Manzanita Band of the Kumeyaay Nation Tribal Resilience Project

Manzanita Band of the Kumeyaay Nation

Tribal Resilience Project

Message from Chairwoman Elliott-Santos September 30, 2020 “Hope for our future means preservation of our earth, of our mother, of what sustains us.”

We are pleased to bring forward the Manzanita Band of the Kumeyaay Nation’s Tribal Resilience Project report. The Manzanita Tribe has taken on this important project to protect our oak relatives and further build our Tribal resiliency in the face of climate change. We embarked on this project with our partner, the Climate Science Alliance, and worked in collaboration to better understand how climate change and extreme weather events are impacting our community, the Reservation itself, the chewuw (plants) and hutt (animals), our haa (water), and in particular, our ‘snyaaw (Coast Live Oak). Throughout the development of this project we learned from our community members and incorporated their input, ideas, and guidance to help gather information to support the project and help us come up with solutions that are rooted in our history and community values.

As a community, we are coming together to identify solutions and learning from each other including our hiimilh (youth) who will lead us into the future. This collective effort to understand climate change impacts in our community and advance strategies and solutions is part of our commitment to taking care of all of our relations. In this report our voices are united, and our commitment strong to our people now and our future generations.

Sincerely,

Table of Contents 1

Introduction: Kumeyaay and Coast Live Oaks

2

Interdependent Relationship

2

Kumeyaay Ethnobotany of the ‘Snyaaw

4

Fire and Cultural Burning for ‘Snyaaw

5

Climate Change Impacts

5

Global Climate Change

6

Climate Change Impacts to the Manzanita Reservation

8

Historical Climate Variability

11

Future Climate Change

16

Conclusion and Recommendations

17 17 19

Climate Change Adaptation Options for Manzanita’s ‘Snyaaw Adapting to Change: Tribal Environmental Efforts

Responding to Change: ‘Snyaaw Monitoring and Management on the Manzanita Reservation

19

Recommendation 1: ‘Snyaaw Monitoring

22

Recommendation 2: ‘Snyaaw Stand Management

25

Recommendation 3: ‘Snyaaw Propagation

28

Recommendation 4: Goldspotted Oak Borer (GSOB) Interventions

29

Recommendation 5: Develop a Community Science Protocol to Monitor ‘Snyaaw

30

Recommendation 6: Expand Tribal Community Outreach and Engagement on Climate Science and Solutions

31

Recommendation 7: Tribal Resilience Impact Videos and Outreach Materials

32

Conclusion

33

Appendix: Community Survey Responses

39

References

Introduction Kumeyaay and Coast Live Oaks

In this world, the relationships which communities form are both human and non-human. We form sacred relationships with places, water, mothers, fathers, the stars and plants. Uniquely, Kumeyaay peoples’ have formed a sacred relationship with ‘snyaaw, Quercus agrifolia, or Coast Live Oak. A focal tree species that lives in all Kumeyaay territory. This majestic tree is highly revered for all of it’s essence amongst Kumeyaay and all that it has provided for Kumeyaay communities since the beginning of time. Kumeyaay and ‘snyaaw have fostered each other’s generations. Kumeyaay are the people of the ‘snyaaw. In most contexts Kumeyaay and ‘snyaaw are perceived as one in the same. The Manzanita Tribe continues to put their ‘snyaaw relatives at the forefront of their responsibilities.

This report and the Manzanita Climate Resilience Project was created to explore the integration of climate change scenarios with natural resources, specifically ‘snyaaw, as a central focus. This effort is focused on informing decision-making that sustains cultural and traditional resources and practices and increases flexibility in how services and programs are managed. This report includes recommendations that support the Tribe in developing ways of addressing climate change impacts to natural systems through Tribal environmental program activities. The goal of this report is to provide a framework to assist the decision making process. Providing a robust approach to address a range of climate change scenarios, maintain cultural and traditional resources and practices in the face of climate change, and increase flexibility in how services and programs are managed, with a specific focus on ‘snyaaw.

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MANZANITA BAND OF THE KUMEYAAY NATION: TRIBAL RESILIENCE PROJECT

Interdependent Relationship Despite the many challenges that have threatened traditional ways of life, culture, land, and sovereignty, the Manzanita community continues to thrive in this region, preserving the traditions and practices of their ancestors for current and future generations. Manzanita Tribal members are interested in learning more of the Tribe’s language and engaging in more traditional practices, arts, music, and religion (Manzanita Band of the Kumeyaay Nation, 2013). More specifically the Manzanita Tribe has continually worked to safeguard their ‘snyaaw relatives. The Manzanita Tribe’s relationship with the ‘snyaaw species significantly shapes the cultural identity of its people. The cultural ecosystem services provided through their relationship nurtures the spiritual, nutritional and cultural well-being of the Tribe, which is still intact over countless generations. The diligent care and fostering of generations of ‘snyaaw populations has given Kumeyaay people a special recognition as people of ‘snyaaw.

The Manzanita Kumeyaay are recognized as environmental specialists (“Point Loma - Environmental”, n.d.), holding a deep understanding and knowledge of the environment that has ensured their survival in this area throughout time. They instilled a holistic approach to managing the environment and all natural resources (Viejas Band of Kumeyaay Indians, n.d.) that has been carried through the generations. Kumeyaay have continuously faced the diverse and variable climates across the region (Hoffman and Gamble, 2006), adapting to variations in climate, such as periods of drought, by utilizing innovative practices (Hoffman and Gamble, 2006). The Kumeyaay approach to environmental management and climate adaptation is guided by many principles that are shared by native peoples across the region, while encompassing distinct cultural practices and strategies that make Kumeyaay people and their relationship with the region and environment unique.

Kumeyaay Ethnobotany of the ‘Snyaaw Improving knowledge, maintaining resources, and developing a diverse array of alternative food resources is a critical component of the Kumeyaay culture, religion, and way of life. This religious and cultural emphasis on a Tribal food system is recognized as a defining characteristic of Southern California native people, and as a critical cultural response to the region’s climate (Shipek, 1981). Through utilizing innovative planting and harvesting methods to increase plant food supplies, coupled with strategies to maximize the availability of animals for food,

MANZANITA BAND OF THE KUMEYAAY NATION: TRIBAL RESILIENCE PROJECT

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southern California native communities have been able to secure food sources to survive each season and year (Shipek, 1981). Historical records indicate that these practices increased both the diversity and number of plants in the region through innovative methods of planting (Harris, 2015). Within Kumeyaay communities, designated plant specialists continually gain and maintain their scientific knowledge on plant husbandry to inform the proper timing and methods of ritual practices and ceremony (Shipek, 1981). These specialists creatively experiment in their planting to test out options for medicinal use, try out technical tools, and advance understanding of how a diversity of crop varieties can be utilized in the region’s variable environmental and diverse micro-climate conditions. These methods created a pathway for an abundant and rich food supply that could ultimately withstand any weather condition and exist throughout each season, year, and distinct micro-climate of the landscape (Harris, 2015). This approach includes seed broadcasting, planting cuttings and transplants, interplanting of food resources in various eco-niches, and experimentally moving plants to encourage niche disturbance and plant hybridization (Harris, 2015) to allow for many plants to grow across areas of the Kumeyaay homeland (Viejas Band of Kumeyaay Indians, n.d.); (Shipek, 1981). In doing so, the growing locations of these plants have expanded and increased in number (Shipek, 1981).

“The land here was an arid rock, and the Indigenous people turned it into paradise. Now it’s going back to being an arid rock.

We need to look back and see how they transformed it into paradise.”

- Manzanita Community Member

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In particular, many oak species and acorns are a keystone of many Tribal communities (Long et al., 2015), including the Manzanita Band, who understand that the ‘snyaaw acts as an ecological backbone that sustains the environment and its people (California Oaks Project, 2016). Archeological records, research findings, and the stories of elders demonstrate that native people are experienced managers of the ‘snyaaw, applying their horticultural skills, advanced harvesting approaches, and maintaining observed and acquired knowledge that has been protected and passed on over time. The active management, planting, and restoration of oak environments for acorns and other resources reflects the importance of these resources as a central part of the Kumeyaay culture.

“The reason California has so many oak woodlands is because of the indigenous people - there was never this much brush.”

- Manzanita Community Member Maintaining healthy oak landscapes, including the other associated plants and animals of these environments, allowed for increased yields, improved quality of resources, and sustained production (Anderson, 2007). In addition to frequent burning, management practices have also included pruning of trees, sweeping of oak understory, brush containment to prevent the occurrence of fuel ladders, regular harvesting, and overall maintenance to ensure a widely spaced and well lit landscape of large-canopy, long-lived trees (Anderson, 2007). As a part of the pruning process, people will often knock on the oak trees to increase the duration of acorn collection (McDonald, 1990); (Anderson, 2007). Knocking and pruning methods have many positive impacts on healthy trees, including removal of dead or diseased branches, ensuring adequate canopy light and shape for fruiting area, promoting the establishment of oak seedlings, and revitalizing fruitwood (Anderson, 2007).

