporary and secular setting, these mythological embodiments of death find themselves being the focus of a critically acclaimed manga series by Tsugumi Obha, entitled ‘Death Note.’

‘Death Note’, a classic series that has captured the hearts of fans in every corner of the globe, depicts the story of a mysterious and over-achieving university student called Light Yagami, who one day finds himself stumbling across a notebook

abandoned in the human world by the stubborn Shinigami, Ryuk. This notebook, however, not only provides Light with a transcendental connection to the realm of the dead but allows whoever falls into its possession to control the subsequent fate and death of the people around them. After discovering this wicked book, Light decides to use it in order to rid Japan of vicious criminals, with his killings being labelled across the world as the work of ‘Kira,’ a Japanese alias derived directly from the English word ‘killer.’

So where exactly do Shinigami originate from, and how similar are they to their comic-book counterparts? Within the ‘Death Note’ lore itself, Shinigami are recognised as a race of extra-dimensional beings who roam the barren landscape of purgatory and survive by killing humans, in order to lengthen their own lifetimes.

While this is indeed similar to the traditional presentation of these death spirits in the sense that they seek both death and ill-fate, Shinigami in Shinto are referred to as more of an ‘escort’ to death, rather than a cause of it. Ryuk carries the death note to the human world and becomes Light’s metaphorical ‘escort’ as soon as he picks it up, but unlike those found in Obha’s manga, ‘real’ Shinigami do not guide humans through a fictional infliction of murder, but instead aid them by mapping out the threshold between life and death and uniting the unliving with their fallen conscience.

It is not surprising to hear that, due to Japan’s close relationship to Buddhism, the idea of Shinigami has been around for a long time. For example, the Buddhist ‘mrtyu-mara’ is often considered to be a Shinigami due to its concern for death. According to ancient scriptures, mrtyumara was a demon that urged humans to die, possessing unknowing travellers and in turn, causing them to commit suicide. Furthermore, it is suggested in the Yogacarabhumi-Sastra that Yogacara, a demon who was tasked with deciding people’s time of death, was also a Shinigami, and thus connected to this Japanese belief.

Before this idea of death ‘kami’ even came to Japan following contact with the West in the eighteenth century, traditional Japanese beliefs did not really perceive death as a bad omen, but as an alternative, a normal part of the cycle of existence.

Therefore, these supernatural deities are no scarier in true Japanese history than any other spirit, ready to help their chosen human and provide them with guidance and care, as any other Japanese ‘kami’ would. Although it can be vaguely translated to ‘spirit,’ the term kami alone refers to anything that is above, special, or auspicious in any way. It refers

to the inner quality of many phenomena that Shinto believes takes into an account an aura of divinity, but not Gods.

In Japan itself, kami of all types hold great importance within the major belief system. According to traditional Shinto beliefs, everything within the Earth has a spirit, or ‘kami’ that governs it, having been birthed by the historical figures Izanami and Izanagi and being assigned their own unique ‘concept’ to guard over. These spirits, whether they be great in power or small, are concerned with human beings and in appreciation of their worship, wishing for our happiness and success, rather than perceiving us as the ‘fallen.’ There are kami of the sky, kami of the wind, kami of the rivers and as expected, kami of death; these, although rather small in comparison to their kin, are the Shinigami.

Although present day Japan is a relatively secular nation, many people who follow the Shinto religion continue to believe in Shinigami, as they do with any other spirit – just not the murderous and lazy types found in Death Note. However, in a more contemporary setting, the belief displayed towards them is not literal but instead part of an honoured tradition, just like the Grim Reaper is within Western culture. The vigilant practice of Shinto attempts to establish a clear connection between modern Japan and its ancient past, which means that a personal link to all kami (not just Shinigami) is vital.

From this, it is evident that by introducing elements of history and culture into mainstream platforms, countries can take advantage of their extensive fan bases and widen the minds of many. Whether it be by displaying photogenic shrines and gateways in eye-catching shots, or by capturing hearts with characters as loveable as Ryuk, Japan’s thriving manga industry is establishing connections to Japan’s beauty throughout the entire world. And all of this? Through the pages of a book. By using such a lucrative business to showcase elements of their own history, Japan can keep their culture alive and open for people all over the world to explore and admire.

With other cultures using these mediums to evoke discovery, it also makes you wonder – just how easily can our narrow-minded world’s curse be broken? It’s phenomenal, and a question that only time will tell the answer to.

Sources: • • • •

The fan-based 'Death Note' Wikipedia https://www.ancient-origins.net/myths-legends/ shinigami-grim-reaper-japanese-folklore-006072 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinigami https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/clips/zq9fg82

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How is Shakespeare, a Sixteenth Century playwright, still so relevant in the 21st century?

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Jamie Wehrle, Fourth Form, Queen Anne.

Clarke and Academic Scholar, Drama Award Holder.

illiam Shakespeare. Every pupil’s nemesis, yet arguably the greatest playwright of all time. Described by his contemporary, the writer Ben Jonson, as ‘not of an age, but for all time’. But why is it that Shakespeare is still so important today, over four hundred years after his death?

William Shakespeare is believed to have been born on April 23rd 1564, and to have died on the same day in 1616. He was the eldest of eight siblings and father of three children: Susanna, Hamnet (who died aged eleven) and Judith (Hamnet’s twin). From 1589 to 1614, he wrote 38 plays, 154 sonnets and countless other poems. His timeless plays include comedies, such as ‘A Midsummer Night’s Dream’, and tragedies, for example ‘Macbeth’. Through his language and imagination, Shakespeare has greatly affected the modern world.

Shakespeare’s writing has undeniably impacted modern language, particularly with regard to comedy. He invented many words and phrases which are still in common use, such as ‘swagger’, ‘so-so’, ‘with bated breath’ and ‘a wild goose chase’.

Shakespeare is also credited with the invention of the now humorous phrase: ‘Knock, knock. . .

Who’s there?’ This much-loved joke appears in the

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opening monologue of Act 2, Scene 3 of ‘Macbeth’ where the drunken porter stands behind the castle gate, imagining that he is the porter to Hell’s gate.

In the monologue, the porter plays out scenarios of people trying to enter Hell, beginning each imaginary scene with some form of ‘Knock, knock. . .Who’s there?’ Despite Shakespeare not intending for it to be a joke, the phrase has developed into a familiar pun. In addition, Shakespeare used what might now be referred to as the ‘Your Mum’ joke.

The first recorded example of the maternal insult was found on a wax tablet in Babylon, dated to be at least 3500 years old. However, Shakespeare used it in Act 1, Scene 1 of ‘Timon of Athens’, when, after being called a dog by a painter, Apemantus tells the painter: ‘Thy mother’s of my generation. What’s she, if I be a dog?’ Similarly, it is used in Act 4, Scene 2 of ‘Titus Andronicus’, when Aaron, whilst taunting his lover’s children, says to one of them: ‘Villain, I have done thy mother.’ Although the insult had already

been created, the fame of Shakespeare’s works resulted in the joke gaining popularity. It is now a popular, albeit somewhat vulgar, come-back that has been used on programmes such as ‘Derry Girls’ and ‘The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air’.

Shakespeare’s plays have also changed the modern audience’s perception of a key historical figure, namely Richard III. In the opening of ‘Richard III’, the title character is immediately portrayed as a disfigured villain, describing himself as being ‘deformed’ and ‘unfinished’. He goes on to say that owing to this, he cannot be a lover, and so is ‘determinèd to prove a villain’ instead. This negative portrayal is used again in ‘Henry VI: Part Three’ where Richard talks of his withered arm, his limp and the ‘envious mountain’ on his back. However, following the discovery in 2012 of the King’s remains in a Leicester car park, it was revealed that Richard’s hunched back was simply fictitious. The spine of the skeleton was indeed badly curved, but this was said to be just a case of scoliosis which developed during adolescence, only resulting in his right shoulder being slightly higher than the left. Also, the bones of the skeleton were said to be very symmetrical, with both legs being well formed, making the limp and the withered arm seem highly unlikely.

Shakespeare’s crude depiction of Richard III was perhaps influenced by the monarch at the time of writing - Queen Elizabeth I, the last Tudor monarch.

‘Richard III’ ends with Henry Tudor, the Earl of Richmond and eventually King Henry VII, slaying the ‘bunch-back’d toad’ at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485, although in actuality, they never faced each other on the battlefield. In order to remain loyal to the Queen, who was the granddaughter of Henry Tudor, Shakespeare had to make Richard a villain and make the House of Tudor’s victory over the House of York (Richard) appear to be a triumph of good over evil. Therefore, the apparent villainy and disfigurement of the last king of the House of York may in part be a result of Shakespeare’s imagination.

is unprecedented, with many of his plays being made into movies set in various time periods. The 2016 film version of ‘A Midsummer Night’s Dream’, featuring Matt Lucas, was set in modern-day Athens. A number of Shakespeare’s plays have also provided inspiration for successful movies. For example, filmmakers of Disney’s masterpiece ‘The Lion King’, the highest grossing release of 1994, said that the story was partly inspired by ‘Hamlet’.

Both ‘Hamlet’ and ‘The Lion King’ feature a prince as the central character. In both stories, the prince’s father, the King, is killed by the prince’s uncle who then claims the throne. Additionally, the 1961 hit movie musical ‘West Side Story’, set in 1957 New York, is based on ‘Romeo and Juliet’, and focuses on the gangs of the Jets and the Sharks, the equivalent of the Montagues and Capulets from ‘Romeo and Juliet’. As well as winning ten Academy Awards, ‘West Side Story’ is arguably the first “modern” musical, where the music is an integral part to the story, as opposed to just appearing after a natural break in the action.

Four hundred years after his death, William Shakespeare continues to have a profound influence on 21st century life. His rich vocabulary is not just confined to his plays and poems, but has filtered out into everyday language. His portrayal of Richard III has changed common perceptions of the last Plantagenet king, and historians are still undecided as to whether he was indeed a villain. Perhaps most importantly, his 38 plays are still relevant today and continue to entertain audiences across the world.

Sources: • • • • • • •

Shakespeare: Richard III, Macbeth, Henry VI: Part 3 Wikipedia Reuters.com Independent.co.uk Shakespeare.org.uk Britannica.com Scripted.com

Shakespeare’s influence on film and television

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Biomimicry: The Future of Design Lucas Bennett, Fourth Form, Queen Anne.

Academic Scholar, DT Award Holder.

B

iomimicry is going to be the future of design. By copying nature, scientists are able to skip millions of years of research and development, letting nature put in the work through evolution. Every animal on this planet has evolved over millennia to best suit their natural environment. These perfected designs can therefore be integrated into our current technology to improve it. Many things can be gained from this, including an increase in efficiency as well as the development of unique properties such as hydrophobic (water-repelling) coatings. Specifically, my research examines the aerodynamic benefits of biomimicry, which refers to the flow of air over objects.

Shark Fins Perhaps one of the simplest examples of biomimicry is the race car ‘shark fin’. Derived from sharks' fins, as the name suggests, these large, sail-like areas protrude from the middle of race cars to increase their ability to corner at speed. Due to these beneficial properties, shark fins have consequently been utilised on Le Mans endurance racing cars as well as Formula One cars in some years.

When entering a corner, pressure builds along the outside face of the car’s fin. Similarly to pushing your hand through water, this creates a counteractive force towards the apex (centre) of the corner. This force counteracts the outwards momentum of the car allowing it to corner faster and more efficiently whilst also reducing oversteer.

Moreover, the shark fin also boosts the rear wing's efficiency. By forcing the air into a more laminar flow, the air which passes over the rear wing is

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aligned perfectly perpendicular to it. A laminar flow is created when a gas or liquid moves in a smoother unified fashion, travelling in the same direction at the same time. This subsequently means that more air is flowing useably over the rear wing, as a result generating more downforce.

Whale Tubercles Although humpback wales are up to 50ft long, with a weight of 30,000 kg, their flippers allow them to nimbly swim in tight circles in order to produce bubble nets only 5 feet across to catch krill, the main source of their food. By studying their flippers, which allow for this agility, scientists have recently created ultra-efficient wings using biomimicry. This has occurred through copying the tubercles (the bumps on the leading edge of a flipper).

When applied to the wings of commercial aeroplanes, tubercles lead to a significant efficiency

boost which could save thousands of pounds in fuel. From the testing carried out by MIT, it has been shown that many benefits are created by these bumps which help to increase efficiency, such as a gigantic 32% reduction in drag and an 8% improvement in lift. As well as improving plane efficiency, tubercles can also improve the safety and manoeuvrability of a plane. They allow for a 40 percent increase in angle of attack, increasing the stalling angle of a plane. Stalling is where air flowing over the top surface of the wing separates from the wing leading to a deadly combination of increased drag and lift, the speed and likelihood of which is reduced by tubercles.

Eagle Winglets Similarly to a whale’s tubercles, winglets are a design inspired by nature that are used by plane manufacturers to cut down upon fuel use. Discovered by Richard Whitcomb, an aerodynamicist at NASA, he showed that a winglet could reduce drag by up to 20% over a conventional wing design with no winglets.

Inspired by the wingtip feathers of the steppe eagle, winglets are used on planes to minimise turbulent vortexes, which form at the wing tips. For the steppe eagle this is a necessary characteristic, maximising its flight time by reducing drag. Without winglets, air leaks from the high-pressure lower surface of a wing to the upper surface causing vortexes to appear as high-pressure air rushes to the low pressure, spiralling over the edge of the wing. These swirling air vortexes create lots of drag and hence lose the plane’s energy in the form of wasted fuel.