MANZANITA BAND OF THE KUMEYAAY NATION: TRIBAL RESILIENCE PROJECT

Fire and Cultural Burning for ‘Snyaaw

Photo by UC Cooperative Extension

Fire is an important practice utilized to ensure a thriving landscape, maintain the diversity of plants and animals, and provide multiple benefits for the ecosystem and for the people. Kumeyaay people have always understood the need for active care, intervention, and bringing disturbance to the land in the form of fire and other practices. These activities promote diverse, healthy, and productive oak woodlands, and the implementation of burning is a powerful tool for maintaining ‘snyaaw and oak environments over time (Anderson, 2007). Frequent burning of the herbaceous undergrowth in and around oak ecosystems improves woodland structure and composition, minimizes dry brush, shrubs, and other trees, prevents the growth of tall grasses, adds nutrients to the soil, and fosters the growth of seeds and sprouts. Burning also prevents the occurrence of fungi, bacteria, disease, insects, and pathogens, that can be destructive for ‘snyaaw and acorns. Fire also allows for the gathering of cultural

resources other than acorns, including textile materials (Anderson, 2007). Together, burning practices help create an open, widely spaced structure of oak canopy, promoting optimal production and gathering of acorns and materials, while reducing the risk of catastrophic wildfires that might otherwise damage oak trees and woodlands (Anderson, 2007).

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Climate Change Impacts

Global Climate Change including increasing global average temperatures, melting land ice, glacial retreat, warming ocean temperatures, extreme temperature and rainfall events, and ocean acidification (National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2019). However, the extent of these changes and impacts in future years will vary on a local to regional scale, and is greatly dependent on the actions we take today as communities to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) and safeguard our natural systems and ecosystems.

Throughout time, the Earth’s climate has undergone many periods of change. Fluctuations in the Earth’s orbit have contributed to natural variations in climate that have resulted in cycles of glacial advance and glacial retreat (National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2019). However, climate records from the past millenia reveal that our global climate is changing rapidly in contrast to the Earth’s history of natural climate variations (U.S. Global Change Research Program, 2017). Changing trends in climate variables can provide evidence for climate change,

Recently updated climate models project increased temperatures for California of:

4.4 - 5.6 ºF

RCP 4.5

I N TE RM EDI AT E EMISSIO NS

ºF

// Consistent with future intensive efforts to reduce emissions

or

5.8ºF - 8.8ºF RCP 8.5

// Consistent with no future policy

HIGH E MISSIONS changes to reduce emissions

Figure 1. Projected increases in annual average maximum daily temperatures for California under RCP 4.5 (intermediate emissions) and RCP 8.5 (high emissions) scenarios by mid century (2040-2069) and late century (2070-2100) (Bedsworth et al., 2018).

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MANZANITA BAND OF THE KUMEYAAY NATION: TRIBAL RESILIENCE PROJECT

Climate Change Impacts to the Manzanita Reservation The Manzanita Reservation is located on traditional Kumeyaay lands in southeastern San Diego County, 65 miles east of San Diego, 10 miles north of the Mexican border, neighboring the Reservations of Campo and La Posta (Manzanita Band of the Kumeyaay Nation, 2013). The Reservation covers a diverse landscape of 4,580 acres (Regional Water Management Group and Regional Advisory Committee, 2019), from rolling hills, grassy valleys, and steep rocky terrain.

The Reservation lies within the Peninsular Range of north-northwest ranges, located on the Tecate Divide that separates the watersheds of Anza-Borrego and the Tijuana River to the east and west. There are many sources of water on the Reservation, including Tule Creek, springs, and seasonal streams along the Tecate Divide in which oak woodlands predominantly occur (Manzanita Band of the Kumeyaay Nation, 2013). The Reservation encompasses varying topography, including hills, valleys, and slopes, while also surrounded

by Laguna, In-Ko-Pah and Sierra Jaurez mountains.

Elevation varies across the Reservation’s diverse topography, ranging from areas of approximately 5,100 feet above mean sea level in the northwest, to 3,600 feet in the southeast, with a total of 2,300 acres (49%) of Reservation land on slopes of 5-30% and 755 acres (16%) on slopes of 30-65% (Manzanita Band of the Kumeyaay Nation, 2013). The Reservation’s land use is

“I see less water flowing in the creeks. When I was a child they flowed all year...”

- Manzanita Community Member designated for Tribal administration, community facilities, family homes, cattle grazing, oak forest, roads, conservation sites, and open space (Manzanita Band of the Kumeyaay Nation, 2013).

In general, the Reservation’s vegetation communities reflect a transition zone from montane to desert ecosystems, encompassing largely chaparral communities in addition to oak woodlands, riparian forests, and desert shrubs (Manzanita Band of the Kumeyaay Nation, 2013); (Manzanita Band of the Kumeyaay Nation, 2018). Some of the key species represented by these vegetation communities include choke cherry, elderberry, live oak, squaw tea, locoweed, and cactus. Approximately 84% of the Reservation land is Chaparral habitat, representing Granitic Northern Mixed Chaparral, Chamise Chaparral, and Semi-Desert Chaparral, respectively. Woodlands and riparian forests account for 7% of the Reservation land, including dense and open coast live oak woodlands, riparian zones of southern riparian and southern coast live

MANZANITA BAND OF THE KUMEYAAY NATION: TRIBAL RESILIENCE PROJECT

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oak riparian forest and patches of other wetland and riparian habitat (Manzanita Band of the Kumeyaay Nation, 2018). The remainder of the Reservation land is Flat-Topped Buckwheat scrub covering the rest of the Reservation (Manzanita Band of the Kumeyaay Nation, 2013).

The Manzanita Reservation is naturally prone to unique weather and climate patterns, influenced by the region’s geographic location, diverse topography, and varying micro-climates. Projections show that the region will experience enhanced variability of weather and climate patterns in the coming years as the climate continues to change, triggering more frequent and intensified extremes. Future conditions on the Manzanita Reservation will be defined by extremes, with consequent impacts for the natural and human communities that it is home to.

“My dad always told me that when he was a boy there were a lot of summer & winter storms.

So there was more water for our animals & plants.”

- Manzanita Community Member

As a result of a rapidly growing human population and other stressors, the Southern California Coast Bioregion has the largest number of endangered, threatened, and species of special concern in the nation (U.S. Geological Survey, n.d.). On-going stressors facing the region’s ecosystems could put some plants and animals at risk, threatening some species of cultural significance to the Kumeyaay people, and specifically the Manzanita Tribe. While the region’s diverse ecosystems and species have adapted to the region’s highly variable climate, precipitation regime, and local climate impacts such as increasing temperature, variability, and intensity of events, will perpetuate and accelerate existing challenges (Jennings et al., 2018). Although these species have withstood many weather and climate stressors, climate change poses new and intensified challenges that threaten their ability to adapt and survive in the years to come. Rapidly changing landscape conditions are significant, and in some cases, may permanently impact many species and ecosystems. Thus, understanding these underlying stressors and the potential future impacts for the plants and animals of the Reservation, and specifically those of cultural significance to the Tribe, is critical to ensuring the resilience of these species and to the culture of the Tribe.

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MANZANITA BAND OF THE KUMEYAAY NATION: TRIBAL RESILIENCE PROJECT

Historical Climate Variability Southern California has the most variable precipitation regime in the United States (Dettinger et al., 2011). Recording precipitation variability is important to understand how climate variability causes stress on local and cultural important species. In addition to precipitation, records of temperature, winds, humidity and clouds (solar radiation) provide additional information to understand how San Diego’s primary climate variables act synergistically or antagonistically to impact these species. For this report we examined station data near Manzanita to understand how precipitation has varied throughout the past and determine if there have been any significant changes in the precipitation trends.

We examined 19 stations that are located near Manzanita, but then decided on 4 stations based on their proximity to Manzanita, length of record, amount of missing data and still active at the time of this report.

The 4 stations are Alpine, El Centro, Campo and San Diego Brown Field. For a complete list of station information please see Table 1. Of these 4 stations, Alpine, Camp and Brown Field were the most similar based on correlations of water-year (Oct 1 – Sept 30) total precipitation with Alpine and Campo generally receiving the most amount of precipitation (Figure 2). El Centro received least with an average of 2.6 inches throughout the period of record. There is not a trend in the precipitation, though the Alpine record does show a drop in the water year precipitation in 21st century. Average water year precipitation of the most recent 20 years (1999-2019) is about half of the prior average from the prior 20 years (1978-1998). Climate division data show a similar, though not quite as large, of a difference between these time periods (http:// meteora.ucsd.edu/~iacob/pp/pp_canv.html).

Figure 2. The water-year (October 1 – Sept 30) accumulated precipitation recorded at stations near Manzanita.

MANZANITA BAND OF THE KUMEYAAY NATION: TRIBAL RESILIENCE PROJECT

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Station Name

Station ID

Lat.

Long.

Elevation Precip. Start (ft)

Precip. End

Missing Data (%) Precip

NUEVA CASAS GRANDES

MX000008184

30.37

107.95

4879

1943/01/01

2019/04/18

9.34%

LA PUERTA

MXN00002030

32.53

116.67

1574

1946/01/01

2012/10/31

5.69%

LA RUMOROSA

MXN00002031

32.53

116.03

4041

1932/01/01

2012/10/31

33.89%

EJIDO JACUME

MXN00002086

32.58

116.18

2821

1973/11/16

2012/10/31

27.40%

EL HONGO

MXN00002121

32.50

116.30

3149

1978/12/01

2012/10/31

9.96%

EL CARRIZO II

MXN00002124

32.48

116.68

984

1980/01/04

2012/10/31

4.07%

EL FLORIDO

MXN00002156

32.47

116.82

820

1988/12/01

2012/10/31

2.90%

BORREGO SPRINGS 2.4 WSW

US1CASD0014

33.22

116.39

777

2008/12/24

2020/03/12

30.83%

CHULA VISTA 6.3E

US1CASD0018

32.64

116.98

555

2008/12/25

2020/03/20

4.24%

CHULA VISTA 2.5SE

US1CASD0024

32.62

117.05

266

2009/01/07

2020/03/21

2.81%

ALPINE

USC00040136

32.84

116.78

1695

1952/10/01

2020/03/15

5.43%

CHULA VISTA

USC00041758

32.64

117.09

56

1920/01/01

2020/03/15

1.62%

EL CENTRO 2 SSW

USC00042713

32.77

115.56

-30

1932/03/01

2020/03/20

1.87%

IMPERIAL

USC00044223

32.85

115.57

-64

1925/10/01

2019/12/31

4.92%

CAMPO ASOS

USW00003164

32.63

116.47

2641

1998/04/01

2020/03/20

2.27%

SAN DIEGO BROWN FLD

USW00003178

32.57

116.98

515

1998/04/01

2020/03/20

0.20%

EL CENTRO NAF

USW00023199

32.82

115.68

-43

1945/02/01

2020/03/18

59.10%

SAN DIEGO MIRIMAR NAS

USW00093107

32.87

117.13

477

1947/07/01

2020/03/16

9.28%

IMPERIAL BEACH REAM FLD NAS

USW00093115

32.57

117.12

24

1945/06/01

2020/03/19

0%

Table 1a. The stations examined as part of the report. The last three columns detail the precipitation records at these stations.

Table 1b. Information about the temperature records at the stations listed in Table 1a.

No data for Borrego Springs 2.4 WSW, Chula Vista 6.3E, Chula Vista 2.5SE, and Alpine stations..

Station Name

Tmax End

Tmin Start

Tmin End

Missing Data (%) Temp 32.49%

LA PUERTA

32.54%

LA RUMOROSA

43.40%

EJIDO JACUME

34.66%

EL HONGO

1980/10/16

40.97%

EL CARRIZO II

1980/01/05

39.85%

EL FLORIDO

1988/12/01

46.56%

1980/10/16

CHULA VISTA

48.52%

EL CENTRO 2 SSW

41.42%

IMPERIAL

45.27%

CAMPO ASOS

1998/02/01

1998/02/01

43.80%

SAN DIEGO BROWN FLD

1997/02/01

1997/02/01

43.34%

EL CENTRO NAF

31.33%

SAN DIEGO MIRIMAR NAS

31.03%

IMPERIAL BEACH REAM FLD NAS

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TMax Start

NUEVA CASAS GRANDES

1945/04/01

2019/05/14

1945/04/01

2019/05/14

30.40%

MANZANITA BAND OF THE KUMEYAAY NATION: TRIBAL RESILIENCE PROJECT

California climate projections suggest that precipitation events will become more extreme in future (Polade et al. 2014, 2017; Gershunov et al., 2019). We examined precipitation events at these 4 stations to assess if there have been any changes (Figure 3).

There is no indication that precipitation is becoming more extreme based on these stations. The most extreme precipitation occurs between December and March with an occasional late spring and late summer event. This seasonality is true for all the stations, but the frequency and magnitude of the precipitation events vary by location.

This analysis did not look at historical temperature, however, recent studies (Diffenbaugh et al, 2015; Williams et al., 2015) have noted the important role of temperature in the 2012-2016 drought. In particular, the high minimum daily temperature (Tmin) played an important role in drying out the landscape. Continuing to monitor the precipitation and temperature are critical to understanding how climate impacts local species. Using data from nearby stations, such as was done here for precipitation, provides a long view into the variability of the region. The temperature records from these stations are not as robust in that there

Figure 3. Occurrence of storms greater than 01 in (13 mm) (circles). Circle size represents the amount of precipitation and the color represents the number of continuous days of rain. The largest events have mostly occurred between December and March, though some occurred in late summer and early fall.

MANZANITA BAND OF THE KUMEYAAY NATION: TRIBAL RESILIENCE PROJECT

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is significant missing data. However, temperature is generally less spatially variable and provides opportunities to combine several stations to develop a more localized record of temperature variability and change.

In addition, San Diego Gas & Electric has a robust weather network which could contribute to the development of a regional temperature record.

Future Climate Change The historical climate perspective provides the foundational information to understand how climate variability impacts regional species. Applying this knowledge to projections of future climate support planning and adaptation efforts to protect species from these possible changes. In an effort to understand the risk to sensitive species, we examine changes in temperature (both maximum daily temperature (Tmax) and minimum daily temperature (Tmin)), precipitation, evaporative demand (ETo) and three year drought.

Temperature will increase in the future, based on LOCA downscaled projections (Pierce et al., 2014) from 7 global climate models (GCMs). The seven models

used are shown in Figure 11. Tmax near Manzanita will increase by 4.5-11.3˚C and Tmin will increase by 4.8-9.9˚C (Figure 4) by the end of the century. The two different greenhouse gas scenarios begin to separate after 2050. Seasonally, summer and fall are projected to have the largest changes in Tmin (Figure 5) and fall is projected to have the largest changes in Tmax (Figure 6). The range of projections for Tmin is smaller relative to the range of projections for Tmax. Understanding how minimum and maximum temperature impact culturally significant species differently is important to the developing of a plan to protect these species.

Figure 4. The annual average increase in Tmax and Tmin average over the two grid cell nearest to Manzanita from LOCA (Pierce et al., 2014; Pierce et al., 2018). The shading shows the range of models under historical (black), RCP 4.5 (blue) and RCP 8.5 (red) and the line shows the ensemble mean. The historical observations in the green dashed line are based on the Livneh et al. (2015) gridded data.

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MANZANITA BAND OF THE KUMEYAAY NATION: TRIBAL RESILIENCE PROJECT

Figure 5. Projected change in 30-year average Tmin relative to the historical period of 1976-2005. The circles represent the ensemble average change, and the lower and upper bounds represent the minimum and maximum projected changes from seven GCM projections. The lighter color shows RCP4.5 and the darker color shows RCP8.5.

Figure 6. Same as for Figure 5 but for Tmax.

Precipitation changes are more variable than temperature projections and there is a lot of spread between the various models. Additionally, the difference between the two different greenhouse gas scenarios (RCP4.5 and RCP 8.5) is minimal (Figure 7). These results are largely due to the inherently variable nature of precipitation in Southern California (Deser et al., 2012). Breaking down the changes by season shows that the largest variability between the models occurs during winter (December, January, and February) and this is the only season that the ensemble shows an increase in precipitation. By the mid and especially by the end of the century, spring (March, April, May)

and fall (September, October, and November) ensemble means show a decrease in precipitation (Figure 8). This has indication for the seasonal drought and also the fire seasonal. Less precipitation in spring and fall suggests that the fire season could start earlier and extend farther into the Santa Ana Wind season, which can lead to dangerous fire weather conditions.

As mentioned previously, and not shown here, studies have shown that the most extreme precipitation events are likely to become more extreme (Polade et al. 2014, 2017; Gershunov et al., 2019). This increase in magnitude of extreme events is largely driven by atmospheric rivers (Gershunov et al., 2019).

MANZANITA BAND OF THE KUMEYAAY NATION: TRIBAL RESILIENCE PROJECT

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Figure 7. Same as for Figure 4, but for precipitation.

Figure 8. Same as for Figure 5, but for precipitation.

The severity of droughts is not solely dependent upon precipitation, but also the drying of the landscape.

Evaporative demand, the upper limit of actual evapotranspiration that could occur given unlimited surface water supply (Hobbins et al., 2017), combines at atmospheric variables to estimate the drying of the landscape. Evaporative demand increased the severity of the most recent 2012-2016 drought (Shukla et al.,

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2014; Williams et al., 2015; McEvoy et al., 2016) and also increases wildfire potential (Nauslar et al., 2019; Brown et al., 2020; McEvoy et al., 2019). Atmospheric variables used to calculate evaporative demand include temperature, specific humidity, wind speed, incoming shortwave radiation. Unlike precipitation, there is an increasing trend in evaporative demand with the greatest increase associated with a non-mitigate, or a

MANZANITA BAND OF THE KUMEYAAY NATION: TRIBAL RESILIENCE PROJECT

Figure 9. Same as for Figure 4, but for evaporative demand. Data provided by D. McEvoy.

Figure 10. Same as for Figure 5 but for evaporative demand. This change is shown a percent of the historical period.

Data provided by D. McEvoy. business as usual greenhouse gas scenario (RCP 8.5) (Figure 9). The GCMs project between an increase of approximately 10-20% by the end of the century depending on the greenhouse gas scenario. The greatest changes are projected to occur in spring followed by winter and fall. Summer is projected to experience the smallest changes and also has the smallest range between the different models. Although precipitation

is highly variable, the increase in evaporative demand indicates a likely additional stress on native species in the future. Further given the relationship between evaporative demand and fire potential, this indicates that fire potential will also increase in the future.

MANZANITA BAND OF THE KUMEYAAY NATION: TRIBAL RESILIENCE PROJECT

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In order to better understand how extreme drought will change in the future, we examined extreme, extended droughts lasting 3 years and combined both precipitation and evaporative demand using the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI). Extreme drought was considered to be the 5th percentile driest period in the historical record (19502019). Not only is drought expected to become more frequent in the future, projected continuous drought conditions for many years could present extreme stress on species (Figure 11). Some models project an increase in drought frequency and duration in the middle of the century under a reduced greenhouse gas scenario (RCP 4.5) and all project an increase under a non-mitigate greenhouse gas scenario (RCP 8.5). These extended drought projections become longer and more frequent by the end of the century.

Figure 11. Historical and future RCP 8.5 timeseries of extreme (<5th percentile relative to 1950-2019 base period) 36-month (a) SPEI under a reduction in greenhouse gases (RCP 4.5) and non reduced greenhouse gas emissions (RCP 8.5) listed by global climate model.

Individual years below the extreme threshold are represented by single red bars. Data and figure provided by D. McEvoy.