To a degree, winglets block this movement of air from high to low, reducing the size of the vortex by increasing the distance the air must travel. This reduces turbulence and increases efficiency. Once these benefits of winglets were realised, most large planes have been either retrofitted or designed with winglets to increase the planes’ efficiency and

consequently lower the cost of flight.

Flying Fish After researching existing examples of aerodynamic biomimicry, I decided to investigate one of my own: the flying fish. These fish have unique flight capabilities; they are able to leap out of the water and glide for up to 400m on their four unusually large fins. Specifically, I researched this four-winged layout’s aerodynamic properties. Although some papers have already been published on these aerodynamic properties, including research in the Journal of Experimental Biology, the thought of using biomimicry to improve current planes has not yet been explored.

Primarily, it is the layout of the flying fish’s four wings that has the most interesting effect. Air flow moving over the pectoral fin of the fish (the wing closest to the fish's head) is forced over the top of the angled pelvic fin (the fin nearer the back of the fish) causing a jet-like acceleration of air flow over the fish's wing. By testing positioning, scientists have already observed that the lift force could be increased via this effect. Thus, utilising this unique wing layout, a plane with the four wings of a flying fish could be a possibility due to the extra lift created. By creating extra efficiency and a shorter wingspan due to the multiple wing setup, companies could both fly further whilst also fitting more planes at airport terminals due to their smaller width. This is also significant because a new option for commercial plane design would, in turn, break fresh ground for developments in aerospace technology.

Conclusion Aerodynamic biomimicry is at the exciting forefront of design, inspiring many creations and adaptations to improve our planes and cars. The next time you look at an animal, no matter how big or small, ask yourself: what could I learn from their design?

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The Pirahã Language: Seeing the World Through New Eyes?

Alex Brown, Fifth Form, Queen Anne.

Trevis and Academic Scholar, DT Award Holder.

T

he sheer variety of language in the world is one of the only things a linguist can rely on to be true. Over the centuries there have been countless theories about the way in which language is pieced together, the majority of which have been proven wrong. But one of the most controversial theories to be studied recently is the principle of linguistic relativity, which claims that the structure of a particular language can influence its native speakers’ fundamental understanding of the world around them.

It is this theory which has propelled the Pirahã language into linguistic stardom as being one of the only languages which could act as significant evidence to prove this theory correct. During the course of this essay I will be using the research of Daniel Everett, a linguist who lived with the Pirahã tribe for over thirty years, in order to see whether the evidence is enough to support the principle of linguistic relativity.

Daniel Everett originally started his work as a missionary in the Brazilian department of Amazonas, a region which covers the majority of the Amazon rainforest in Brazil. More particularly he was sent to the Pirahã tribe, a remote group who had almost entirely stuck to their original way of life, opting away from the more western lifestyle the majority of Brazil leads. Although Everett’s work originally was as a missionary, he quickly returned as a linguist, his sole job being to learn the Pirahã language.

The way in which one learns a language such as Pirahã is fraught with difficulty; this stems from the fact that no-one in the tribe was able to speak in any other language. This lack of a common language led to the employment of a point-and-ask technique, frequently used by those who are monolingual while on holiday. This system, when combined with the highly distinctive Pirahã culture meant that Everett didn’t fully understand the consequences of his discoveries until reaching a level of almost fluency.

In the learning of this language Everett had not only discovered a language that systematically defied Chomsky’s linguistic theory, he had also discovered a culture and way of life that elude contemporary western understanding. It is this linguistic and anthropological discovery which makes the language so extraordinarily unique in this field.

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Chomsky’s theory of universal grammar states that the 'development of language in the individual must involve three factors: genetic endowment, which sets limits on the attainable languages, thereby making language acquisition possible; external data, converted to the experience that selects one or another language within a narrow range; principles not specific to the Faculty of Language.'

This effectively means that, according to Chomsky, all languages follow to some extent an identical framework, one which encompasses all different manners of culture and grammar. While this is still a widely accepted theory, there has recently been controversy surrounding its claims, especially due to the Pirahã language which rejects many of the major principles raised in Chomsky’s work. One of these is the fact that it lacks all evidence of recursion, has no numbers, no colours and no innate terms for war or personal property. These ‘universal’ parts of a language seem to have little to no impact on the Pirahã language, prompting Everett to claim that it does in fact 'defy Chomsky’s linguistic theory.' This fascinating discovery prompts many more questions regarding the level and amount of evidence provided, as well as the quality of it.

However, if these claims hold true, we would have found the world's first language with a truly finite number of sentences! This proves that recursion is not the ancient phenomenon we first thought it was but is most likely more recent, perhaps dating to the advent of writing - a genuinely incredible discovery which changes our fundamental belief about how language works at even the simplest level. But it is pertinent to say that these claims have a very shaky base and that it is entirely possible that this theory will be disproven (some already claim it has been) in the near future.

So now to discuss more about the society of the Pirahã tribe, and how their unique culture has influenced their language and possibly vice-versa.

In his book Everett writes that 'They (the Pirahãs) have no craving for truth as a transcendental reality.

Indeed, the concept has no place in their values.

Truth to the Pirahãs is catching a fish, rowing a canoe, laughing with your children, loving your brother, dying of malaria. Does this make them more primitive? Many anthropologists have suggested so, which is why they are so concerned about finding out the Pirahãs’ notions about God, the world, and creation.' These three major facets of culture seem to be almost completely absent in the Pirahã tribe and it appears that their main philosophy in life is the absence of a philosophy at all; their goal is only to live and do as one needs and not much more beyond that. This simplistic life has been, as Everett says, suggested to be 'primitive' by many anthropologists, but is it right to say that in our culture where crime, anger, hatred and strife are omnipresent, that a culture which simply does not have the concept of such things is primitive? Or is it simply that they have the power and the position to live almost entirely in the present, therefore freeing themselves from the stresses and problems which come with leading a western lifestyle? I believe that

this simplicity in their culture is in part due to the simplicity of their language, or more that both culture and language form a symbiotic relationship whereby each reacts and is influenced by the other, allowing for the constant evolution of not only culture but also the tool for expressing that culture: language.

The Pirahã language is the linguistic equivalent of dynamite, blowing a hole through what we once thought was one of the most iron-clad linguistical theories created. And yet it is not the language which is enticing, but the completely different viewpoint which it can bring, and the unique beliefs and quirks which eventually made Everett (the man at the forefront of Pirahã exploration) give up his own faith. And so finally to conclude I would like to say this: learning about the Pirahã language and culture has allowed me to more fully explore the whole concept of culture and how it relates to the lives that we, and the world around us lead. With the wealth of differences the Pirahãs provide between their culture and ours, it is certainly not a stretch to say that to learn about the Pirahãs is to experience the world in a completely new and enlightened way.

Image: Martin Scheller

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The Equation of the Schwarzschild Radius Ciara McCarthy, Fifth Form, Feilden.

Academic Scholar and Art Award Holder.

C

uriosity is an innate hunger within human beings. Our insatiable desire to understand and overcome difficulties and unknown problems can be seen throughout our entire history. Recently, humans have begun exploring space and the stars that glisten over our heads every night; we have found new worlds and unexplored lands that once lay far outside our reach. However, we have also become aware of a phenomenon that is all powerful and consumes everything in its path: black holes.

With this discovery, we have delved into space-time as well as relativity and gravity as we search for answers. As a field, space is still mystifying: most is unknown and more is unproven. The fact that we are cognisant of black holes from which nothing can escape inspires our curiosity regarding where the limit lies for any object to become a black hole.

With this question, we come across the Schwarzschild radius: The Schwarzschild radius is a distance relating to the volume of a black hole of any mass of the event horizon which the mass would have to be compressed into to become a black hole. An equation can calculate the Schwarzschild radius using three variables.

When can the Schwarzschild radius be used?

The Schwarzschild radius works out the radius of a sphere at which the escape velocity is equal to the speed of light. However, the Schwarzschild radius equation can only be used for the radius of a spherically symmetric body, meaning that it has to be a perfect sphere.

What is a black hole?

A black hole is a volume in space where the gravity is so strong that not even light can escape. Black holes exert this much gravitational force because of how small a volume the mass is contained in.

For every black hole, there is an event horizon: a line where, once crossed, nothing can escape the pull of its gravity. This event horizon is akin to a sphere surrounding the black hole, and the radius of this sphere is the Schwarzschild radius.

What is the Schwarzschild radius?

The Schwarzschild radius of a given mass, also referred to as the gravitational radius, is the radius

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What is the equation that gives the Schwarzschild radius?

Where is the Schwarzschild radius, G is the gravitational constant, M is the mass and, c is the speed of light.

How do you use the Schwarzschild radius?

Q: What is the Schwarzschild radius of the Earth?

Q: What is the Schwarzschild radius of an average human?

A: Take 70.00kg to be the mass of an average human.

Thus, the radius of the Earth, if it was a black hole, would be 8.87 mm. This means that the Earth’s radius, which is 6,371,000 m, has been reduced by a factor of 56,510,770.

However, the radius of the Earth is almost inconceivable as a distance in our minds, so, let’s use an object that we can actually visualise.

Thus, the Schwarzschild radius for a 70kg human is less than a millionth of a millionth of a millionth of a millionth of a metre.

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The Imperfect Notes of Music Emily Mumford, Fifth Form, Feilden.

Clarke and Academic Scholar.

M

any famous musicians are guilty of deliberately courting controversy in order to gain media attention, more popularity, and more fans. Changes in technology have allowed artists to make political statements in the form of the videos that accompany their songs. Their lyrics might be interpreted in one way, yet the visuals imply a different message through the contrast of words and actions. Heated issues that have been addressed include racism, sexuality and gun violence. Undoubtedly, the lyrics and visuals of songs will have an impact on the listener, whether it be to engage them in a brief social media debate or to alter their beliefs on a deeper level. Some releases result in change, yet others result in chaos. charts. However, the music video caused outrage in the Americas. All four band members were dressed in drag: Roger Taylor – a young school girl, John Deacon – an elderly grandma, Brain May – a pampered mother and Freddie Mercury as an attractive housewife. However, this choice of clothing was interpreted differently on the other side of the Atlantic. Brazilians were not fond of the band’s humour, which they saw as extremely offensive.

For instance, in January 1985 while Queen were performing in Rio, the crowd began booing and throwing objects on stage when they heard the starting notes from ‘I want to break free’ during which Freddie Mercury put on a wig. Due to the hostile response, he immediately took it off.

Queen in Drag Drama The way in which controversial music videos are received differently around the world can expose cultural differences regarding contentious topics.

For example, the trope of cross-dressing has often been used to gain attention, but it has not always led to the musicians’ desired success.

One of the world’s most notable bands, Queen, were looking to expand their fanbase through the release of John Deacon’s ‘I Want to Break Free’ in February 1984. The song about leaving an emotionally draining relationship was a major success in the UK, reaching third position in the

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This memorable music video demonstrates that different countries will not always respond in the same way to provocative material. The Brazilians’ indignant response shows a deep-rooted conservatism with regard to portrayals of gender.

However, it must be noted that, even though the band’s cross-dressing might have been dismissed as frivolity in 1980s Britain, today’s response should be more sensitive to different expressions of gender identity.

Gambino’s Racial Greatness Recently, racism has been exposed as an enduring problem in public scenarios such as sporting events.

However, although some people argue that not enough action is being taken, this issue has been addressed in the music industry on a more positive level as artists are trying to make a difference. A striking recent example would be the release of Childish Gambino’s, ‘This is America’. Also known

as Donald Glover, Gambino is a black American rapper, actor and political activist. ‘This is America’ was released in May 2018 and won a Grammy for Song of the Year. The music video has 629 million views on YouTube, quickly becoming a cultural phenomenon. In the outstanding video, Gambino plays the role of America itself, showing its violence, entertainment and ‘ringleader effect’ on the world.

The video consists of chaos including gun violence, shootings and implicit symbols of racism. Gambino’s impeccable dancing mimics the fictional character of Jim Crow, which was itself a racist stereotype.

His ironic happiness is rapidly contrasted by sudden dramatic incidents. At the end, he can be seen sprinting away from the police, or is he running away from America itself?

This music video is extremely significant especially in the 21st century as it sends a political message on a globally accessible online platform. The message is to spread awareness of the many problems that America faces, especially racism.

The video does this effectively by foregrounding black people. Although they are all portrayed as joyful, this is a painful contrast to the graphic footage of shootings and brutality that the video also includes. This jarring contrast demonstrates the violent prejudice that many African-Americans must regularly face. As the video is readily available online, many more people will be enlightened on the serious situations that are occurring in the world that they might otherwise choose to shy away from. Overall, Gambino’s talented screenplay brings forward the severe troubles that are often forgotten about in order to create a more positive environment.

Musical Radicalism Since 9/11, terrorist attacks have proliferated, subsequently causing them to be more widely reported. As a result of this, terrorist attacks have become a worldwide crisis that still do not have a solution. In this example, a band uses terrorism to gain the media’s attention. The 1975 released ‘People’ in August 2019. The band had had a very mixed year of highs and lows. The highs included winning a Brit award for best British band, album and headlining Reading festival. Nonetheless, the Manchester-born pop band hit the news when their graphic music video for ‘People’ showed the lead singer, Matty Healy, apparently wearing a suicide vest in one of the scenes. He gives a thumbs up and detonates himself into Facebook and Instagram likes. Obviously, this represents a suicide bomber.

In response to this, the mother of a child who died in the Manchester Arena bombing was very upset with the band’s behaviour calling it ‘disgusting’ and saying that the band should ‘be ashamed’. Healy responded to the criticisms and expressed his apologies.

This action trivialises serious issues. Consequently, the twisted solution to solving terrorism is simply made more complicated due to unplanned actions of others that must be addressed. In this case, the glorification of extremism makes the idea seem more light-hearted yet the reception is much more outraged and shocked. The very last thing that we should be doing is normalising terrorism and accepting it into our culture but instead taking more stern obligations to make the concept extinct.

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Marshall’s Misbehaviour

becomes more common. These lyrics are simply not acceptable and would now lead to Eminem facing Even though attitudes towards homosexuality have some serious penalties. The lessons learnt from this changed significantly in the 21st century, some controversy are that it is clear that being homophobic people remain ignorant and prejudiced. One of should not be even a belief or thought in the 21st these people is Marshall Mathers, otherwise known century due to a more developed understanding of as Eminem. He has lyrics in his raps that listeners each individual’s gender choice. In the future, artists have labelled as homophobic. Eminem has been should be much more careful in what they express in labelled as a very talented rapper through his use of their lyrics as a result of the ever-changing thoughts meaningful lyrics that often reference his fascinating of humanity. life. His album The Marshall Mathers LP won Grammy Album of the Year in 2001, but one track From Queen to Eminem, many artists are faced with that featured on it includes numerous homophobic problems exaggerated by the media that provide slurs. ‘Criminal’ is the last song on the album them with either desired or unwanted attention that and the most controversial. It contains multiple can result in an increase or decrease in fans. This explicit lyrics about people who are homosexual. concept has become part of the music industry The offensive nature of these lines caused many leading more artists to make questionable decisions protests when the album got nominated for a in the form of words or actions. Childish Gambino Grammy. Yet, during an interview with Anderson has used a musical platform in order to spread Cooper, Eminem defended himself and denied awareness of a serious problem that is twisted in being homophobic, claiming that his frequent use the world in which we live. The 1975 on the other of anti-gay slurs was common in rap battles and did hand, have been the stealthy creators of a successful not refer to any gay people specifically. Furthermore, publicity stunt which has resulted in the attention at the 2001 Grammys, Eminem collaborated with Sir that they craved to make people more aware of Elton John to perform his song ‘Stan’. This was a them. The whole idea of controversy in music lyrics significant event as a criticised ‘homophobic’ rapper and videos has arisen due to the imperfections of had collaborated with an openly homosexual man. our world. Even though music was originally used In fact, Elton John never thought of Eminem as for entertainment and enjoyment it has dramatically homophobic which explains their lasting friendship. changed its purpose since the 20th century. A number of artists are willing to make a change to negative Eminem’s story is crucial in today’s society and beliefs and systems, yet some are still stuck in a particularly for the LGBT+ community, which is fixed mindset. It is only a matter of time until the next constantly growing in numbers as gender fluidity controversial act arises in the music industry.

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Unfolding the Folded Harrison Procter, Fifth Form, Feilden.

Allen and Academic Scholar, Music Award Holder.

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hat is a protein and what roles do they play in the human body? A protein is a chain of molecules called amino acids, spanning in size from one thousand to seven hundred thousand atoms. They are created in almost every cell in the body and carry out countless roles throughout the biological world. There are six main functions of proteins in the human body: defence, communication, catalysation, transportation, storage and structure.

Antibodies, a type of protein that help protect us against disease, bind to specific pathogens to disable them and fight off disease. The hormone insulin helps communicate with glucose transporters when the blood sugar level is too high, by travelling through the blood to bind with receptors in order to signal to tissues to take up glucose for storage. Amylase, as an enzyme, helps break down large carbohydrate chains into smaller units that are much more useful to the body. The transportation of oxygen through the bloodstream is aided by the quaternary structure of a protein called haemoglobin. Each group of proteins binds to oxygen molecules from the lungs and transports them to where they are needed in the body. As an example of storage, the protein ferritin stores iron in a non-toxic form. It contains a hollow centre with space for iron to bind to its inner walls. The last of the six main functions of proteins in the human body is structure. The protein collagen forms a strong triple helix form; millions of molecules bond next to each other to form collagen fibres which are abundant in the skin and in tendons.

How and why does a protein fold?

The shape of a protein determines its function. In order to design and artificially synthesise novel proteins to help fight diseases that the body cannot resist by itself, it is critical to understand their folding patterns and habits.

Proteins have four categories of structure. The first is called the primary structure and is the linear sequence of amino acids that make up a protein. The next is called the secondary structure, consisting of certain formations of the backbone (the central chain of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen atoms) such as the alpha-helix – this is when the backbone curls up into a spiral shape. The other main secondary structure is the beta-sheet, which is when backbone folds back on itself. Both of these structures are strong because they are held together by many hydrogen bonds, a type of bond that forms between hydrogen and another larger atom.

The next category of protein structure is called the tertiary structure and is the three-dimensional shape

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of a protein. This shape is determined by the nature of the amino acids making up the chain: they can be hydrophobic, which means that they repel water and therefore tend to be found on the inside of the protein; or hydrophilic, which means that they are usually found on the outside as they prefer to be surrounded by water molecules. Another factor that determines a protein’s shape is the charge on an amino acid. This can allow the protein to interact with other molecules of complementary charges.

The fourth and final category of protein structure is called the quaternary structure, which exists in groups of two or more single proteins; they can bind together to form a molecule better suited to its function. An example of this is haemoglobin, which consists of four individual protein subunits which work together to bind oxygen molecules quickly and efficiently in the lungs, before releasing them again where they are needed.

How has knowledge of protein shape already helped scientists create treatments for previously untreatable diseases?

By modelling the shape of proteins involved in Rheumatoid Arthritis and Crohn’s Disease, a

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novel antibody has been designed to help treat patients with these conditions. Both these diseases are thought to be caused by the over-production of a cytokine (a type of protein secreted from the immune system) called Interleukin-6; this molecule binds to receptors in the body and causes deleterious effects. The aim of the antibody design was to identify an agent that tightly binds to the IL-6 in order to prevent it from interacting with its receptor, therefore reducing the symptoms of both Rheumatoid Arthritis and Crohn’s Disease.

Knowledge of protein folding was used to create the three-dimensional structure and the exact shape in order to design an antibody that is capable of fitting on to the IL-6. Once bound, the active conformation of the IL-6 is changed which means that it is no longer the right shape to fit on to its receptor. The binding of these molecules can be described using the ‘lock and key’ analogy: if the key changes shape then it will no longer be able to unlock the lock, just as the IL-6 can no longer bind to its receptor once its shape has been adjusted by the antibody. This drug is currently in the final stages of clinical trials, and if successful, will be a substantial step forward in helping patients by eliminating the debilitating effects caused by both Rheumatoid Arthritis and Crohn’s Disease.

The Demon Core Zoë Smith, Fifth Form, Vanbrugh.

Academic Scholar.

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he Demon Core. A topic of nightmares with an aptly given name. Something with the power to cause a blue flash across a room as it ionises the air itself. This is the story of the radioactive core meant to be a nuclear weapon armed against foreign nations, but which succeeded instead in endangering the team who were using it for research in the first place. Two physicists working with this dangerous object died slowly and painfully just six months apart due to a lack of knowledge and sufficient safety measures.

Leisure activities and focuses on fitness and social life were provided to maintain the mental health of the people working under such high stress conditions. There were organised dances, skating rinks, cinemas and other types of recreational activities for everyone. The population was originally 13,000 when it was set up but grew to a staggering 75,000 inhabitants at its peak in May 1945. This was the town for the people of the so-called ‘Manhattan Project’ to live in, which to this day exists as Oak Ridge, now a town for civilians with the same size and facilities, minus the secret government base and workers.

The first incident took place on August 21, 1945, the second on May 21 1946. When the first fatality occurred, the core’s name was changed from the benign-sounding ‘Rufus’ to the inimical ‘Demon Core’ and its horrific history began. The proximity of both deaths might perhaps lead us to question why, after the first death, no substantial changes were made to prevent a second. Surely something should have been done to prevent further deaths?

The Manhattan Project and the Los Alamos Laboratory 1945. War is raging and the American government is racing to develop secret bases and nuclear technology. Many young students are being recruited straight from high school with no idea of what they are working towards, but each is acting as a key cog in the machine developing the nuclear weapons of America. These students were collected and placed onto one giant base which developed over time into a fully developed town in Tennessee.

While these young people worked individually yet together in Oak Ridge, a research laboratory in Los Alamos, New Mexico was busy carrying out experiments on the products of the Manhattan Project. There were originally proposals to place the lab in Oak Ridge itself, but it was eventually decided that it would be better to erect the large nuclear research laboratory in a remote place further from prying eyes and, more importantly, people.

Strike One: Harry Daghlian’s Mistake On August 21, 1945, renowned physicist Harry Daghlian entered the Los Alamos Laboratory that contained the radioactive core (code name ‘Rufus’) alone. The only other person in the building was a security guard unaware of his plans to conduct unsupervised research on the plutonium core.

He was using tungsten carbide bricks to build a reflective shield around the core, adding more and more to the wall surrounding it like Jenga pieces. These bricks act like reflectors that cause neutrons emitted by the fission of plutonium to be reflected back into the core. Fission is when a large nucleus splits into two smaller daughter nuclei, and a neutron or two is released, depending on the

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element. These neutrons are the reason for chain reactions as they also provoke fission; when a whole sphere is made of a radioactive substance, the neutrons emitted from one nucleus can cause two more reactions and then the scale escalates from there. But something must begin the chain reaction in the first place, which occurs at ‘critical mass’, in this case adding neutron reflectors if you want to avoid actually using the critical mass required. As fission releases not only neutrons but also harmful radiation, if a chain reaction occurs and ergo can be sustained without influence of a person, copious amounts of gamma, beta or alpha radiation are emitted, again depending on the element.

During his experiment, Daghlian accidentally knocked one of the bricks onto the core, causing it to go supercritical in an instant. A blue light filled the room and Daghlian was shrouded in a lethal dose of radiation. As this was early days in the research of radiation and nuclear bombs, it is not surprising that the experiment could be so crude. The aim of the test was to observe how close you could get to a criticality incident (sustained chain reaction) without critical mass. Somewhat confusingly, this implies that it would be possible to eventually get so close to criticality that it would actually be achieved. In modern research, conducting such research in proximity to a radioactive core would not be countenanced, nor would it be carried out by one person stumbling so unaware into something so dangerous.

Daghlian managed to stop the chain reaction by disassembling the bricks, but not before he received a fatal dose of over 510 rem (5.1 Sv) of neutron radiation, from a yield of 1016 fissions. 25 days later, he died of radiation poisoning. The security guard's exposure was much less than Daghlian's and he survived the incident, living to the age of 62, but he still died unsurprisingly from cancer as a result of the accident. This happens when radiation causes the mutation of cells in your body. Although this can be harmless, in this case it happened at such an enormous level with such a large dose, it was lethal. The hand with which Daghlian had swiped away the brick from the core immediately blistered and the top layers of skin were burned off by radiation when the criticality incident occurred.

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After this happened, the response was expected to be that of melting the core as it was too dangerous for lab experiments. It could perhaps have been reassigned for use elsewhere, such as testing effectiveness by detonating nuclear bombs; or maybe it could have been stored to be used in some other war. Issuing a statement that suggested the core could not be worked on by hand or used in such tedious experiments would have been seen as a feeble response, which is what made the true outcome and action of the American government so shocking. They did respond, but not perhaps in the way expected.

Strike Two: Louis Slotin’s Risky Experiment The American government implemented no colossal incident prevention safety procedures that could really be effective. They instead decided that it would be enough to enforce a rule of having two alerting mechanisms warning of proximity to criticality in one room at a time. They also introduced a requirement for two personnel to be present during research, so that, unlike Daghlian, people would not be alone in such a dangerous and high-risk situation.

In light of these minimal interventions, it is unsurprising that on May 21 1946, the demon core claimed its next victim. The man who was carrying out the experiment, Louis Slotin, was more experienced than Daghlian; he was an undergraduate, who had been working on the project since its birth, leading most of the research at the facility. This is why the second incident was so shocking and also one of the reasons it happened.

Given his greater experience and knowledge, Slotin also had more confidence in his handling of the core and was thus more daring when it came to the technique used to handle it.

The procedure was simple. He would lower a halfshell of beryllium, called the tamper, over one half of the Plutonium core, stopping it before it was laid completely flat, with a screwdriver as a wedge. The tamper would reflect back the neutrons that were shooting off the plutonium, jump-starting a weak and short-lived nuclear chain reaction, from which the physicists could then gather data. A gap was

necessary to allow some of the neutrons to ‘escape’ material as carefully as possible. It took two of so they were not all reflected back into the core to these incidents for matters to really change. After cause further fission of Plutonium.

Daghlian’s death, new rules were created, but nothing too substantial. Had they been sufficient, This was notoriously one of the riskiest experiments Slotin’s death would never have happened. But still conducted on the site and many had warned that only six months after the new regulations another Slotin should be more careful. There were wedges experiment ended in death. Now the Demon Core specifically for this experiment that were also larger is tucked away on a secret base in America where it and created a bigger gap between the core and can harm no one else. It was intended to cause death tamper so fewer neutrons were trapped, making and destruction in Japan during the war and even it safer. Slotin, however, chose not to use them. though it was never armed for a war, it still proved Anyone with logic can see that he was pushing his lethal. luck by repeating this day in and day out.