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MANZANITA BAND OF THE KUMEYAAY NATION: TRIBAL RESILIENCE PROJECT

Conclusions and Recommendations The future projections of climate around Manzanita depict a climate that is much warmer and drier.

These climate changes could potentially have severe impacts on native species. However, there is time to test different strategies to learn how to mitigate some of these impacts before the most extreme climate change happens. A critical component to this is to have long term monitoring at Manzanita. Currently the rain gauges provide useful information, but if these could be updated to include a complete meteorological station such as temperature, humidity, wind, and solar with data sent automatically to a server or the cloud would greatly expand the ability to understand how climate variability impacts native species.

Further, a station such as this, will eventually enable

the development of a longer record base on relationships to nearby stations. The addition of soil moisture monitoring would be another data point that would help to indicate the stress the plant species are experiencing by providing information about the bioavailablity of water. Additionally, a meteorological data station with a complete set of instruments would also document changes in fire potential on multiple time scales from weather to climate. Combining a robust climate monitoring data set with information about how culturally important species respond to climate variability provides the fundamental information to inform adaptive management plans of these species and the regional ecosystem as a whole.

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Climate Change Adaptation Options for Manzanita’s ‘Snyaaw The relationship between Kumeyaay people and ‘snyaaw is long standing and powerful, yet this unburdened relationship is embarking on a sequence of challenges moving into the 21st century. Temperatures and precipitation in the region are shifting at an unprecedented rate. The preferred climate of ‘snyaaw is fluctuating fast. The genetic make-up of the ‘snyaaw, that is in perfect alignment with the regional climate, may require their need to migrate or to be moved if the rate of change outweighs the pace with which a plant community can adjust. The temperature and precipitation regimes that determine ‘snyaaw’s home, may be in smaller pockets of refugia within the landscape. The changes in temperature and precipitation regimes may cause insurmountable stress for some ‘snyaaw populations, which may prove terminal. These

dramatic and fast paced changes associated with a changing climate are in and of themselves harsh on the ‘snyaaw. The challenges posed by climate change act synergistically to exacerbate existing threats.

Currently, ‘snyaaw, as a species, is already facing compounding stressors due to a myriad of factors leading to large scale decline in oak woodlands that will continue to be exacerbated by changing climatic conditions. Multiple stressors, including competition with invasive species, intensive cattle grazing, increasing fire frequency, agricultural conversions and the introduction of new pathogens (Lopez-Sanchez et al.

2014) (Blair, 1996) could have detrimental results on the species persistence in the short and long term.

Goldspotted Oak Borer (GSOB) on the Manzanita Reservation Past inventories and surveys on the Reservation note several cases of GSOB infestations on the Reservation’s ‘snyaaw, showing signs such as crown thinning, larval feeding, bark staining, adult emergence, and D-shaped holes.

In general, the Reservation’s older oak stands have faced the greatest injury and mortality from GSOB.

Photo by UCANR: Goldspotted Oak Borer

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It is also noted that while ‘snyaaw on the Manzanita reservation have not faced long periods of GSOB injury, mortality rates are projected to increase in the future (Manzanita Band of the Kumeyaay Nation, 2013).

MANZANITA BAND OF THE KUMEYAAY NATION: TRIBAL RESILIENCE PROJECT

Adapting to Change: Tribal Environmental Efforts Having experienced the natural climate and weather variations for many generations, many Tribes of California including the Kumeyaay people have also creatively adopted strategies to face the region’s variable climate, seasonal cycles, and fluctuating weather patterns. The weather varies significantly between the southern California region’s valleys, deserts, to high mountains, with erratic rainfall patterns and temperature variations from valley to valley and within seasons, resulting in known for intense periods of drought punctuated by storms and floods (Wolcott 1929), (Fritts, 1965), (Kenneally, 1965), (Shipek, 1977; 1981), (Harris, 2015). Historical climate records indicate that for over two centuries prior to the Spanish arrival, the southern California and northern Baja region experienced periods of abundant rainfall intermittent with cyclic droughts. Following the establishment of the Missions, the region experienced years of extreme drought and in response the Tribes of the region adopted cultural and biological responses to these recurring patterns of drought conditions (Shipek, 1981). In general, the cultural responses that evolved included Intertribal networks allowing for trade across the Southwest, flexibility of social structure offering access to a variety of natural resources and the seasonal shifting of practices, and experimentation of plant husbandry for food supply.

Preserving these cultural resources for the community and for future generations is of utmost importance to the Manzanita Tribe. There are a number of on-going efforts that the Tribe has developed to protect and conserve these resources. As part of these efforts, the Tribe’s Environmental Department has spearheaded several programs, projects, monitoring and management strategies. These efforts include vegetation and oak canopy surveying, wetland and grazing land assessments, invasive species and pest control, natural resource planning, watershed and forest management and restoration, and on-going climate, weather, soil, air quality and water monitoring. Past Tribal proj-

ects and reports document many of these efforts and outline future work to continue these efforts, including the 2020 Climate Change Adaptation Plan for the Manzanita Band of the Kumeyaay Nation, Wetland Restoration Plan 2018, Tribal Action Plan 2008-2020, Tribal Environmental Plan 2011, Source Water Protection Program 2009, Wellhead Protection Program 2003 and 2007, Manzanita Gold Spotted Oak Borer Management Plan 2011, Forest/Woodland Management Plan 2011, Integrated Resource Management Plan (Draft) 2013, and Wetland Assessment Report 2016 (Manzanita Band of the Kumeyaay Nation, 2016).

The Tribe has also implemented many on-going, on the ground programs, and monitoring, including two weather stations measuring environmental conditions (wind speed, pressure, intensity, and direction), water resources (water level, flow, stage, and quality, and evaporation rates), air quality components such as particulate matter of 10 micrometers or less (PM10), surveying for Goldspotted Oak Borer (GSOB - Agrilus auroguttatus), quantifying GSOB infestation, and leafy mistletoe (Phoradendron macrophyllum) removal. These resources and monitoring programs provide a basis for understanding the health of the Reservation’s ecosystems and natural resources while also helping inform on-going strategic planning and management, and commitment to the preservation of these cultural resources and landscapes (Manzanita Band of the Kumeyaay Nation, 2016). Together, these efforts on behalf of the Tribe highlight their commitment to the preservation of these cultural resources and landscapes.

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Responding to Change ‘Snyaaw Monitoring and Management on the Manzanita Reservation Recommendation 1: ‘Snyaaw Monitoring

Introduction In understanding the oak population on the Manzanita Reservation, they are dominantly understood by soil type and topographic position. Oaks favor north facing slopes and deeper drainage basin soils. With the understanding that the primary species of oaks is ‘snyaaw (Coast Live Oak - Quercus agrifolia). This species ranges from Oregon to Baja California, up to 100 miles from the Pacific Ocean. They normally prefer less sandy soils and fog, typically found below 4,000 feet. The oak population at Manzanita seems to have been thriving at the limits of its range in latitude, elevation, and climate zone. This population may have distinct characteristics of a cultivar, most likely, Quercus agrifolia var. oxyadenia. It is clear to understand, perceived at the limits of its range, why they prefer isolated drainage pockets and granite outcroppings.

The following recommendations, ideas, and opportunities are a reflection of input from our team, conversations with Tribal and western experts, and input from Manzanita staff and community members. Adoption of any of these actions is solely at the discretion of the Tribe’s leadership and staff.

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Monitoring of tree stands for health requires diligent assessments, multiple visits and data recording systems. As climate change modifies the natural range and increased human-assisted transportation of many pests and pathogens, the need for monitoring will continue to increase. Through engaging with community science monitoring programs, meeting the current monitoring needs can be more attainable (Baker et.al. 2017). Additionally, the health and vitality of oak wood stands are in particular threatened due to human activity within their ranges. Immense portions of ‘snyaaw’s range have transitioned to suburban, urban, and agricultural uses (Blair, 1996). In areas that ‘snyaaw remains they still encounter multiple stressors, including competition with non-native species, cattle grazing, increasing fire frequency, and the introduction of new pathogens (López-Sánchez et al. 2014).

“One way to protect California’s oak woodlands is to monitor the health of individual trees by looking for symptoms of stress or signs of infestations. If a significant threat is discovered early, then management practices can be implemented earlier (Lynch et al., 2014).”

MANZANITA BAND OF THE KUMEYAAY NATION: TRIBAL RESILIENCE PROJECT

Monitoring Plan Recommendation Consider a virtual design process for citizen science oak monitoring including an interactive Google Earth Pro map, survey, and data repository for the Manzanita tribe. The tool guiding the design parameters is based from the virtual tools and capabilities of Google Earth Pro. With Google Earth Pro, virtual retroactive monitoring can be conducted to build a strong data set, by using the Historical Imagery tool. High-resolution Google Earth Pro images for the Manzanita reservation date back to 2012. Lower-resolution images allow views going back to 1994. This is useful in correlating how trees on the reservation have responded in dry years, during prolonged drought that may have triggered die-back in canopies, die off of large and small trees, introduction of disease and insect infestations.

Google Earth Pro can also be used to monitor 365 days of the year from anywhere in the world.

Google Earth Image: Manzanita Reservation

Getting Started Mapping: Polygon Design After observing the oaks stands in their preferred drainage basins, it is observed that there is roughly a minimum of 100 meter distances between canopy continuity. It is observed that within these 100 meters there are geographic features differentiating stands. i.e. outcropping, topographic features, slope, aspect, etc. Differentiating stands by geographic isolation will be a key feature in designing polygons and in understanding the unique characteristics of each tree stand. Polygons will begin and end at 100 meters of discontinuity within the canopy, or what is observed on Google Earth Pro as their geographic isolation.