The application from the research that the Manhattan The irony of May 21, 1946, was that Slotin had project provided allows us to age million-year old decided to leave the base. At the time the accident fossils with intensifying accuracy and use our occurred, he was showing his replacement what knowledge about half lives and radioactive decay to do. This unfortunately meant that multiple to detect art forgeries. Carbon dating is the process scientists were in danger, all of whom were the in which the half-life (the time taken for half the top in their field of nuclear research. As Slotin radioactive nuclei to decay) of Carbon is measured was demonstrating, he was startled by a sound in a sample to discover how long it has been dead behind him which caused him to turn sharply. The for. Carbon-14 levels and radiation are effective precarious screwdriver then slipped and fell on because when an organism is living, it produces the floor, closing the gap between the tamper and Carbon-14 at the same rate it decays in an organism. the core, and allowing it to reach criticality. Louis However, if an organism such as a tree is dead, it Slotin, who received a dose of around 2100 rem can no longer replenish these sources. Therefore, of radiation such as gamma rays, (500 rem is by comparing the Carbon-14 levels in a living usually fatal for humans), vomited on the way to the specimen e.g. a tree, with a dead specimen/fossil, hospital and began losing hair and experiencing and then calculating the difference of the two we can organ failure days after, turning pale and sickly, calculate how long it has been since the tree died. passing through the phantom phase (when radiation Art forgeries of pre-war art can be found by testing patients believe they are perfectly fine) and finally for a certain element not present in the Earth’s dying nine days after the incident. Luckily, even atmosphere until nuclear bombs were used spreading though the other scientists were in the room, Slotin the isotopes Caesium-137 and Strontium-90, which managed to absorb the majority of the radiation are not naturally occurring. Any art after 1945 would and shield them as a result of the placement of contain the isotope in the paint: another modern-day his body over the core. This meant that they were application. not killed immediately after the incident but rather they survived until around their sixties like the However, recent tensions between countries created security guard of August 1945; nevertheless, all by the development of nuclear weapons have unsurprisingly were killed by cancer. The term the shown us the potential ease with which a conflict doctors gave Slotin’s condition was a ‘3D sunburn’ can be caused. So, although we have gained more and because of his calculations we now have a understanding scientifically from the Manhattan better knowledge of the specific consequences of Project, allowing modern applications to be radiation exposure. Immediately after the incident, developed, we have not learnt from the destruction the air in the lab itself became ionised, causing the core caused in Japan as well as in a safe and an eerie clear blue glow and a visible wave of secure lab. Were we fully attentive to these dangers, heat. This time, however, the blue flash was more these threats would surely be avoided and nuclear terrifying as the same thing had happened during warfare would not be undergoing changes to become the experiment by Harry Daghlian; and now they more lethal. Despite this research and development, knew what it meant. the world is arguably more dangerous and more unpredictable with the continued production of Benefits and Modern Application weapons and bombs that can cause apocalyptic destruction to an entire country with one detonation.

Although tragic, these two accidents have enabled the safer study of radiation by leading to the introduction of safety methods and procedures Photograph courtesy Los Alamos National Laboratory that allow us to deal with cores of such dangerous

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Cosmetic Surgery: A Booming Industry, but is this a Positive Trend?

Priya Ahluwalia, Lower Sixth Form, Harcourt.

Academic Grant Recipient.

P

lastic surgery can be split into two categories: cosmetic and reconstructive.

Cosmetic surgery is a medical discipline focused on enhancing appearance through surgical and non-invasive techniques. Usually it is not medically required, but something that is the choice of the patient. Generally, most people who undergo cosmetic surgery will pay for it privately. Alternatively, reconstructive surgery is performed to correct functional impairments and to approximate a normal appearance. In the UK, reconstructive surgery is occasionally carried out on the NHS. Over the last decade, there has been an astronomical increase in the number of cosmetic procedures performed and a steady decrease in the reconstructive sector.

There is a lot of stigma attached to the practice of cosmetic surgery, which rests on the view that those pursuing a career in the industry are allured to the money that it promises. Plastic surgery generates billions of pounds annually in the UK. In the US it is far more with just over $16.5 billion being spent in 2018 according to the American Society of Plastic Surgery; this is the most revenue produced in a sector of medicine. As a direct result of this, plastic surgeons are paid generously with the medium income of a plastic surgeon in the UK being upwards of ÂŁ90,000 per annum and $270,000 in the

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US. Is plastic surgery all about the money?

There are many benefits to plastic surgery, in particular cosmetic surgery. Cosmetic surgery can improve physical health as well as looks. For example, a rhinoplasty is the reshaping of the nasal cavity which, although sometimes carried out to improve appearance on a superficial level, is more commonly performed to improve breathing difficulties. Furthermore, a breast reduction could improve the body contour of a patient, but more importantly it can relieve pain and physical discomfort in the neck and back, allowing a patient

to go on with their day to day life with greater ease.

Furthermore, cosmetic surgery is shown to improve one’s mental health. A study in 2013 by Dr Jürgen Margrave and Dr Andrea H. Meyer concluded that, from a sample of 544 patients who underwent cosmetic surgery, the majority felt more confident and experienced reduced social anxiety. This is corroborated by a 2009 Norwegian study by Dr I.L. Kvalem and K.C. Skolleborg which concluded that out of a sample of 838 Norwegian women, there is evidence to suggest that cosmetic surgery improves satisfaction in one’s own appearance post-surgery.

Additionally, extra weight stays off according to the Houston Centre for Plastic Surgery, where 85 percent of those who undergo cosmetic surgery for weight loss reasons (such as liposuction or tummy tuck) find it easier to keep their weight down and are more motivated to maintain a healthy diet.

The demand for cosmetic surgery can stem from low self-esteem and non-acceptance of ourselves due to commercial and social pressures, for example: social media, advertising, modelling and the perpetual need for one to look young. NHS consultant Dr Debashis Ghoush says the grave disadvantage of cosmetic surgery is that some individuals can become addicted by constantly finding flaws that they want to improve. Repeated surgery could lead to a patient being adversely harmed as skin and muscles could be permanently damaged and there is always a risk of mistakes or potentially death. Furthermore, addiction to cosmetic surgery can lead to serious mental health problems such as Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) as a patient strives for “the perfect body”.

people travelled abroad for medical treatment in 2019. With countries such as Brazil and Thailand offering cosmetic surgery for up to 60% less than the UK and America, it is no wonder so many people are travelling abroad. Rio de Janeiro is nicknamed the ‘World Capital for Plastic Surgery’, receiving over 5 million “medical tourists” annually. Medical tourism agencies are offering package deals where one can have a holiday abroad as well as receiving their treatment – but is it all that meets the eye?

Whilst going abroad for surgery might seem ideal due to reduced prices and a cheap vacation, it is not always as smooth sailing as it sounds. Some overseas clinics may not provide sufficient aftercare or follow up procedures and, though no surgery is risk-free, it is easier to overcome complications, if they arise, in your home country. When correctly managed under clear clinical procedures and supervision through reputable authorities, the risks of adverse harm in one’s home country tend to be greatly reduced.

Plastic surgery is a positive trend as it is known to help improve patient outcomes both physically and mentally. Coupled with this, it can show proof of exceptional long-term results. However, before making a concrete decision on undergoing cosmetic surgery you should do your research thoroughly so you are familiar with the ins and outs of the procedure you wish to have and choose the right surgeon.

A study in 2007 by Dr Randy and Lori Sansome found that women who have undergone breast augmentations are more likely to commit suicide.

Additionally, they concluded that women who had cosmetic surgery were 7% more likely to develop BDD. This is corroborated by a Norwegian study in 2012 by Dr T. von Sœst and Dr. L. Wichstrøm, who concluded that adolescents who undergo cosmetic surgery are more likely to self-harm and/ or commit suicide and 5.68% more likely to develop mental health issues such as depression and eating disorders.

Ethical concerns aside, one issue with cosmetic surgery is the price. It is expensive. Medical tourism is soaring in popularity. An estimated 20 million

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Epigenetics: The Potential Cure for Cancer?

Sam Carter, Lower Sixth Form, Queen Anne.

Academic Grant Recipient.

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pigenetics, first coined by Conrad Waddington, a British geneticist, is the study of heritable phenotype changes which are not caused by alterations to an organism's DNA. The phenotype of an organism is any observable physical trait, as opposed to the genotype, which is an organism’s genetic material.

The word epigenetics comes from the Greek prefix epi- (meaning over) added to genetics, implying features which are added ‘over’ the existing DNA. These changes can be caused by the external environment of an organism but also occur as a natural process of development. For example, the changes which occur through puberty are caused by epigenetic processes. Epigenetics is often caused by the limiting of gene expression in different cells. Our increased understanding of epigenetic processes has, amongst other things, enlightened us as to what causes cancerous tumours to grow at such a fast rate. Recent discoveries have shown us that, in healthy cells, cell division is strictly controlled through the delicate limiting of genes.

When an error in an epigenetic mechanism causes these genes to be over-expressed, the result is a cell rapidly dividing, often causing a tumour to form. This new understanding of cancer has led to the potential of new treatments for tumours, such as altering the epigenetic mechanisms which cause them. Discoveries such as these show that epigenetics is an exciting discipline which could reveal new solutions for all sorts of health issues.

Epigenetics are also important in the early development of multicellular organisms from a zygote (a newly fertilized egg cell) to an embryo; to a foetus. The embryo is a bundle of pluripotent

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cells which result from the zygote dividing. The zygote is said to be totipotent- it has the potential to become any type of cell found in a human.

Embryonic cells, on the other hand, are pluripotentthey have the potential to become many different cell types (though they cannot become zygotes without outside intervention). These embryonic cells are sometimes referred to as embryonic stem cells, so called as they can ‘branch’ to become different cell types. As the embryo continues to develop, cell differentiation occurs, where, due to epigenetic factors, the embryonic cells become cells of a particular type, becoming specialised in a particular role (e.g. red blood cells; neurons).

Embryonic cells are now being seen as potentially useful, as they could be used to replace damaged tissues. Stem cells do exist in adults and are found in the bone marrow, however, the range of tissues these stem cells can become is much more limited than their embryonic equivalents. While it is illegal to use embryonic stem cells in treatment currently, there is still a major flaw which effects current research and could affect future treatments: embryonic stem cells are extremely difficult to procure naturally. It was thought that the only way to obtain these cells was to take them from an already formed embryo, either one naturally created or cloned. This was limiting, as each embryo only produced a certain amount of stem cells, limiting supply.

However, in 2006, a Japanese stem cell researcher Shinya Yamanaka, working in a lab in Kyoto, Japan, managed to convert an adult cell into an embryonic stem cell. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2012 for this research, and the cells he created became known as induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs).

He achieved this by treating the adult cells with transcription factors encoding for four specific genes (named Myc, Oct3/4, Sox2 and Klf4). Transcription factors are an important mechanism in epigenetics: they are proteins which control the expression

of certain genes. In this case, they promote the expression of genes which allow the cell to become pluripotent, reverting it to its embryonic state. This type of process is also known as reprogramming.

Unfortunately, the process which creates iPSCs is very slow and inefficient, it takes 3-4 weeks to reprogram human cells, with a success rate of between 0.1% and 0.01%, resulting in a lot of waste. Despite the inefficiencies of the process, it is interesting from a scientific perspective as it reveals that, over the course of the embryo’s maturation, the genes coded for by these transcription factors must be inactivated in order for cells to differentiate and specialise.

This phenomenon is most clearly visible in the case of tortoiseshell cats. The genes which code for orange and black fur are located on the X chromosome. X inactivation means that, if a cat has the gene for orange fur on one chromosome and black fur on one chromosome, in any single cell, only the gene for orange fur or black fur is expressed. This creates the mottled pattern on tortoiseshell cats’ fur. The fact that X inactivation is randomly determined means that the pattern on each tortoiseshell cat’s is unique while the fact that X inactivation passed down when a cell divides means that the cat will keep the same pattern on its fur for its whole life. This is also why a vast majority of tortoiseshell cats are female. The only male tortoiseshell cats must have two X chromosomes and a Y, which is very rare but does cause partial X inactivation to take place.

One of the most common examples of inactivation is the organism wide partial X-inactivation that occurs in most female mammals (specifically female mammals of the Theria group). This occurs fairly early in development, usually between 8 or 9 days after fertilisation. At this point, one X chromosome in every cell is permanently inactivated, with an equal chance that the maternal or paternal chromosome is inactivated, so that around 50% of cells have the paternal activated, and the other 50% having the maternal one activated. When these cells divide, the two daughter cells inherit which X is inactive in them, so the ratio of active maternal X chromosomes to paternal X chromosomes remains constant throughout an organism's life.

While we are discovering more and more about epigenetics, it being a relatively new discipline, there is much we cannot explain. An example of this is a study done into mothers pregnant with children during the Dutch Hunger Winter of 1944-45. The Dutch Hunger Winter, or the Hongerwinter, was a famine which took place in the Nazi occupied Netherlands during the ending stages of the Second World War. The children who were born during this period were initially underweight due to the famine, as would be expected and in later life showed lower rates of obesity. The women whose pregnancy began during the three-month famine gave birth to babies with normal weights, however, when measured forty years later, they had much higher rates of obesity than the general population.

Even more interestingly, some of these effects were visible in the next generation, i.e. the grandchildren who were pregnant during the famine. These effects are all caused by epigenetics. This has taught us two principles about epigenetics: 1) that environmental effects can have a profound effect on the organism, especially during the initial stages of development and 2) the effects can be passed down from generation to generation, all without any change to the DNA. Although we have learnt a lot from this case study, we still have no explanation for how these effects were caused on a cellular level and indicating that there is much about epigenetics that is still a mystery.

X-inactivation is caused by the Xist gene, which, when transcribed, produces Xist RNA, which then coats the chromosome which produced it, stopping any enzymes getting to the chromosome, causing its inactivation. There is also theorised that there is a blocking factor, which binds to a random X chromosome, preventing its inactivation.

In conclusion, epigenetics, as a relatively modern discovery, holds the answer to many quirks of our biology, and that of many other organisms, however, it is clear the discipline has much more to yield in terms of answers to seemingly strange natural phenomena and the potential cures for illnesses such as cancer.

Inactivation is another important epigenetic mechanism, where a gene or genes are effectively ‘turned off’. This plays an important role in cell specialisation, by controlling which cells express certain traits coded for in the DNA.

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Est-ce que Les Vacances Sont Toujours les Vacances?

Jonathan Cowie, Lower Sixth Form, Queen Anne.

Academic Grant Recipient.

Poppy Werhle, Lower Sixth Form, Queen Anne.

Allen, Strickland and Trevis Scholar, Academic Grant Recipient

S

oixante-neuf pour cent des cadres travaillent chez eux le soir, 45 percent travaillent chez eux le weekend, et 25 percent travaillent même pendant les vacances, selon une étude de Cadreo en 2014.

De nos jours, il est reconnu que la technologie nous offre de nombreuses opportunités. A cause des avances numériques, nous pouvons accéder nos tâches et nos collègues où que nous sommes.

Néanmoins, est-ce que par conséquent les gens devraient remplir leurs responsabilités quotidiennes même en pleine détente ?

Actuellement, les travailleurs partent-ils toujours en vacances ? Selon l’Observatoire des Inégalités, 80% des cadres supérieurs partent en vacances chaque année contre seulement 50% des ouvriers. De plus, les vacances d’un ouvrier ne sont pas aussi fréquentes et elles ne durent pas aussi longtemps. Pourtant, de nos jours moins de Français partent en vacances qu’en 1990, quand deux tiers de la population séjournaient régulièrement : aujourd’hui le chiffre est en hausse depuis 2011 mais reste inférieur à celui d’il y a 30 ans. Cependant, pour 9% des personnes qui ne partent pas en vacances, c’est à cause de raisons professionnelles.

Est-ce que la technologie moderne nous aide ?

Aujourd'hui nous pouvons trouver que la technologie nous soutient puisque nous avons accès à notre travail partout où nous sommes.

Cela signifie que toute personne peut accéder à leurs messages dans le train, par exemple. C’est seulement un des aspects positifs de vivre un monde plus interconnecté qu'avant. Selon un article de “Cowork” a dit qu'aujourd’hui les salariés français sont à 29% à pratiquer le télétravail au moins un jour par semaine. Cela signifie que grand nombre de Français profitent des avantages de la technologie pour mieux gérer leur journée.

Le plus grand avantage est que nous pouvons communiquer avec nos collègues où que nous soyons grâce aux technologies portables, comme par exemple le courriel - de nos jours, les cartes sont devenues presque obsolètes. La technologie facilite la bonne communication et le télétravail. Vu que nous sommes capables de travailler ensemble, sans devoir se rendre au bureau, il semble que concilier la vie professionnelle et la vie personnelle est plus facile.

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En gros, la technologie aide-t-elle à gérer l’équilibre entre la vie personnelle et le travail?

Une idée répandue de nos jours, est que nous pouvons devenir de plus en plus entremêlés à notre travail. Cela signifie que nous éprouvons un sentiment de responsabilité permanent, malheureusement cela peut mener à plus de stress.

Cette tendance est démontrée par une enquête conduit par Regus, qui témoigne que « près d’un quart des salariés utilisent leurs appareils mobiles pour travailler en dehors des heures du bureau ».

Aujourd'hui nous sommes en train de devenir de plus en plus dépendant sur le WIFI, ou le signal téléphonique. Cela signifie que nous avons moins de liberté à cause du fait qu’il faut être plus près d'une source de WIFI, afin de pouvoir communiquer avec nos collègues. Cependant, cela signifie qu’il catastrophique quand nous n’avons pas d’accès à l’internet, car c’est normal de se connecter aux camarades. C’est pour ça que la plupart de travailleurs en vacances choisissent un lieu où ils peuvent être surs qu’il y aura le WIFI – il est trop stressant quand il n’y en a pas.

En revanche, partir en vacances dans un lieu où le WIFI ne fonctionne pas, permet de réduire les niveaux de stress parce que cela évite de travailler pendant les vacances.

Presque tout le monde est d’accord - pendant les vacances il faut que nous nous reposions.

Néanmoins, ce que nous avons vu est qu'en réalité, de nombreux salariés se sentent obligés de rester en contact. Le travail est presque toujours avec nous.

Un sondage exécuté par Technologia en 2014 a trouvé que, à cause de la technologie, la plupart de travailleurs en France n’adhèrent pas aux lois Aubry, la législation qui limite la semaine de travail

à 35 heures par semaine. C’est démontré aussi par une étude de Pagegroup - 75% des salariés en France consultent leurs messages en dehors du temps de travail, desquels 22% ont peur d’être jugé de manière négative. Pour 18% c’est un moyen de se rassurer. Le but des lois est de réduire le nombre de personnes au chômage en créant plus d’emplois, pourtant, en réalité les employés doivent faire le même travail en moins de temps afin que les employeurs puissent économiser de l’argent.

Quant aux différences culturelles, Magalie Bertholle, professeur de français au lycée en Angleterre depuis 2009, témoigne qu’en général, les Français ne parlent pas du travail dehors du bureau grâce aux conventions mais aussi la législation des 35 heures encourage une meilleure maitrise des horaires. De l’autre côté les Anglais sont fiers de consacrer plus de 40 heures de travail par semaine.

Peut-être l’équilibre entre la vie personnelle et la vie personnelle est plus inquiétant en Angleterre.

Depuis le 1er janvier 2017, les travailleurs en France dans une compagnie de plus de 50 salariés ont « le Droit de la Déconnexion », mis en place par la loi El Khomri. Grâce à cette nouvelle loi, les employés ne sont pas obligés de répondre aux e-mails après les heures de travail, quelque chose qui peut aider énormément à concilier l’équilibre entre la vie personnelle et la vie au travail.

Comment pourrions-nous réaliser un rééquilibrage de nos vies ? Avec la prévalence d’une culture de présentéisme numérique, est-ce que plus que jamais avant, nous devons trouver une voie par laquelle nous libérer du travail en moments de repos. Est-ce que les employés anglophones peuvent s’informer des habitudes professionnelles en France ? Ayant exploré ce sujet il est évident que pour mieux gérer une vie où il devient difficile d’échapper aux demandes du monde du travail, il faut renforcer les limites du terrain et apprendre à se déconnecter.

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Is Thermonuclear Fusion a Viable Mode of Energy Production?

Sam Elek, Lower Sixth Form, Queen Anne.

Academic Grant Recipient.

O

n December 17th 1938, physicists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann performed artificial nuclear fission for the first time [1]. This ushered in the nuclear age, changed humanity’s capabilities in warfare and electricity generation forever, and paved the way for the topic of this article to occur for the first time (as far as we know) outside of stars.

Fission and Fusion defined

Fusion compared to Fission

Fission (from the Latin fissus, ‘having been split’) is the division of a large atomic nucleus (usually uranium-235) into two or more products. The term ‘nuclear power station’ refers to power stations which use energy released from this process to produce electricity. These stations can release more energy than traditional fossil-fuel based stations and do not produce greenhouse gas emissions from the process of electricity generation itself.

While a single fission event releases more energy than a single fusion event, the energy released per nucleon of fusion is seven times greater than that of fission, which means that for a given mass of fuel, fusion releases seven times more energy than fission. (Fission: 1 MeV/nucleon, Fusion: 7 MeV/ nucleon) [2].

Fusion (from the Latin fusus, ‘having been poured’) is the joining of small atomic nuclei (usually hydrogen and helium) to create a single larger nucleus. The technology required to harness this process effectively has not yet been developed so power stations using this process to generate electricity do not exist. Fusion is the nuclear process that releases energy in stars – so much in fact, that it prevents stars from collapsing under the force of their own gravity.

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Fusion relies on small nuclei for fuel, such as hydrogen and helium, which are much more common than U-235, the single isotope that fission depends on.

Fission inevitably forms dangerously radioactive products; some of them having very long half-lives, like technetium-99, with a half-life of 211,100 years [3]. These must be stored safely for long periods of time (whilst there are containment facilities storing the waste that has already been created temporarily, nowhere on Earth is there currently a facility which can properly and safely store nuclear

waste indefinitely, though such structures are under construction). On the other hand, fusion produces light nuclei which can be released into the environment and are not harmful.

The Difficulty of Artificial Fusion The preceding section could be seen to imply that fusion is infallible and therefore it may seem ridiculous that such a ‘silver bullet’ is not yet being utilised by power plants the world over. However, the conditions required to achieve fusion are extreme, requiring a temperature of 100MK (100 million Kelvin) to make the fuel a plasma, which facilitates fusion [4]. That is six times hotter than the core of the sun! (To clarify, stars can achieve fusion despite this discrepancy in temperature because of the enormous pressure on the fuel at their core). This all enables the fulfilment of the crucial condition for fusion: that nuclei are close enough (within 10-15 m – about 1.25 times the diameter of a proton) to each other in order that the strong nuclear force may be within range to overcome the electromagnetic repulsion between the like-charged nuclei and pull them together (with the strong interaction being 1038 times as strong as gravity this does not take very long [5]). Getting the nuclei that close, however, is a difficult endeavour.

Fusion on Earth To clarify the difficulty: while fusion is indeed difficult to accomplish, we have done it on Earth; the issue, specifically, is doing it in a manner which overall releases energy so as to actually benefit from it in terms of producing electricity. The Joint European Torus (JET) is the record holder for output fusion power, taking 24MW of input and producing 16MW of output: although it still loses 8MW of power and so is not actually a viable energy-releasing fusion reactor, it is a massive step in the right direction.

JET is an example of a toroidal structure which contains plasma for fusion using magnetic fields; the best-designed of this genus of fusion reactors are called ‘tokamaks’ [6].

nuclei in the molecule will get close enough to fuse (since nuclei move around slightly in molecules anyway) [7]. The difficulty is that the muon gets ‘stuck’ in the newly produced nucleus after inducing, on average, 100 or 200 fusion events. Also, producing the muon takes 5GeV of energy but the fusion releases, cumulatively, only 2GeV or 3GeV [8]. Therefore, until the technology enabling less energy consumption in muon production arises, this method will not be efficient.

In summary, despite the potential of fusion, there are many issues which hamper its usefulness for electricity production, though these issues have not stood in the way of its use in weaponry, with hydrogen bombs being our most powerful to date.

I think that the key to creating a viable energyreleasing fusion reactor lies in a greater international collaborative effort (JET sets a good example for this), following the example of the Manhattan Project, which completed a goal, perceived impossible by many at the outset, in half a decade by employing a strategy of collaboration between various groups of scientists. If such an enterprise is successful, the future could see fusion reactors used in myriad circumstances: in domestic electricity production; in affected areas in the wake of natural disasters; in particle accelerators; and perhaps most impressively, in settlements on bodies like the moon or Mars where more electricity than can be provided by solar panels may be needed.

Glossary Nucleon: A proton or neutron. (any particle in the atomic nucleus). eV: An electron-volt, a unit of energy used in nuclear and particle physics.

Plasma: 4th state of matter where nuclei and orbiting electrons are separated.

Strong nuclear force: The fundamental force which holds together atomic nuclei against the repulsion between protons as well as nucleons themselves.

Toroidal: Donut-shaped.

Sources

Cold Fusion

[1]: ‘Nuclear Fission’ on Wikipedia

Since the difficulty is with energy released, it stands to reason that removing the need for high temperatures ought to make fusion viable as a power source. A possible method for this has been formulated; it is known as muon-induced fusion. This sees the introduction of a muon – which is the same as an electron except 207 times more massive – to a molecule of hydrogen. The molecule is, as a result of the muon’s greater mass, 196 times smaller, and so there is a likelihood, at room temperature and even at lower temperatures, that the two hydrogen

[2]: physlink.com/education/askexperts/ae534.cfm [3]: ‘Nuclear Fission Product’ on Wikipedia [4]: science.howstuffworks.com/fusion-reactor2.htm [5]: ‘Strong Interaction’ on Wikipedia [6]: ‘Tokamak’ on Wikipedia [7]: ‘Muon-catalysed Fusion’ on Wikipedia [8]: ‘Legitimate Cold Fusion Exists’ on YouTube

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The Progression and Future of 3D Printing George London, Lower Sixth Form, Feilden.

Academic Grant Recipient.

I

n this article I will explain the two main different types of 3D printer configuration, their advantages and disadvantages, as well as how I believe the technology will progress in the future. 3D printing is a very new area and uses for it are still being discovered, some of which I will discuss here.

What is 3D printing?