In cases where there appears to be a single rogue oak tree, a polygon will be created for that particular tree. The visual color scheme definition filling the polygon can be light opacity green, yellow and red.

Green, denoting healthy canopy. Yellow, observable stress flagging and one or more moralities (presence

of snags). Red, more than 10% mortality (presence of snags) and considerable stress flagging.

Then, defining the polygons using alpha numeric codification. Drawing a quadrant map in the reservation NW, NE, SW and SE. Polygons with each quadrant will be assigned numerical designation, i.e. NW-1, NW-2, etc. Polygons that are drawn within these quadrants will have those prefixes for the interim. Being well aware that the ‘snyaaw stands already have names and references within the Tribe. Their respective names or references can be updated on a needed basis.

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‘Snyaaw Monitoring Data Collection Multiple methods for monitoring can be done with a physical paper form for on-the-ground or using a smartphone application. Google Earth Pro users can directly input observations into the Google Earth Pro Monitoring Spreadsheet. The recommended Smartphone app is ArcGIS Survey 1,2,3. ArcGIS Survey 1,2,3 is an application that is recommended for its capabilities to be used on and offline in the field. Survey 1,2,3 is an easy-to-use mobile application that asks a series of questions to collect data and geospatial information from a smartphone or any other mobile device equipped with GPS. Survey 1,2,3 pin points geospatial information assisting Manzanita to achieve its objectives of geotagging the reservation’s ‘snyaaw population. The Survey 1,2,3 app captures data in realtime, providing organized information to make intervention decisions, promptly. The app has capabilities to upload images and audio files to better collect information.

We can also use images and audio files to ask survey questions.

The protocol for monitoring can be on a schedule or whenever you have the time. For on the ground monitoring there are times of year if the oaks may have more information to share. In the Spring new shoots and growth patterns contain clues to understanding the tree health. It is not entirely necessary to put off an outing waiting for the most opportune time. There is a lot to learn from the ‘snyaaw stand year round. In addition, it is fairly straightforward to create a list of recommended tools that could be used in the field by community members and/or staff such as: magnifying

loop, UC IPM1 oak disease guides, iNaturalist phone app, camera, measuring tape to record diameter at breast height (DBH), ziplock bags for collecting things for further examination, i.e. insects, excrements, galls, acorns, mushrooms, etc.

A Google Earth Pro Monitoring Sheet can be created to collect information for the Google Earth Pro moni-

Survey 1,2,3 Example for ‘Snyaaw Data Collection toring method. The Google Earth Pro Monitoring Sheet can be a supplementary data sheet. A notes section can include things such as fire history, grazing intensity, USFS reports on insect and disease presence, previous construction, or construction nearby, etc.

Partnership Opportunities Monitoring specialist Sarah Kimball Ph.D.2 from the

Center for Environmental Biology3 (CEB) provides monitoring assistance as part of the mission of CEB, which includes sharing the most recent research and strategies with land managers. Dr. Kimball offered to come out to Manzanita for any surveying days to assist. Sarah also invited the Manzanita team to join them during their oak monitoring at Irvine Ranch Conservancy during the Fall to demonstrate and discuss their monitoring techniques.

1: University of California Agriculture & Natural Resources Statewide Integrated Pest Management Program (UC IPM): http://ipm.ucanr.edu/NATURAL/index.html 2: https://skimball.bio.uci.edu/ 3: https://ceb.bio.uci.edu/

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MANZANITA BAND OF THE KUMEYAAY NATION: TRIBAL RESILIENCE PROJECT

Recommendation 2: ‘Snyaaw Stand Management Strategies to successfully manage the ‘snyaaw habitats on Manzanita can be complemented by continued participation in the USDA-Natural Resource Conservation Service’s (NRCS) Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP). A suite of NRCS Conservation Practices4 can help improve the overall health of the ‘snyaaw habitats on the Reservation including but not limited to:

Practice 381: Silvopasture Definition: Establishment and/or management of desired trees and forages on the same land unit.

Purpose:

Photo by USDA National Agroforestry Center

Provide forage, shade, and/or shelter for livestock.

Improve the productivity and health of trees/shrubs and forages. Improve water quality. Reduce erosion.

Enhance wildlife habitat. Improve biological diversity.

Improve soil quality. Increase carbon sequestration and storage. Provide for beneficial organisms and pollinators.

Practice 338: Prescribed Burning Definition: Controlled fire applied to a predetermined area.

Purpose:

Photo by Steve McKelvey, US Forest Service

Control undesirable vegetation. Prepare sites for harvesting, planting or seeding. Control plant disease.

Reduce wildfire hazards. Improve wildlife habitat.

Improve plant production quantity and/or quality.

Remove slash and debris. Enhance seed and seedling production. Facilitate distribution of grazing and browsing animals. Restore and maintain ecological sites.

4: https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/national/technical/cp/ncps/?cid=nrcs143_026849

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Practice 528: Prescribed Grazing Definition: Managing the harvest of vegetation with grazing and/ or browsing animals with the intent to achieve specific ecological, economic, and management objectives.

Purpose:

Photo by UCANR

Apply this practice as a part of a conservation management system to achieve one or more of the following: Improve or maintain desired species composition, structure and/or vigor of plant communities. Improve or maintain quantity and/or quality of forage for grazing and browsing animals’ health and productivity. Improve or maintain surface and/or subsurface water quality and/or quantity.

Improve or maintain riparian and/or watershed function.

Reduce soil erosion, and maintain or improve soil health.

Improve or maintain the quantity, quality, or connectivity of food and/or cover available for wildlife. Manage fine fuel loads to achieve desired conditions.

Practice 550: Range Planting Definition: Establishment of adapted perennial or self sustaining vegetation such as grasses, forbs, legumes, shrubs and trees.

Purpose:

Photo by US Forest Service

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Restore a plant community similar to the Ecological Site Description reference state for the site or the desired plant community. Provide or improve forages for livestock. Provide or improve forage, browse or cover for wildlife. Reduce erosion by wind and/or water.

Improve water quality and quantity. Increase carbon sequestration.

MANZANITA BAND OF THE KUMEYAAY NATION: TRIBAL RESILIENCE PROJECT

Practice 612: Tree/Shrub Establishment Definition: Establishing woody plants by planting seedlings or cuttings, by direct seeding, and/or through natural regeneration.

Purpose:

Photo by UCSB Natural Reserve System

Maintain or improve desirable plant diversity, productivity, and health by establishing woody plants.

To create or improve habitat for desired wildlife species compatible with ecological characteristics of the site. Control erosion. Improve water quality.

Reduce excess nutrients and other pollutants in runoff and groundwater. Sequester and store carbon.

Restore or maintain native plant communities.

Develop renewable energy systems. Conserve energy.

Provide for beneficial organisms and pollinators.

Partnership Opportunities The NRCS Escondido Field Office staff ’s expertise and technical assistance is available for the planning and implementation processes. Participation in the EQUIP program includes an incentive payment to the Tribe for implementing conservation practices.

The Tribe also qualifies for greater incentive payment, under the Historically Underserved rate. For developing Fuel Management and Burn plan in coordination NRCS Practice 338, Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) Fire Chief and Fuels Manager Ray Ruiz5 can produce required planning to complete the practice. To conduct prescribed burns in accordance with CAL-Fire and other agencies a Burn Boss-2 certification is required for prescribed burns. Ray Ruiz does hold this certification. Two other Tribal Burn Boss-2 card holders are: Wes Ruise Jr. (La Jolla Reservation), and Danny Manning (Greenville Rancheria). Wes Ruise Jr. and Danny Manning are great resources in developing burn plans and conducting prescribed burns.

In addition to NRCS engagement, a Tribally operated nonprofit organization, the Intertribal Agriculture Council6 (IAC) works directly with Tribes to ensure that their natural resource concerns and projects are linked to resources to achieve their objectives. Keir

Johnson-Reyes7 is the National Technical Assistance Lead and the point of contact. Keir has a working relationship with NRCS Escondido Office and plays a supporting role for Tribes participating in the NRCS programs. Kelsey Ducheneaux, the Natural Resource Director with IAC, has expertise in regenerative grazing practices and works within a national network, to work with Tribes to meet their ranching objectives.

Keir will be able to include Kelsey in Manzanita grazing planning, as well, if desired.

5: https://www.linkedin.com/in/raymond-m-ruiz-sr-372a6393 6: https://www.indianag.org/ 7: https://www.indianag.org/pacific

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Recommendation 3: ‘Snyaaw Propagation Temperature and precipitation changes are creating a challenging environment for natural recruitment of oak seedlings. Furthermore, current modeling has shown that with the increasing temperature and competition for water, natural oak recruitment will continue to decline (Davis et al. 2016). More extreme and prolonged high temperatures and increased precipitation variability predicted for this region will be further exacerbated by land management practices that directly remove trees such as firewood harvesting, agricultural conversions, and intensive year-round-grazing (McCreary, 2001). In addition, heavy vehicular use, which degrades the environment for natural recruitment for oaks is a significant concern when exacerbated by drought and high precipitation events (McCreary, 2001).

Given the set of existing and anticipated challenges facing oaks there is a strong argument for the need for a well established suite of strategies and considerations for propagation in addition to management and monitoring.

Propagation considerations to include: Breeding Cross pollination and hybridization of ‘snyaaw can capture genetic traits leading to advantages such as, hybrid vigor. The natural occurring process of cross pollination, aided and accelerated with a nursery breeding program, would bring greater understanding of the advantages of the plant genetics for Manzanita’s oaks. This would be a great contribution to Oak breeding research for the region as Manzanita’s Oaks are at the fringe of the margin of it’s range. From a genetic perspective, Manzanita’s Oaks have a high potential to capture a greater genetic diversity for it’s geographic position in the ‘snyaaw range.