3D printing is an umbrella term used to describe the production of an item through additive manufacturing, which means making something by adding material slowly over time. This is the opposite of traditional production methods, which may be why it took so long for this to become viable and popular. Machining is the traditional way of accurately shaping a block of metal or other material by subtracting precise amounts from the material a small amount at a time. 3D printing is shaking this up: by using a material that can easily be turned from a solid to a liquid or vice versa, a shape can be built up in layers, allowing for complex and hollow shapes that would not otherwise be possible.

The two most common types of 3D printers

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Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) involves melting a thermoplastic, typically at around 220°C and then extruding this molten plastic in very thin layers, slowly building the object up over time. This method was used by the first widely available type of 3D printer. The hobbyist scene was pioneered

by Josef PrĹŻĹĄa who owns the RepRap Project. He was responsible for the creation and development of the i3 design, setting up educational sessions to educate people on how to build and use these types of printers. He has converted this to building a highly successful hobbyist business that sells kit and assembled printers.

FDM has many limitations on its production speed, affecting the efficiency and scalability of this type of printing. This is because the molten plastic is deposited in very thin layers less than 0.2mm tall and less than 0.4mm wide, which means that many lines are needed to build up the object,

combined with the moving mechanical parts that are responsible for moving the print head and extruder.

This is where SLA printing technology has a drastic effect on possibilities.

Stereolithography Apparatus (SLA) works in a completely different way: rather than melting and depositing layers of plastic to build up an object, it uses UV photosensitive resin that undergoes polymerisation to turn from a liquid to a solid. A laser directed by a mirror quickly scans over a glass plate at the bottom creating layers in a second; the model is then raised out of the pool of resin and back in to recoat the bottom ready for the next layer. This has revolutionised both the speed, accuracy and finish of the final product. Recent developments have allowed continuous printing without the model having to be raised and lowered by sitting the resin on a layer of cooling oil, meaning the object can be continuously pulled out of the resin as the laser sets it, as the resin can flow back underneath the part.

So how do 3D printers work?

I will be focusing mainly on FDM as they are the most common type that people are likely to see. A computer model is created is a 3D CAD program (computer aided design) and saved as an STL. This is a file format that contains no distance units, just their absolute value, and the model is built using thousands of triangles. This is then imported into a slicer, a program responsible for taking the geometry and transforming it into the lines of code that the printer will follow in the flavour (style of code) of marlin G-Code. This code is interpreted by the printer and tells it how exactly to move. Many companies will have created their own proprietary flavour, but this (marlin) is the most universal used by the Arduino line of control boards found on 3D printers. This code contains the information that the printer will execute blindly, meaning that is has no sensors to tell if it has been executed correctly.

This will contain instruction telling the printer how to move and how much plastic to extrude onto the part being printed. Until the last line of code is executed, and the printer will just stop and wait.

Prospects of 3D printing There are different reasons for using the two main different technologies: FDM offers the possibility of recycling parts, as they can be ground up and turned back into raw plastic; whereas the exposed/ cured resin can only be used once.

These different limitations create different possibilities for the future. For example, it is thought that on a Mars colony, 3D printers may be employed

for the creation of spare parts as files can be sent long distances using radio communication without the need for physical transportation of the part.

Closer to home, additive manufacturing is the only type that would be viable in areas of limited resources as no material (other than supports) is wasted, compared to the off cuts and shaving that are not usable without extensive processing from machining metals.

3D printing offers many other interesting prospects.

For example, houses have been printed from concrete using similar techniques, meaning that they can be produced much faster. However, the concrete frame still requires much work, which means that some see this procedure as more of a gimmick than something useful.

Metal 3D printing is a process that has only taken off recently, which involves using incredibly powerful lasers to melt metal filings that are sprayed onto the model and melted to build up layers. However, this suffers from many limitations. Due to its granular nature, the parts have a very poor finish and are far weaker compared to pure metal. Its situation could be likened to that of early FDM methods, so numerous improvements and redesigns are likely and this style may become mainstream in its applications.

Where can we expect 3D printing to take us?

The ability to produce an object quickly for prototyping and end use means that widespread adoption is probable. Libraries and other community education spaces have adopted the use of 3D printers to encourage learning in STEM fields and to try to give everyone access to them. However, these have not taken off as much as people would have hoped because they require maintenance, cleaning and regular use as filament becomes stale when it absorbs water that turns it brittle.

Conclusion: the importance of the 3D printer How common and important will 3D printers be in the future? It is unlikely that most people will work with them, let alone see one. However, they are already being applied in many significant ways. For example, they are being used in medicine for the production of operating aids based on patient scans; one example being to help correctly align drills used in vertebrae surgery, minimising the risk of paralysis.

3D printers will be working behind the scenes making everyone’s lives easier whether we know it or not.

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Does Damien Hirst's Work Deserve to be Celebrated?

Elen Moore, Lower Sixth Form, Queen Anne.

Academic Grant Recipient.

A

rt for Art’s Sake? The expression ‘art for art’s sake’ comes from the nineteenthcentury French saying “l’art pour l’art”. This common maxim conveys the idea that art needs no deeper purpose, nor does it have to mean something philosophical: art exists to be art, and nothing more that. This form of artwork is often described by the Greek umbrella term autoteles, meaning ‘complete in itself ’.

‘Art for Art’s sake’ is still a popular expression, used internationally, providing both the title of a 10cc song and a rather more obscure Swedish film. The chorus of the song, consisting of the lyrics “art for art’s sake, money for god’s sake”, encapsulates the debate over modern art (although it was originally written about the warped principles of the music business). Modern art and its apparent pretentiousness contradict the belief that art may simply just be art. Every piece in the Tate Modern pertains to a deeply expressive meaning that only those with particular knowledge and understanding of art may be allowed to comprehend.

Damien Hirst’s preposterously extravagant, expensive art pieces are a testament to the exclusivity of modern art, with his output having gained just as notorious a reputation as Hirst’s own (one of the more polite appraisals of his character comes from a recent interview in which he is described as “mouthy”). Since he emerged as a prominent figure in the world of art, the value of his works has been continuously debated. Is his artwork revolutionary or simply childish and grotesque?

Hirst’s Reputation The example of Damien Hirst’s politically

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controversial sculptures captures the idea that art is steadily becoming more ridiculous in a bid for fame and fortune. When researching Hirst, another French term is called into question: ‘enfant terrible’.

Literally translating to ‘terrifying child’, this phrase is used to describe one who shocks or embarrasses others with their eccentric ideas, which explains why Hirst is continually referred to as such. Hirst ultimately shocks people for a living – and he loves it.

Damien Hirst is possibly best known for his use of a 14-foot endangered tiger shark embalmed in formaldehyde. Or is it his encrusting of an actual human skull in diamonds? Or perhaps his mandalas made from entirely illegally sourced butterflies?

Hirst himself is, as stated previously, well known for his vulgarity, and this crudeness is often mirrored in his work. The day after 9/11, Hirst described the horrific attack as “kind of like an artwork in its own right”, even claiming that the terrorists “needed congratulating”, causing an international outcry, and showing just how much Hirst loves the attention his controversy attracts. One of his works, brusquely entitled ‘Two ******* and Two Watching’ stars both a rotting cow and bull, and was banned by public health officials – the reason cited being the fear that

audience members may be physically sick when viewing it. Another of Hirst’s pieces, ‘A Thousand Years’, consisted of an installation containing a cow’s head, live flies, and maggots, and was based on the circular motion of life, and the parallels of life and death. The maggots hatch, turn into flies, feed on the cow’s head, and then either are electrocuted or survive (with just enough flies remaining to continue the grisly cycle). So, Hirst’s artwork definitely achieves the ‘shock factor’ he appears to desire, albeit more to a level coveted by directors of horror films. But why are we making this kind of person famous? What is society hoping to achieve by making the man who called 9/11 an achievement the reportedly richest living artist?

Hirst’s method of creation Hirst’s argument is that his art explores death and the dying; therefore, the gruesome materials he uses for his artwork are entirely necessary to convey his point that “there’s only ever been that one idea in art – that Gauguin thing, you know”.

Hirst’s questionable eloquence in expressing his ideas is conveyed just as well as his artwork – by using others to express his point. Hirst ‘offloads labour’ by hiring assistants to physically create his pieces, instead of Hirst actually creating them. His use of assistants to execute his ideas is widely criticised, with the celebrated artist David Hockney saying that Hirst’s work is “insulting to craftsmen, skilled craftsmen”. Hockney even placed a pointed sign next to an exhibition of his landscape paintings in 2012 that read: ‘All the works here were made by the artist himself personally’. He later admitted it was aimed at Hirst and his unabashed use of assistants to create his work.

Another reason perhaps that Hirst is not respected by one of Britain’s greatest living artists is not his use of assistants, but the selling of the artwork produced solely under his own name. Therefore, it calls into question his devotion to his own art: it is a curious thing when an artist has a groundbreaking idea, and yet cannot be “******* bothered” (Hirst’s own words) to actually make it themselves.

Therefore, how committed to one’s life’s work can one truly be, when one has not physically contributed to it?

Originality One of Hirst’s most well-known works is that of a tiger shark in formaldehyde, entitled ‘The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living’. This piece is based upon the deathlike concept of a dead creature appearing entirely alive, and in this case, still able to swim. However, the shark itself appears to be nothing more than a nuisance, with the original shark deteriorating

so much it had to be replaced, therefore arguably changing the entire installation. It was suggested that Hirst ‘borrowed’ the idea from a shark that was similarly displayed in the window of an electrical supplies shop. Ironically named ‘ A Dead Shark Isn’t Art’, Eddie Saunders’ window display exhibited the same concept as Hirst, two years before Hirst’s shark was displayed in the Saatchi gallery.

Saunders actually also caught the shark himself, unlike Hirst, who hired a fisherman instead. Damien Hirst has publicly been shamed for plagiarism countless times, with BBC’s The One Show even doing a segment on his plagiarism, showing side by sides of eerily similar artworks. Personally, I don’t think the preserved shark is one of his many plagiarised ideas – they’re simply two different sharks in two separate boxes. The simplicity of the actual installation does not account for the discrepancies in his other ‘unique ideas’, however.

The Value of Reputation Art is only worth whatever a collector is prepared to pay – and Hirst’s work is among some of the most expensive of today, with his artwork ‘Lullaby Spring’ selling for $19.2 million in 2007, the most expensive piece ever sold by a living artist at the time. He was described by the renowned art critic Peter Schjedahl as a man who will “go down in history as a particularly cold-blooded pet of millennial excess wealth”, meaning that his work is driven only through capitalism, and the ridiculous amount of money people will pay for artwork with a particular name on it. It is the same concept as popular fashion brands, such as Supreme or Off-White – the bigger the demand, the higher the price.

To conclude, I think the answer to this question should be blindingly obvious – even to those without in-depth knowledge of the intricacies and politics of modern art. Damien Hirst’s art is often unnerving, rarely tolerable, and never unquestionable; yet his personality appears far more disputable. Artists with far more talent and far less rudeness never receive even a fraction of Hirst’s success. Therefore, the dubious public image Hirst presents allows him to sell so much more than if he was a diplomatic artist – Hirst sells his artwork through his notorious repute, not through the profundity and brilliance of his ideas.

Accordingly, it is our own fault that Damien Hirst has risen to his level of fame and status – as a society, we celebrate those who can do with ease what we could not dare, instead of those with forgettable actions who paint the mollifying landscapes we have become so accustomed to seeing hanging in any and every museum.

Image 2012 Damien Hirst and Science Ltd. All Rights Reserved, DACS, London/ARS, NY

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Introducing the Queen Elizabeth-Class Aircraft Carriers Tom Potter, Lower Sixth Form, Harcourt.

Academic Grant Recipient.

O

n 25 July 2007, it was announced that Britain was going to spend £6.2bn on building two naval aircraft carriers to replace the Invincible-class carriers. The new carriers were to be the largest warships ever built for the Royal Navy (later named HMS Queen Elizabeth and HMS Prince of Wales in 2014 and 2017 respectively).

They also promised to be significantly more technologically advanced than the vast majority of carriers worldwide.

Despite this, there has been disagreement both over the necessity of such carriers and the necessity for Britain to build two. This debate has encompassed both discussions about defence spending and also the nature of British defence capability in the 21st Century.

The three Invincible-class carriers were first brought into service in 1980, with the first carrier (HMS Invincible) playing a key role during the Falklands War. They were classed as ‘light aircraft carriers’ due to them having a displacement of just 22,000 tonnes and having the ability to carry only 12 Harriers at a top speed of 18 knots. In comparison, the Queen Elizabeth-class will have a displacement of around 65,000 tonnes and have the capability to hold around 36 F-35Bs at a top speed of 32 knots.

Construction began in late 2005 and was undertaken by four companies across seven shipyards across Britain with final construction

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taking place in Rosyth, Scotland. Around 10,000 people were employed in the project across the country. The project, therefore, has provided highly skilled workers with employment around the UK in areas where unemployment rates have been previously higher than the national average ranging from Glasgow in Scotland, Birkenhead near Liverpool and Appledore in Devon. Investment of around £120m also had to be carried out in Portsmouth with changes being made in order to become the home port of the carriers. This included installing power facilities, reinforcing the jetty and dredging the channel where millions of cubic metres of sediment had to be removed.

In addition to this, Britain were heavily involved in the international development of the F-35B Lightening Jets (short take-off, vertical landing) with BaE systems being a major sub-contractor, hence supporting 24, 000 further jobs across the country over 100 UK based suppliers. In the development

of the F-35B we see significant technological development which ensures the redundancy of steam catapults and arrestor hooks which will prove to be more efficient and operationally safer.

Unlike American carriers, the Queen ElizabethClass are fitted with a ski-jump take-off and designed for rolling vertical landings resulting in more fuel-efficient operations.

Strategically, the concept of utilising aircraft carriers has proved vital for large navies across the world since the Second World War due to their ability to provide air cover for a fleet internationally as well as providing humanitarian aid. Furthermore, the new carriers will be important for Britain’s Foreign Policy as they will provide a clear visible symbol of Britain’s global influence wherever they travel in the world . These carriers will also significantly benefit NATO as well given that they are the largest amongst the European NATO countries.

Despite these benefits, there has still been significant debate over the necessity of such ships.

The vision for the new carriers is for them to be in service for up to fifty years but we are progressively seeing the development of unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVs) and their increasing deployment in conflict. With UCAVs being smaller, lighter, cheaper and without the requirement of a human pilot, they are rapidly becoming more significant worldwide over the past few years. The need for expensive aircraft carriers has therefore been seen as potentially redundant. After the decommissioning of Invincible-class carriers HMS Ark Royal and HMS Illustrious in 2011 and 2014 respectively following the 2010 Strategic Defence and Security Review, it has meant Britain has gone six years without an operational aircraft carrier. In the 2015 Security Defence and Security Review it was assured that both carriers 'will form the core of our maritime task group' but this still raises the question that if Britain lasted over half a decade without having a carrier in service, was the Queen Elizabeth-class a necessary investment?

The press reaction to these carriers have varied.

In 2017, Max Hastings described the project as “giant embarrassments. They are symbols of almost everything that is wrong with British defence policy.”

This is due to the vast amount of resources used in construction, the country’s inability to handle cyberdefence or terrorism which should be prioritised and the carriers’ vulnerability to anti-ship missiles. While in the Guardian, they were described as 'vulnerable metal cans' due to the extensive protection needed by other members of the fleet. Advisers have also warned that these new carriers could become “the two most expensive conference centres in the world.”

It is clear that the £6.2bn budget on two aircraft carriers is a significant investment. However it should be noted that the 10 new Gerald R. Fordclass carriers currently under construction for the US Navy will be estimated to cost around $12bn per carrier. Equally, America’s investment in carriers is an endorsement of the view that aircraft carriers will remain at the forefront of naval strategy in the future.

Overall, it is difficult to predict the rate in which sea and air warfare will develop and the relevance of the Queen Elizabeth-class carriers over the coming decades. It is obvious that the capabilities of these carriers mean Britain’s navy has been clearly strengthened. It is important to consider the influence it has on Britain’s foreign policy with the likelihood of it leading both NATO task groups and disaster relief operations. However, it is unlikely that these carriers will see much action in conflict and with the rise of UCAVs does this mean that the carriers will have to adapt its purpose in order to accommodate UCAVs? Will these carriers be replaced once they get to the end of their lifetime or will aircraft carriers become extinct over the coming decades? The changing nature of warfare is always difficult to predict but it is evident that these carriers must be adaptable in order to remain functionable meaning it will only be when they are finally taken out of service that we can judge if they were truly worth the £6.2bn investment.

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Is Universal Basic Income the Future for Societies?

Ewan Short, Lower Sixth Form, Swift.

Academic Grant Recipient.

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ince it was first written about by Sir Thomas More in ‘Utopia’ (1516), the concept of a guaranteed income has become a controversial topic even though it has the potential to be the fundamental solution to many of society’s underlying problems.

Universal basic income (UBI) is a proposition derived from More in which all citizens would receive a given payment every month regardless of their income, resources and employment status. It is suggested as an alternative to schemes such as unemployment benefits, which can actually discourage work since they depend on the condition that you are unemployed.

The goal of UBI is to remove the incentive problems that surround such “conditional transfers” whilst also providing an amount of financial security for all citizens.

A scheme like this might initially appear to be flawed. After all, how could it possibly be afforded? Why should everyone, including the rich, be given money when they don’t need it? And primarily, why would anyone work if they were given money for free?

And yet, UBI has been recognised and even supported by many of Silicon Valley’s most renowned businessmen including Elon Musk. It has even received recognition for its potential from established geniuses such as the late Stephen Hawking. In addition to this, Labour included trials of universal basic income in their party policy for

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the 2019 elections, which shows not only that it has potential, but that the concept is rising in popularity.

UBI has received this positive recognition because the apparent flaws can be offset by other factors. For example, the cost of the scheme could be covered with shockingly little disruption to our current tax systems as it would rule out the need for most of our current welfare benefit schemes; this would therefore free the majority of the money necessary for the UBI scheme. The rest of the money needed could be easily accounted for by simple measures such as the removal or lowering of the personal tax allowance which costs the government £100 billion per annum. This, combined with the universal basic income, would likely at worst have a neutral effect (if not a positive effect) for the higher income taxpayer, but definitely benefit the unemployed and the low-income taxpayers, therefore having an overall positive effect on everyone.

Meanwhile, another desirable benefit of the scheme is that UBI provides an income floor above the poverty line for everyone, so if anyone (including the rich) experiences a huge spell of bad luck, they will

still be able to maintain a basic standard of living.

Additionally, UBI enables these benefits without discouraging people from working because people will only receive a ‘basic’ amount of money, whereas everyone seeks to improve their quality of life so will continue to work.

The fact that basic income does not discourage work was demonstrated when Finland implemented a two-year basic income pilot from 2017-2019 consisting of 2000 participants nationwide, which yielded results of an increase in the welfare of the participants, yet had a negligible effect on unemployment rates. However, due to the relatively small sample size, the results were not conclusive and raised more questions than answers. As a result, it is still to be definitively proven that UBI would be a valid replacement for the benefit systems.

However, unemployment in the future will likely be an even bigger problem since society is perpetually pushing back technological barriers through innovation. Advances in artificial intelligence mean that the autonomation of the majority of jobs is looking more and more likely. Therefore, in the words of Elon Musk: ‘I think we’ll end up doing universal basic income...it’s going to be necessary’.

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The Benefits of a Plant-Based Diet on Humans and the Environment

Charlie Symonds, Lower Sixth Form, Vanbrugh.

Academic Grant Recipient.

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s meat actually good for you? For centuries we have been brainwashed into believing that meat is a healthy protein source that makes someone strong, and we have joked about vegetarians being weak. However, new studies are now showing that meat is having a detrimental effect on the human body. With these effects as well as the impacts of the meat industry on the environment, is a plant-based diet the future for a healthier lifestyle and a healthier planet?

Fresh meat vs Processed meat We should all know by now that processed meat is bad for us. The World Health Organisation made headlines in 2015 when it officially declared processed meats like bacon as a “carcinogen” that increases risk of colon and rectum cancer by 18%.

This is now in the same category as asbestos and smoking cigarettes. We may think only processed meats are bad, but fresh meat and animal protein in general are now proven to have devastating impacts on the human body. A 2014 study from Harvard University found that women who ate one serving red meat per week compared to no red meat had a 22% greater risk of developing breast cancer.

Many of us also know the repercussions of red meat but believe chicken and turkey have no negative effects. Although all meats have side effects, processed meats contain heterocyclic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, both of which are carcinogenic compounds formed during processing or cooking which greatly increase cancer risk.

Effects of meat on the human body Meat, dairy products, and eggs all contain cholesterol and saturated fat, even chicken and turkey cooked without the skin. Saturated fat is the number one contributor to obesity and is very difficult for the human body to break down. People that eat meat are nine times more likely to develop obesity than people that stick to a plant-based diet. However, cholesterol can create the greatest unseen problems. Cholesterol lines the sides of the blood vessels and limits the amount of blood that can go through them. This increases blood pressure, putting stress on the heart and leading to many cardiovascular diseases (for example, Coronary Heart Disease) and heart attacks. An Oxford University study completed in 2013 studied 45,000 volunteers for 11 years, it concluded that a plant-based diet could cut one’s risk of heart disease

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by as much as 38%. This is primarily due to lower cholesterol and reduced blood pressure. These blockages of blood vessels also lead to strokes, as blood can get stuck in the brain, this increases risk of strokes by 47%. The clear links with obesity as well as the high blood pressure caused by high cholesterol point strongly to the increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes. A huge study of 150,000 American men and women found that consuming several portions of red meat per week can increase one’s risk of developing type 2 diabetes by 48%.

This is an incurable disease that can lead to blindness, kidney failure, heart attacks and strokes.

Not only does cholesterol limit blood flow but animal protein itself has been proven to inhibit epithelial function. The epithelium is made up of epithelial cells which line the blood vessels and are responsible for movement of particles in and out of the blood stream, for example, oxygen and carbon dioxide as well as all nutrients absorbed into the blood. It is also responsible for vascular shunting.

This is the process of blood vessels constricting and dilating to direct blood to where it is needed. For example, when exercising the blood vessels around the digestive system constrict as blood it not needed here; the blood vessels around the working muscles dilate to allow more blood into these areas to supply oxygen for respiration and the release of ATP. Numerous studies have also found a link between

this limited blood flow and erectile disfunction.

Cutting down to just one portion of meat per week can reduce risk of developing erectile disfunction by over 20%.

Overall, sticking to a plant-based diet limits the risks of numerous life-threatening conditions and can help to prolong one’s life. On average, men and women who stick to a plant-based diet live over six years longer than those that eat meat.

Problems of Plant-Based Diet Many people worry about a plant-based diet regarding eating enough protein or getting sufficient vital vitamins like B12 and B6. Vitamin B12 and 6 are only found in animal products, therefore this diet can lead to a deficiency of these B vitamins. Vitamin B12 and B6 are significant in the formation of red blood cells and neurotransmitters and also help in the formation of DNA. It aids the formation of red blood cells and is therefore associated with keeping people energised as the more red blood cells, the more oxygen that is getting to cells, and therefore there will be a greater rate of respiration. However, this is a problem easily solved.

People who stick to a plant-based diet are often recommended to take supplements for these vitamins and this is the only way to get around this problem.

People also believe that sticking to a plantbased diet means that you lack sufficient protein intake as protein is often associated purely with meat. Protein is the primary nutrient responsible for the growth and repair of tissues. This often worries athletes as they need more protein than the average person as when training they are constantly creating micro-tears in their muscle fibres that need to be repaired. However, many vegetables and beans often contain a greater amount of protein than meat. For example, 100 calories of steak contains 8g of protein and 7.4g of fat whereas 100 calories of broccoli contains 11.1g of protein and only 0.4g of fats. Also, 4oz. of beef and 4oz. of black beans contain the same amount of protein yet the black beans contain 200 less calories and no cholesterol or saturated fats. This shows that protein is easily obtained without the consumption of meat.

Environmental Impact Many of us may have heard by now the impacts of the meat industry on the environment, the question is, do we really understand how severe this is? Not only is the meat industry creating huge amounts of pollution and needing vast amounts of water and grain to sustain it, but the land used to

graze animals often must be cleared, leading to deforestation and destruction of habitat for native species.

The meat industry has a devastating effect on the planet, the worst being the beef industry. Beef results in up to 105kg of greenhouse gases per 100g of protein and overall the livestock sector is responsible for 37% of human-caused methane emissions, and 65% of human nitrous oxide emissions. The meat industry also uses huge amounts of fresh water, 10,900 litres of water are used to produce one pound of beef. Going to a plant-based diet could save well over 1,000,000 litres of water per year as 23% of all global accessible fresh water goes into feeding livestock.

On top of this, if people stopped eating meat and dairy products global farmland use could be reduced by more than 75% – an area nearly two times the size of Russia or 125 times the size of the UK. The afforestation of this land would create vast carbon sinks to help rebalance the damaged caused, while also providing additional habitat for endangered species. This is made up of the 45% of Earth’s land occupied by the livestock system. Not only is it the livestock sector using substantial amounts of land but out of all the land used for arable farming, 36% of this is used only to grow the feed for the livestock that we consume. With more and more people worrying about not being able to feed a growing population not eating meat could be the answer. If all the soybeans and grains used to feed livestock went towards feeding humans, this would feed 6.87 billion people. Whereas all the meat, milk, fish and eggs can only feed 1.72 billion people. This shows that if everyone stopped eating meat, and the food used for feeding livestock went directly to feeding humans, this could feed an additional 5.2 billion people to the current population.

In the future, the switch to a plant-based diet will benefit both human health and the environment.

This movement will lead to people living longer, healthier lives with fewer health risks, while also hugely reducing the environmental impacts of farming. In addition, if the food grown to feed livestock was redistributed and repurposed we could feed the growing population and help to eradicate malnutrition in poverty-stricken countries. Over the last few months alone, we have seen a huge growth in the variety and accessibility of a plant-based diet as most supermarkets now have a section of plant-based products. The growing popularity of this lifestyle will bring huge changes in environmental sustainability and help humans to live healthier lives.

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Corsetry: A History Lauren Thomas, Lower Sixth Form, Queen Anne.

Academic Grant Recipient.

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or many years, the waifish, wasp-waisted woman has been the epitome of female beauty, whether accompanied by the straight-hipped ideal of the 1920’s or the more curvaceous modern counterpart. The corset was a common item in the creation and maintenance of this prevalent trend. This item has often been seen as a physically damaging symbol of female oppression – the embodiment of patriarchal control into which many women, particularly those of noble birth, have been tight-laced from the age of five, rearranging organs, causing fainting spells and other scandalous health issues.

The corset itself an important part of their consummation ritual, during which the husband must carefully undo up to fifty laces in order to show self-control, something that could perhaps be in itself considered an act of respect.