“We need more grants to help the tribe protect our water sources. We also need to plant more Native plants that were around a long time ago that were used for medicine.”

- Manzanita Community Member

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MANZANITA BAND OF THE KUMEYAAY NATION: TRIBAL RESILIENCE PROJECT

Restoration

Prescribed Grazing & Silvopasture

Within degraded oak stand sites where invasive species have replaced oak woodland species, there is an opportunity to restore stands within the reservation to create a net increase to the oak habitat within the reservation. This would entail work to restore numerous oak woodland species such as forbes, grasses and shrubs to restore the broader plant community. The recommendation for this approach might start with small patches where staff can apply dispersal (seeding), environmental (burning/mowing) and biotic filters (weeding and other biotic controls) to remove or control invasive species in restoration areas and allow plants to establish. This approach to restoration could expand and reclaim Manzanita’s oak woodland habitats and would also reflect a strategy for production of acorn and other cultural significant plant materials.

“Grazing in woodlands has been debated throughout the world as grazing herbivores are considered to pose a serious threat on the biodiversity, regenerative capability of woody species and economic value of multi-purpose forests (Lempezi, 2017).” However, we recognize that there is a legacy of cattle on the reservation and have suggestions for seeking ways to maintain cattle while minimizing impact on vegetation, soil, and water. Detailed strategies for successful propagation and recruitment that are also included in NRCS Practices 528 and 381 include: avoiding grazing in summer when oak seedlings are the only green forage available (it is best to graze in winter and fall when there is plenty of green grass). Graze at a low to moderate stocking density. Plant trees more than 0.5 miles from livestock water and on slopes more than 20%. Plant trees away from known feeding and resting sites and trail corridors. Place livestock attractants (salt, supplements, rubbing posts, etc) as far away from ‘snyaaw seedlings as possible. Fence fields with ‘snyaaw seedlings or protect individual seedlings using tree shelters until they are at least 6.5 feet tall.

As an alternative to planting trees, protect existing volunteer ‘snyaaw seedlings like you would for planted seedlings (McCreary, 2005). The propagation strategy benefits both Manzanita’s oak stands and livestock production. Vehicular traffic and parking areas under trees can create soil compaction and infiltration problems for trees of all ages. Creating safe parking areas and roadways for trees can be integrated into revitalizing ‘snyaaw stand health, as well.

“Cows should only graze in certain areas. We need to plant oak trees all over the Rez.” - Manzanita Community Member

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Partnership Opportunities A key resource for developing propagation strate-

gies and support is The Intertribal Nursery Council8 (INC). The INC is a USDA Forest Service managed, tribally guided, organization for advancing the interests of native peoples involved with plant production in nurseries. Key focal points of the organization include: technology transfer and sharing, conservation education, preservation of ecological knowledge, reforestation, restoration, and nursery training. INC Director-Jeremy Pinto Ph.D.9 is apprised of threats surrounding the oak populations in southern California. Jeremy is enthused to work with Tribes in the region to develop strategies for oak resilience. Separately, a for-profit company has recently emerged in

Encinitas, CA, Ecological Artisans10. Owner Kevin Muno is rebranding his business to focus on livestock grazing plans. Their services include making grazing plans of all levels of complexity. They can either offer a set rate for a single plan or work at an hourly rate of $100/hour. This is not a formal endorsement for this for-profit business but solely an FYI for a local resource. The Greater San Diego Resource Conservation District in Lakeside, CA is also working to build resources for land managers by holding grazing workshops to share information and resources. Learn more of prescribed grazing on San Diego rangelands, at Greater San Diego Resource Conservation District11.

8: https://rngr.net/inc/intertribal-nursery-council 9: https://forest.moscowfsl.wsu.edu/people/gsde/jpinto.html 10: https://www.ecologyartisans.com/landscaping-services 11: http://rcdsandiego.org/

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Top photo by USDA Forest Service, Middle photo by USDA Forest Service/Jeremiah Pinto, Bottom photo by Tara Luna: Intertribal Nursery Council 2019 Meeting Tour

MANZANITA BAND OF THE KUMEYAAY NATION: TRIBAL RESILIENCE PROJECT

Recommendation 4: Goldspotted Oak Borer (GSOB) Interventions Goldspotted Oak Borer (GSOB), an invasive pest from southeastern Arizona was first identified in San Diego County in 2004, and has subsequently been linked to the death of thousands of oak trees over an area of 1,893 square miles. Similarly, Shot Hole Borer, an invader from Southeast Asia, has led to massive tree mortality in the region. Practices to best minimize the spread of GSOB involve stopping the movement of firewood from infected areas to non-affected areas. There are many trials for biological controls that have yet to prove effectiveness however, to date the most effective intervention is chemical. Experts recommend identifying the individuals that are significant members of the community or seem to be most vulnerable and focus chemical interventions on those individual trees. The ‘snyaaw and Black Oak are most susceptible to GSOB due to the thickness of their bark, making them an ideal host for GSOB with bark thickness of 10mm or more. Hence we can predict to see one the ‘snyaaw adaptations to be transitioning to young stands where young trees have a bark thickness, <10mm. The ‘snyaaw’s bark is only thick enough to be a GSOB host once it enters maturity, having a diameter at breast height greater than 18 inches. As GSOB continues to run its course as a newly introduced pathogen that is expanding its range as a non-native pest. The native ‘snyaaw populations are likely to adapt to stands of young trees that GSOB cannot take as host. The chemical intervention protocol would be best to focus on sentinel oaks and trees that are in maturity.

Partnership Opportunities University of California Cooperative Extension (UCCE)

Specialist, Tom Scott Ph.D.12 is an expert in developing protocols and is familiar with the GSOB in the area.

As a UCCE specialist, it is his duty to assist Manzanita with its disease abatement strategies at no additional cost. Dr. Scott is interested in being available to discuss any concerns with using prophylactics and to decide which chemical products best suit Manzanita’s specific concerns should this be a desired practice.

Photo by UCR Center for Invasive Species Research: GSOB damage 12: https://ourenvironment.berkeley.edu/people/thomas-scott

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Recommendation 5: Develop a Community Science Protocol to Monitor ‘Snyaaw Threats With this document, an approach for establishing a monitoring project for ‘snyaaw has been laid out and the next phase will be to further develop that monitoring protocol into a community led strategy to monitor long term health of ‘snyaaw, and identify the possible distribution of two of their most formidable threats in Southern California – the Gold Spotted Oak Borer (GSOB-Agrilus auroguttatus) and the Shot Hole Borer (SHB-Euwallacea sp.). These threats are exacerbated by the climatic impacts of drought and variable precipitation, as trees are unable to defend themselves against the beetles in their stressed, low-water states.

Through this monitoring protocol, understanding the full extent of the beetle’s range and which trees have been infected will assist in better managing cultural and traditional resources now and for future generations.

Photo by Akif Eskalen, UCANR: Wet staining on Coastal Live Oak from Shot Hole Borer

Partnership Opportunities Working with the US Forest Service, the San Diego Natural History Museum, Forest Health Protection, and the Climate Science Alliance, we recommend the development of a community science Gold Spotted Oak Borer and Shot Hole Borer protocol that the community can participate in and help monitor the status of ‘snyaaw on Tribal lands. Moreover, we recommend training Tribal community members for the community science component of the ‘snyaaw monitoring plan so that they might have greater investment and ownership in caring for their cultural and natural heritage.

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“I think a community wide event where residents spend several days documenting our native plant and wildlife would be a great idea.

I also believe it would be helpful to not only plant and nurture more oak trees but also other useful native plants such as Elderberry trees, Yerba Santa, etc.”

- Manzanita Community Member

MANZANITA BAND OF THE KUMEYAAY NATION: TRIBAL RESILIENCE PROJECT

Recommendation 6: Expand Tribal Community Outreach and Engagement on Climate Science and Solutions The Climate Kids13 project of the Climate Science Alli-

ance14 educates youth about climate change through science, art, and storytelling. Climate Kids Traveling Trunks provide interactive resources to teach climate science and solutions that are rooted in the community. Each trunk is regionally specific and includes Tribal perspectives and stories. In addition, the foundation of each trunk includes background information, lesson plans, power points, activities, and materials to increase climate literacy for K-12th grade youth. This program has successfully connected over 100,000 students in this region and beyond to advance understanding of climate science and solutions. The “Traveling Trunks” are housed at various “Hubs,” around the

region to increase accessibility for educators and from there checked out for use, circulating fun, interactive teaching materials within the community. There are currently trunks held at the San Diego Natural History Museum in downtown San Diego and with the Pala Band of Mission Indians in North County San Diego.

South County Tribes in the east are at a minimum two hours away from each of these points and unable to access these resources easily. Consider setting up a southern hub for these resources that can provide easier access for Manzanita and surrounding tribal communities and partners.

Photo by Climate Science Alliance: Storytelling materials included in Climate Kids Traveling Trunks 13: www.climatekids.org 14: www.climatesciencealliance.org

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Partnership Opportunities We recommend the expansion of Climate Kids outreach and climate education to Tribes by establishing a southern hub at Manzanita for use by the Southern California Tribes in the South of the San Diego area. The Climate Science Alliance is excited to partner with the Tribe to create five new traveling trunks on the topics of Climate Science and: Oceans, Pollinators, Carnivores, Atmospheric Chemistry, and Food Systems. The Manzanita Tribe will maintain the trunks and become the location to pick up/check out the trunks for other tribes. At the Manzanita Hub we propose to host three tribal climate science trainings that will be recorded for continued use and additional capacity building. By creating this hub and repository, Manzanita builds the foundation for educating the next generation on climate impacts and stewardship.

Photo by Climate Science Alliance: Climate Kids-Tribes Youth participating in a Pollinators Traveling Trunk Activity

Recommendation 7: Tribal Resilience Impact Videos & Outreach Materials To encourage education and engagement of Tribal community members and youth, we recommend the creation of “PSA” type videos that encourage Tribal community members to take the actions to create climate resilience. The videos can also be used to provide outreach to non-tribal entities to understand the leadership role Tribes are playing to address and minimize climate impacts that benefit people in our region. Condor Visual Media15, owned and operated

by Andrew James Pittman and Lisset Valencia-Pittman, is a local digital video and photo production company that specializes in connecting people and communities through digital storytelling. This is not a formal endorsement for this for-profit business but solely an FYI for a local resource. In addition, we recommend the creation of a series of informative pamphlets to help the Tribal and non-tribal community better understand climate science and solutions specific to supporting Tribal resilience activities in our region.

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Photo by Condor Visual Media: Youth at Warner Unified School District learning how to use audio equipment 15: www.condorvm.com

MANZANITA BAND OF THE KUMEYAAY NATION: TRIBAL RESILIENCE PROJECT

Conclusion The Manzanita Tribe is an example of how to thrive.

Despite the many challenges that have threatened traditional ways of life, the Tribe continues to preserve their culture, land, sovereignty, traditions, and practices of their ancestors for current and future generations.

Manzanita’s strength, exemplified in their leadership and citizens, lies in their collective resilience to climate change. Manzanita possesses a forward thinking, and proactive approach to implementing practices and adaptations to ensure the health and wellbeing of it’s Tribal community members and natural environment.

The Tribe’s Environmental Department has spearheaded several programs, projects, monitoring, and management strategies that prove that the community is vigilant to the needs of the future of the Tribe and all human and non-human life on the land. Manzanita’s citizens voiced the critical need for various actions to take place and the need for growth in key areas of Tribal infrastructure such as: waste disposal, plant

propagation facilities for restoration needs, water resource management, and grazing management. The community will continue to be a leader in adaptation for the region because Manzanita takes its lead from its greatest resource, its Tribal community members.

The strength in the community lies in their willingness to listen to their community and for the leadership, in turn, to foster and activate the people within the community. This becomes a cyclical approach that self generates and keeps solutions relevant to the region at the forefront and activated by its community members. Manzanita community-led and leadership-empowered actions are a great demonstration of land stewardship, community development and tribal resilience. Experts and all those that intend to support Manzanita’s work, need to first start with proper engagement of its tribal leaders and take the lead from the community.

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Appendix Manzanita Tribal Resilience Project: Community Survey

In Summer 2020 Chairwoman Angela Elliott Santos solicited survey responses from Manzanita community members, to better understand how climate change and extreme weather events are impacting their community. Not just the community, but the Reservation itself, the chewuw (plants) and hutt (animals), and ha (water). The community survey sought input, ideas, and guidance to help gather information to support the project and help generate solutions that are rooted in Manzanita’s history and community values.

Respondents were asked to answer the following questions, as much as they felt comfortable with, sharing their recollections about their history and their ideas about how to shape the future of their Reservation.

1. What changes are you seeing on our Reservation with the water, plants, oak trees, and animals that you are concerned about?

• I have lived here since 1996. Except for the oaks dying I have noticed no significant change in the climate.

• I see less water flowing in the creeks. When I was a child they flowed all year. Lots of oak trees dying.

• Our oak trees are dying because of that beetle. The water in the dam was super low until the good rain we had. I haven’t seen a change in the animal population and to be honest other than the oaks I don’t pay much attention to the plants.

• The streams aren’t flowing. Oak trees are dying.

• Some plants i.e. Sage, Buckwheat, seem to be taking over while others i.e. Manzanita, seem to be dying out. We need to keep open space. We need to not trash any of the rez, as that is detrimental to everything i.e. water.

• When I was younger there was a creek that ran in front of my house and it stopped running a long time ago. A lot of oaks have been dying.

• Plants dry out fast from the heat.

• Streams are drying up; more oak trees are dying. Animals are scarcer.

• I have been really concerned about our oak trees. Many more of them are starting to wither and die. So sad to see these really old trees go.

• Water, not seeing any streams running at any time of year. If there is any rain, streams run for a short time.

Oaks are dying more every year.

• I am concerned about the dam because it is one of our most beloved places on Manzanita, but the water is green and nasty, and all the fish are dying. We need a way to clean the dam and keep it flowing.

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• All the streams no longer flow. Plant’s not growing like they used to. Too many oak trees dying. Not as many animals here. No water or fresh food to eat.

• The ongoing problem with the Oak Borer. It’s leaving many trees dead, which is fuel for a fire. The plants and animals seem to be thriving in the last two years with the amount of rain.

• More dead oak trees than before (due to beetles). Creek running along Crestwood Road dried up years ago.

• I have cut down over 8 big oak trees in my yard area over last 20 years. I grieved their loss. This was due to their weakened state of 20 years of drought, then the bug-beetles moved in and finished them off. Is this the cycle of life or is our climate changes becoming very severe and dangerous now?

• The oak trees are dying. The springs are flowing this year.

• Less water. Dying oak trees.

• Water, what water, plants – no water no plants – oak trees weak and dying.

• Sick oaks, rain in June, dry.

• The oaks are slowly and continually dying. The water shortage is affecting people all over.

• One of the largest concerns would be the huge loss of oak trees. Another issue would be some streams seem to have dried up entirely.

• Water doesn’t run as much as it used to. Oak trees took a big hit from GSOB. Lots of dead trees.

2. How do you see changes in our weather, such as hotter temperatures, longer droughts and strong winds and storms, affecting our Reservation and our plants and animals?

• It seems to be hotter and no summer rains. Not as much snow as it used to. It’s always windy.

• The hotter the temperature, the drier it is, and more plants die, the wetlands dry up. The animals have to come closer to us to drink and eat.

• Later growing time in Spring.

• The oak trees are being affected by lack of rain. High winds are usually dry and are hard on the more fragile plants.

• It’s been unusually cold out considering its summer; not that I’m complaining it’s just a little strange.

• I think we have a lot of wind this year. The weather seems okay, regular, I guess.

• There have been a lot more windy days and the wind is strong. It always puts us in power outages.

• Hot summers make for long winters.

• The hotter temperatures are making it harder for the animals to find water.

• It is more difficult to care for and grow plants when it is too hot and dry. The squirrels, mice and rabbits have been chewing through hoses trying to find water and eating the plants.

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• Winds are getting stronger pushing over trees. Hotter temperatures bring more fires. Storms that we get coming in fast hit hard with rain that wash out plants.

• Hot is hotter and cold is colder and the climate changes. With increased heat and less rain, we have less groundwater for us and less surface water for animals and plants. With no water animals leave or die and plants don’t grow. Wind is nasty and never stops, forcing particulates into the air and further damaging our reservation.

• The last two years there have been more rains than past years. There is lots of overgrowth, which could lead to fuel for a big fire. This year has been cooler than past few years.

• Stronger winds and less rain are causing the plants to weaken and are unable to live in their environment.

• The animals are more desperate and try to take refuge in our homes. It’s a constant battle with mice, rats, squirrels, and new type of bugs everywhere now.

• With a long drought the plants will die and the animals will have to leave or die unless they’re strong enough to survive.

• Less water means fewer oak trees and other plants. Hotter, dryer weather will not help.

• Natural resources gone that are important to the Kumeyaay.

• Temperatures do seem hotter during summer and not always as cold during winter. Droughts seem longer.

• The hotter drier weather combined with our strong winds puts us at a much higher fire risk. It is also causing us to lose more of our plant life. Which in turn will have a devastating effect on our wildlife. I have noticed fewer deer in the last several years.

• The days are hotter than 10 years ago, 20 years ago. The seasons are not changing such as the temperature/weather, longer summers, longer winters.

3. Have these changes in our weather, affected you or your family? If yes, can you share an example?

• No, I have not noticed any significant change in our climate. Weather varies of course but our climate is always the same.

• More allergies.

• I can’t really think of a time any of these changes affected my family. Other than more dust so less time spent outside and not being able to swim at the dam.

• The heat is hard to deal with. The cold is hard to deal with. Both have remedies that pollute.

• Power outages.

• Yes, it has, the hotter summers and colder winters have had a bigger impact on growing fruits and vegetables and for other plants in the area.

• Power outages more due to high winds.

• The rain has caused an excessive number of bushes and weeds to grow.

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• Nobody likes increased heat or cold. Lack of water has caused many plant and animals to no longer be seen.

• Strong winds cause power outages. Heat causes ants and other insects to try to inhabit our home.

• Mice and rats in my attic of my house. Squirrels overtaken my area; it’s only going to get worse. A new array of bugs I have never seen before.

• As I gardener, I want to use wind protection and mulch to conserve my water supply. My well is not real • productive.

• Less rain makes more dust around.

• Water shortage – no water no food.

• The usage of electricity is higher.

• The drier weather has caused a loss of vegetation and resulted in more dust being picked up, which irritates my breathing and causes us to spend less time outdoors.

• We use more electricity during summer for fans and A/C. The storms during the winter cause flooding around and under our house.

4. Do you have ideas or suggestions for things that should be done in the future to help protect our plants, animals, and water?

• It is good we do all we can to take care of our air, water, land and resources and limit pollution. Continue to take care of our resources and land. Plant some trees maybe.

• Plant oak trees all over Rez. • Plant more indigenous species plants. Restore wetlands artificially if need be.

• Clean up the dam and protect it and the wetlands.