However, there is a large amount of evidence to suggest otherwise; in fact, one could argue that rather than a dangerous symbol of oppression, corsetry simply represents another element of fashionable choice, albeit one with a long and politically fraught history.

One of the first examples of corset-like structures has been found on a Minoan figurine of a snake goddess or priestess from Crete, in the palace of Knossos from around 1600BC. Another example can be found in some tribes of the Caucasus, where corsets were worn from childhood until marriage.

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However, the first appearance of what we would recognise as a corset originated in Italy and was then popularised by Catherine de Medici in France in the 15th century. Corsets of this period, referred to as ‘cottes’, were conical in shape and designed to flatten the bust with the emphasis not on the smallness of the waist itself but the contrast between the flatness of the bodice and the natural curve of the body. The tight lacing that we equate with corsetry today was simply not possible as the hand-sewn holes through which the lacing of the corset passed would tear under strain. By the beginning of the Elizabethan era, whalebone was commonly used to stiffen the bodice, with the ‘busk’ or reinforcement of the bodice front being made from wood, horn, ivory or metal that was laced in separately, used as a favour for suitors. Despite the growing popularity of the garment during this period, by the early 18th century, particularly in France, they fell out of fashion as clothing simplified, particularly with the rise of the French Revolution.

During the 18th century, corsetry remained popular, the almost cylindrical torso contrasting with the fashionable full skirts. The primary function of these ‘stays’ at this point was to support the bust and

back, improve posture and tighten the midriff, rather than drastically narrow the waist. For more informal or energetic situations, such as sport or dance, ‘jumps’ of quilted silk, cotton or linen that were only partially boned for breast support without restriction became popular. 18th century corsets that were well made and close fitting did not in fact restrict breathing and were relatively comfortable, allowing women to work. In fact, the additional support of a corset around the waist limited a working woman’s ability to bend at the waist, forcing her to lift anything using her legs, which actually protects one’s back.

However, by 1794, the empire line bodice became far more popular, meaning that the purpose of the corset simply became support; any artificial shaping would be lost in the draped fabric around a woman’s natural waistline, as this style removed the emphasis from this area.

During the 1830s, the fashionable waistline returned to its natural position with corsets that both reduced the waist more dramatically and supported the bust. At this point the corset became that iconic hourglass shape that we recognise today, although the fashionable exaggerated shoulders and widened skirts created the illusion of a smaller waist, even if the corset was only moderately laced. It was also around this point that steel reinforcements began to replace traditional whalebone, particularly as the exaggerated shoulder design became less popular; the waist itself had to be further reduced to achieve the same effect. It should also be noted that whalebone reinforced items may seem incredibly uncomfortable to anyone that has worn one occasionally; however, the whalebone itself responds to the moisture and warmth of regular wear, moulding the garment to the owner’s shape and subsequently becoming far more comfortable.

This preference for a tiny-waisted hourglass silhouette meant that corsets lengthened beyond the hips (often with added hip gores - padded elements that were added to enhance the contrast between the waist and the hips) and, by the 1840s, tight lacing in order to create this favourable shape had become more common. This is one of the biggest contributors to the storm of controversy around corsetry: the misconceptions around tight lacing and its supposed consequences.

This brings us onto the controversial topic of tight lacing. Most modern perceptions of corsetry revolve around this notion of tightly lacing a woman down to a 17” waist, breaking ribs and moving organs in the process. Corsetry has become synonymous with patriarchal control and dangerous fashion. In reality, the very act of tight lacing that we find so shocking in the 21st century society was considered precisely that by our 19th century counterparts. The lack of

surviving records and examples of a diverse sample group means that our modern perception of corsetry is limited to the scandalous remnants left today; the extreme is what is discussed and therefore is what remains. The majority of women were not wearing such extreme items. A surviving article from the Toronto Daily Mail (dated 5th May 1883) stated that a 25-27” corseted waist was considered a healthy yet fashionably acceptable size. This waist size, even by modern standards, was not considered overly dramatic. In fact, Bernadette Banner (a fashion historian with a background in theatrical costume) has found from her own experiences in costume design that for 18-30 year old women, the average uncorseted waist size was 26-30”.

Anecdotal evidence taken from today’s demographic therefore shows that the common 25” waist Victorian measurement is not at all extraordinary by today’s standards. For example, the sizing chart for Forever 21, a modern representation for the demographic of young women, lists an extra small as a 24-25” waist and a small as 26-27” waist, both of which fall inside the range outlined by the Toronto Daily Mail.

To put this into another modern context, Gigi Hadid, a well-known fashion model, has a recorded waist measurement of 23” uncorseted, a measurement considered both acceptable and desirable by modern standards. When it comes to the matter of actual tight lacing, which tends to be classified as lacing down to a 18-20” waist, the women that participated in this particular fashion trend would be young women of high status willing to endure more discomfort for the sake of fashion, a concept that is clearly still present today with the trend of stilettos and other impractical and mildly uncomfortable garments. These images of high fashion tend to be what survives today and those discussed or praised were the 21-24” waists; subsequently fewer larger waist sizes were represented in various forms of media. Therefore our modern view of corsetry comes from a limited sample of advertising etcetera, which was often drawn or subject to an early form of Photoshop.

Regarding the provenance of the limited surviving material, most existing gowns that garment proportions can be taken from would perhaps suggest that all women either had an 20” waist, aspired to, or were simply irrelevant to fashionable society. In fact, those gowns that form the range of smaller measurements are recorded as having belonged to a bachelorette, whereas the larger gowns belong to a wife or “mother of”. The average waist size of surviving gowns is 24”, perhaps because they were too small to be fully worn out by the owner, but were expensive or had sentimental value and were kept nonetheless. Considering that there are surviving records documenting waist sizes

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up to 34”, it could perhaps be argued that trying to draw a conclusion regarding the diversity of body shape in Victorian society based simply on the finite amount of surviving evidence showing a specific and fashionable body type could be equated to trying to draw a similar conclusion from data gathered from today’s popular fashion models. The women portrayed with such impossible measurements were the Victoria’s Secret models of the Victorian era: the ultra-fashionable, slim young women, whose primary purpose was to wear pretty clothes and go to public events.

By the late 19th century, corsetry, more specifically tight lacing, became the target of many an angry article, claiming that wearing a corset in general would cause a woman’s organs to shift, respiratory issues, reproductive issues, as well as generally poor health and a multitude of other accusations, many of which have little scientific proof or have been actively disproved by modern research. The introduction of the ‘swan’ or ‘s- bend’ corset in the Edwardian era is perfectly demonstrated in the depiction of the favoured style of the ‘Gibson Girls’, the straight busk seemingly doing less damage to a woman’s internal organs. The desired female shape between 1910 and 1920 became one with an enhanced bust and minimised abdomen and hips, creating a straighter torso, which was achieved by using a longline corset that ended well below the hips. The subsequent development to the iconic silhouette of the 1920s removed the desire for dramatic shaping; corsets during this period were designed to slim the hips and thighs to achieve a straight ‘boyish’ look, a predecessor to the girdles of the 1950s. Economic depression and the outbreak of war further restricted the materials available for clothing considered

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fashionable rather than necessary, particularly as women’s clothing became less constrictive. By the 1930s, a more fitted silhouette was popularised, still with slimmed hips but with a more defined waist. Wartime rationing made zips and hook and eye fastenings difficult to obtain, so lacing and elastic fabrics were used. Christian Dior’s infamous 1947 ‘New Look’ was a revolutionary step after the war, defining feminine figures and fashions around the world.

Now corsetry is mainly used in a theatrical sense – for costumes, couture fashion and concert outfits. However, the contrasting waist, hips and bust has returned, enhanced through procedures such as liposuction and waist training – an image popularised by celebrities such as Kim Kardashian-West and Kylie Jenner, the rise of the ‘slim-thick’ body documented on social media.

Traditional corsetry is seen as simply a relic of an oppressive patriarchy, rather than an item of fashion that could be reclaimed as a celebration of the female figure. It was, after all, introduced to high society by a woman of great political power.

The multitude of silhouettes that can be created and explored simply reinforce one’s opinion that articles of fashion such as these should be allowed to be admired for their craftsmanship and understood for their actual use and history. Of course, clothing should be a matter of individual choice. It must also be remembered that the reputation of any item of such controversy is subject to a number of influences, rather that assuming that one narrow-minded view - or waist for that matter - can be applied to such an iconic tradition.

In Defence of Poetry Mae Topley, Lower Sixth Form, Harcourt.

Academic Grant Recipient.

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housands of years have passed since its creation, though its presence today is just as significant and influential. It has survived centuries and their events, through endless groups and movements; it has watched traditions die and societies develop. Its journey through the years documents our history, our lives and our beliefs.

The evolution of this tradition is a testament to its value, and its growth alongside our development indicates just how persistent and meaningful it is to us. Poetry is its name and its extraordinary existence deserves reflection and admiration.

Epic Poetry: Virgil’s The Aeneid Epic poetry characterises a great deal of early written poetry. Its central focus on detailing a hero’s adventure or journey conveys so much about the society in which these poems were composed.

The Aeneid, for example, written by Virgil in 19BC, depicts almost the epitome of a dutiful, heroic, ideal Roman male through the character of Aeneas who, despite enduring battles and crazy women, is successful in founding the Roman race. Virgil alludes to the idea, many times, that Aeneas is an ancestor of the then current Emperor Augustus as an expression of his admiration for him; such flattery is also, of course, a mode of propaganda. However, throughout the majority of the epic poem, Virgil reminds the reader of the devastating consequences of conflicts, the first line being “Arma virumque cano”: “I sing of arms and of a man”. It also describes in great depths the hardships faced by those involved in war and Aeneas’ uncontrollable sorrow and grief – a reminder that seems fitting in today’s world as conflicts continue, yet we are not fully aware of the destruction they cause. It also presents an important message about masculinity and accepting the subversion of society’s gender expectations.

Perhaps what is most significant about The Aeneid are the similarities it shares with Homer’s epic poems The Iliad and The Odyssey, which are dated in the 8th century BC. In fact, the first line of The Odyssey is “Goddess of song, teach me the story of the hero”, which is reminiscent of Virgil’s opening to The Aeneid. The strong connection between these two poets, despite being hundreds of years apart, displays the influence of poetry at the very beginning; so early in fact that Ancient Greek poems like these were produced in a time when poems were just beginning to be written down, instead of spoken.

Intertextual Influences Geoffrey Chaucer is another poet to be influenced by earlier pieces.

His poem ‘Troilus and Criseyde’, written sometime in the mid 1380s, is set during the Trojan war, much like The Aeneid and The Iliad. This tragic love story of Troilus and Criseyde was evidently heavily influenced by Virgil as well as the Roman poet Ovid, who wrote elegiac poems. Chaucer wrote it during his education at St Paul’s Cathedral School, hundreds of years after both epic and elegiac poems were first written.

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Two hundred years later, Shakespeare was greatly inspired by Chaucer and his poems, which became the sources to many of his own poems and plays, one being called Troilus and Cressida.

Shakespeare’s writing is among the most well-known literature on earth; his poems are analysed and recited constantly; students across the globe study his work and he has had more theatrical works performed than any other playwright.

His wisdom concerning romance (‘Love’s not Time’s fool’), humankind (‘All men make faults’) and the passing of time (‘My love shall in my verse ever live young’) is able to educate us even now and through poetry he shares valuable lessons in life.

As the most famous poet of all time, there is no doubt that Shakespeare influenced a vast amount of people – one being Maya Angelou, who found, when reading Shakespeare’s sonnets, that he understood exactly how she felt and his beautiful poetry spoke to her own experience. Throughout her career, Angelou wrote numerous poems, empowering women, demanding social justice and explaining love. Among her most well-known poems, ‘Woman Work’ describes the expected duties of a mother, her lack of belonging as a minority and the beauty of nature: ‘Star shine, moon glow/You're all that I can call my own’. The purpose of her work is clear, and this sense of confidence and assertiveness proves not only her love for poetry but also her desire for change. In fact, the messages she presented became more famous than the poems themselves, demonstrating the platform poetry offers for the sharing of beliefs and opinions.

Poetry as Political Platform Much like The Aeneid, twentieth-century poetry has been used as a form of propaganda and Wilfred Owen is a brilliant example of this. ‘Dulce et Decorum est’ was published posthumously in 1920. Not only does it detail the horrors of war as a consequence of the new weapons manufactured during World War One, but it condemns the promotion of dying for one's country, criticising ‘The old Lie: Dulce et decorum est/ Pro patria mori.’

Despite being sarcastic, Owen is reminiscent of the dutiful, heroic Aeneas, who loves his country far more than his own desires. The poem teaches

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us about the destruction we cause when advancing technology in warfare, and the fact that is was written just over one hundred years ago, shows that poetry is a method of spreading awareness of current issues. As well as this, it documents history and indicates change and continuity in society. In ‘Dulce et Decorum est’ and The Aeneid, the attitudes towards patriotism and war presented are completely opposing and show a shift in the mentality of the people.

These six poets from 750 BC to 2014 demonstrate most clearly the pervasive influence poetry has and its ability to remain relevant through inspiring future poems. There are intricate details that connect these poems and subtle references that are weaved throughout them which show a chain reaction produced by a shared love for poetry. It is evident also through the many pieces of art, film and literature which are born from their work that poetry provokes ideas and excites and encourages the reader to think and create. We should continue to appreciate the talents of these poets as they explored the undiscovered world of poetry with such passion and devotion to writing.

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