• Planting more trees. Be more aware of benefits of not littering. Using resources.

• People need to be educated on how they can help.

• No pesticides.

• More grants to help the tribe protect our water sources. Plant more Native plants that were around long time ago that was used for medicine.

• Hopefully, we can find a way to get rid of that beetle so that our trees can grow. Hopefully, we can find a way to keep the dam clean and it can have fish.

• Create catch ponds to collect/retain rainwater.

• Greenhouses can protect from the harsh environment and animals. Home test strips for well water.

• Conservation to help build up the area around the lake is one of the good projects.

• All toxic and non-toxic trash should be picked up and disposed of properly around tribal buildings and in tribal member’s yards.

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• Less litter around houses that could get washed into water ways. Proper disposal of toxic waste. Limited hunting.

• Seed bank for traditional and non-invasive plants and keeping a record of traditional plants and animals.

• Just keep educating our community keeping everyone together side by side in learning and being a part in change.

• I believe we should be more involved with keeping track of plants that are dying, especially oaks. We should report mistletoe infestations and have affected trees treated immediately so that it may be contained. We should have projects for reforestation on a larger scale.

5. Do you have a story or memory you would like to share about our plants, animals, and water to help us better understand how our Reservation has changed?

• We used to have a flash floods every summer. Haven’t had one in years.

• When I was a kid no oak trees were dying, the Manzanita’s were everywhere.

• I remember swimming in the dam all the time I was a kid and now I don’t think the dam is swimmable because of lack of rain.

• Creek dried up.

• Well I remember being able to swim in the dam and there were tons of fish to catch and now the dam has very few fish and it’s dirty.

• The creek by my house used to flow with water making vegetation there. Over the years it has dried up making it a ditch for weeds and loose plants to pile up making it a resting place for snakes, rodents, and other wild animals.

• My grandfather and great grandfather lived near the reservation and my mother told stories of the beautiful gardens they had with nice fall irrigation ditches.

• My dad always told me that when he was a boy there was a lot of summer and winter storms, so there was more water for our animals and plants.

• I remember more water as a kid and also more animals like deer. Dryer weather and excessive hunting by people has affected the animals and plants.

• The reservation used to be a lot greener, full oaks, shade, etc. This also affects our winged and four legged brothers and sisters (animals, bugs, critters, reptiles).

• A decade ago there were not large groups of dead oak trees. When out walking I passed several different streams and water ways which are no longer visible. I also think clearing dead and/or diseased trees would be helpful in order to monitor and spot new areas of concern. We also need to study dead trees to find out what is causing the most tree loss, such as mistletoe, beetles, and drought—that way we are better equipped to tackle the problem.

• The creek to run all year long. During the summer we would play in the water. I also remember it used to snow more often and longer, deeper snow.

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5. Is there anything else you’d like to share?

• The Manzanita Reservation is a very beautiful place and I love it here and hopefully we can take care of it the way we need to.

• Rock lined ditches along the road to slow the erosion.

• Tribal participation (tribal members) is a vital aspect of bettering the reservation’s environment. Littering of junk left in yards is an unsafe way to create homes for wild animals and can poison the ground.

• Winter will arrive in earlier and be much colder and get colder each year • Since I have been here, I have seen springs dry up with the consequence to animals and plants.

• I think hunting should be prohibited to protect our animals.

• I think a community wide event where residents spend several days documenting our native plant and wildlife would be a great idea. An example off what I mean would be the City Nature Challenge sponsored by inaturalist app. They focus on all of San Diego, but I think it would be helpful on a smaller scale for our rez. I also believe it would be helpful to not only plant and nurture more oak trees, but also other useful native plants such as Elderberry trees, Yerba Santa, etc.

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Livneh, B., Bohn, T. J., Pierce, D. W., Munoz-Arriola, F., Nijssen, B., Vose, R., Cayan, D. R.,& Brekke, L. (2015). A spatially comprehensive, hydrometeorological data set for Mexico, the U.S., and Southern Canada 1950–2013. Scientific Data 2:150042 Lempezi, Aimilia & Eleftheriadou, Alexia & Delvasi, Zacharoula & Psyllidou, Aikaterini & Korakis, Georgios & Kyriazopoulos, Apostolos. (2017). Effects of Grazing Intensity on the Regeneration of Woody Species in an Oak Woodland. Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca. 45. 597-601. 10.15835/nbha45210908.

Long, J.W., Quinn-Davidson, L., Goode, R.W., Lake, F.K., & Skinner, C.N. (2015). Restoring California Black Oak to Support Tribal Values and Wildlife. Retrieved May 18, 2020 from https://www.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/pubs/49976 López-Sánchez A, Schroeder J, Roig S, Sobral M, Dirzo R (2014) Effects of Cattle Management on Oak Regeneration in Northern Californian Mediterranean Oak Woodlands. PLOS ONE 9(8): e105472. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0105472 Lynch, S. C., & Eskalen, A. 2014. Oak woodlands disease management within the Nature Reserve of Orange County and adjacent wildlands: Resource manual. Riverside, CA: UC Riverside.

Manzanita Band of the Kumeyaay Nation. (2013). Manzanita Band of the Kumeyaay Nation Integrated Resource Management Plan (Draft). San Francisco, CA: The Center for Applied Research, Inc. Manzanita Band of the Kumeyaay Nation. (2015). Manzanita Band of the Kumeyaay Nation Wetland Assessment Report. Boulevard, CA: REC Consultants, Inc. McCreary, D. and M. George. “Managed grazing and seedling shelters enhance oak regeneration on rangelands.” California Agriculture 59 (2005): 217-222.

McCreary, D. D. (2001). Regenerating rangeland oaks in California. Oakland, CA: University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources, Communication Services.

McEvoy, D. J., Hobbins, M., Brown, T. J., VanderMolen, K., Wall, T., Huntington, J. L., & Svoboda, M. (2019). Establishing relationships between drought indices and wildfire danger outputs: a test case for the California-Nevada drought early warning system. Climate, 7(4), 52. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli7040052 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). (2019). Climate Change: How Do We Know? Global Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet. Retrieved July 9, 2019 from https://climate.nasa.gov/evidence/ Nauslar, N., Brown, T. J., McEvoy, D. J., Lareau, N. (2019). Record Setting 2018 California Wildfires [in “State of the Climate in 2018”], Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 100 (9), S195-S196, DOI: 10.1175/2019BAMSStateoftheClimate.1 Point Loma – Environmental Management of Pre-Contact Kumeyaay. (n.d.). Retrieved May 19, 2020, from https://www.kumeyaay.com/point-loma-–-environmental-management-of-pre-contact-kumeyaay.html Polade, S. D., Gershunov, A., Cayan, D.R., Dettinger, M.D. &amp; Pierce, D.W. (2017). Precipitation in a warming world: Assessing projected hydro-climate changes in California and other mediterranean climate regions. Scientific Reports 7:1–10.

Polade, S. D., Pierce, D.W., Cayan, D.R., Gershunov, A., &amp; Dettinger, M.D., (2015). The key role of dry days in changing regional climate and precipitation regimes. Scientific Reports 4:4364.

Shipek, F. C. (1981). A Native American Adaptation to Drought: The Kumeyaay as Seen in the San Diego Mission Records 17701798. Ethnohistory, 28(4), 295. doi: 10.2307/481135 Shipek, F.C. (1977). A Strategy for Change: The Luiseno of Southern California. Unpublished PhD Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Hawaii, Honolulu. Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books?id=qxghBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA159&lpg=PA159&dq=an+example+of+intensive+plant+husbandry:+the+kumeyaay+of+southern+california&source=bl&ots=UfvQ6hU5Eq&sig=ACfU3U3Ko5m2FQxcHOSx0Mrk-d9lqaYoow&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi-o6rv253pAhWHs54KHUTtD_YQ6AEwAXoECAgQAQ#v=snippet&q=kenneally%201965&f=false Shukla, S., Safeeq, M., AghaKouchak, A., Guan, K., &amp; Funk, C. (2015). Temperature impacts on the water year 2014 drought in California. Geophysical Research Letters, 42(11), 4384-4393. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL063666 U.S. Geological Survey. (n.d.). Bioregions of the Pacific U.S. Retrieved May 19, 2020, from https://www.usgs.gov/centers/werc/ science/bioregions-pacific-us?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects US Global Change Research Program. (2017). Our Changing Planet: The U.S. Global Change Research Program for Fiscal Year 2017. Retrieved September 9, 2019 from https://www.globalchange.gov/browse/reports/our-changing-planet-FY-2017 Viejas Band of Kumeyaay Indians. (n.d.). Kumeyaay History. Retrieved May 18, 2020, from http://viejasbandofkumeyaay.org/ viejas-community/kumeyaay-history/ Williams, A. P., Seager, R., Abatzoglou, J. T., Cook, B. I., Smerdon, J. E., &amp; Cook, E. R. (2015). Contribution of anthropogenic warming to California drought during 2012–2014. Geophysical Research Letters, 42(16), 6819-6828. https://doi. org/10.1002/2015GL064924 Wolcott, M.T. 1929. Pioneer notes from the diaries of Judge Benjamin Hayes. Los Angeles: Privately printed. Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books?id=qxghBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA159&lpg=PA159&dq=an+example+of+intensive+plant+husbandry:+the+kumeyaay+of+southern+california&source=bl&ots=UfvQ6hU5Eq&sig=ACfU3U3Ko5m2FQxcHOSx0Mrk-d9lqaYoow&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi-o6rv253pAhWHs54KHUTtD_YQ6AEwAXoECAgQAQ#v=snippet&q=kenneally%201965&f=false

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Tribal Resilience Project