Volume 3 - 2015 - The Brown Lady

Vol. 3 • 2015

The Brown Lady

2015

Published by:

Honors College Student Association English Club Printed by the Wm. A. Krueger School of Graphic Communications

Welcome Welcome to the 3rd edition of The Brown Lady, an academic and creative magazine that shines a bright and well-deserved spotlight on some of the best work created by Chowan University students!

I invite you to enjoy the wide variety of impressive work in this year’s issue in a number of disciplines and genres.

First, you’ll read four fantastic short stories. The first two, both written by Daniela Aguilar, explore the difficulties of relationships in honest and innovative ways. Jessica Vallejos tells a haunting story of loss and acceptance, and Janice Hopkins offers an intriguing update to the mythology surrounding the very “Brown Lady” for which this magazine is named. In our poetry section, you’ll find surprising wordplay and inventive structures in poems by Victor Chilaka and Haley Haggard. Christopher Hargrove and Beverly Kwakye create striking poems from personal loss. Janice Hopkins and Aaron Palmer utilize the past in different ways, one meditating on family members who have come before her and the other bringing the gods of Olympus into the 21st century. And Wendy Wilson explores the pain and resentment that lie behind an all-too-common insult.

Our visual art section offers a wide variety of impressive works. The beauty of nature is captured in remarkable detail by the photography of Robert Powell and Joshua Pender, while Zulay Romero provides a striking image of a beautiful Italian cathedral. Ashley Micheal offers glowing portraits of two young women, while Nfon Asuquo presents a startling and abstract digital image. In addition, you’ll find two outstanding paintings, one by Thirsala Wiggins and one by Wendy Wilson (which we’re also proud to feature on the cover of this year’s Brown Lady). Photographs also show us the beauty of handcrafted works by Thirsala Wiggins and Nard-esa King. And Nathan Parker’s academic poster presents his ecological research in visual form as well.

Stretching the diversity of the works we feature even further, Austin Munden’s original song “Mixed Up Heart” presents a soulful take on romantic heartbreak. Finally, we close this year’s impressive edition of The Brown Lady with some of the best academic work from the past year. Austin Hall explores how American attitudes about western expansion continually raised the stakes of the slavery debate and eventually led to the Civil War. Angelica Satchell searches for links between social anxiety and drinking among college students. And Jylian Wilde presents her findings from research conducted on local minnows.

On behalf of this year’s editorial board, I invite you to explore these various and remarkable works at your leisure. I hope you are as impressed as we are by the work of Chowan University’s students.

And, if you’re currently a student at Chowan, I encourage you to send us your best work to consider for next year’s Brown Lady. Enjoy…and make sure you congratulate this year’s contributors!

Dr. Tim Hayes Assistant Professor of English Chowan University

Editorial Board Nancy Altstatt Default Loan Specialist

Tim Hayes Assistant Professor of English

David Ballew Associate Professor of History

Danny Moore Professor of History

Jordan Card Religion and Mathematics

Cynthia Nicholson Associate Professor of English

Victor Chilaka English

Lauren Rodil Assistant Director for Printing Production

Carolyn Goodman Graphic Design

Jessica Vallejos English

Jennifer Groves Assistant Professor of Graphic Communications

Table of Contents Prose CD Stacks Like White Elephants by Daniela Aguilar . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8

FACEBOOK: Choose Your Own Adventure by Daniela Aguilar . . . . . . . . .

9

And the Legend Continues by Janice Hopkins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Lost by Jessica Vallejos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Poetry The Lie Inside Belief by Victor Chilaka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 4 AM by Haley Haggard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 I Would Write a Poem... by Haley Haggard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 A Goodbye by Another Name by Christopher Hargrove. . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Ancestors by Janice Hopkins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 In Grace’s Eyes by Beverly Kwakye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Lady of Faith by Aaron Palmer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 So You’re Fat by Wendy Wilson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

V isual Art CRUELTY by Nfon Asuquo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Teapot by Nard-esa King . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Love the Skin You’re In by Ashley Micheal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Gull by Joshua Pender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Birds by Robert Powell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

4

Table of Contents V isual Art Cont 'd Diversity, Habitat Association, and the Presence of Ehrlichia sp. in a Riparian Tick Community

by Nathan

Parker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Spirit of the Forest by Robert Powell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Cathedral by Zulay Romero. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 A Happy Cindy by Thirsala Wiggins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Fall Mood by Thirsala Wiggins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Harvest Totems (Peanut Stacks) 2014 [featured on cover] by Wendy Wilson . . . . 40

Music Mixed Up Heart by Austin Munden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Academic Papers American Expansion and Its Contribution to the Civil War

by Austin Hall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Drinking Motives and Booze: The Relationship Between Social Anxiety and Alcohol Consumption Among College Students

by Angelica Satchell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Effects of Handling Stress on the Immune Function of Umbra pygmaea

by Jylian Wilde. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

5

6

Prose CD Stacks Like White Elephants Daniela Aguilar..........................................................................................................8 FACEBOOK: Choose Your Own Adventure Daniela Aguilar..........................................................................................................9 And the Legend Continues Janice Hopkins.........................................................................................................12 Lost Jessica Vallejos..........................................................................................................15

7

CD Stacks Like White Elephants Daniela Aguilar

“I already told you I didn’t want it.”

She throws it on the mounting pile in the back left corner of the living room. He looks back at her from over his shoulder, and, for a moment, she meets his gaze, but then it is over, and she jerks her head forward again, busying herself over a small stack of CD’s.

“What am I supposed to do with it?”

“I don’t know. Keep it, give it to Goodwill, I don’t really care.”

He opens his mouth slightly, but the silence is too thick to permeate, so he bites his bottom lip and looks back at his laptop screen. There is only the sound of stacking CD’s and the quiet purr of the swamp cooler. She fiddles with empty CD cases, barely glancing at titles. He clicks aimlessly. Stack.

Click. Stack. Stack. Clack. Stack. Click. Clack. Click. Click. The constant whirring of the swamp cooler now like a fly in his ear. He wants to swat it away; he wants to squash it with his shoe against the wall. He speaks.

“Do you...”

She jumps, and, despite herself, laughs.

“I forgot you were there.”

He smiles.

“I was saying – do you remember where we got it from?”

She nods, slowly, deliberately, and they remember Belize. Every morning felt like the very first in creation, like the world was being born. The light would shine in, almost too bright. Birds would sing with the eagerness of a first song. The grass was dewy beneath their bare feet, as if, with each step, they unwrapped the packaging of the Earth. They ran and leapt into waves like children. They bartered for trinkets to bring back to their families, using exaggerated expressions and flamboyant hand gestures to make up for their lack of Spanish. She would lie on the beach, absolutely still, for hours, belly aimed at the sun, her face blank like a canvas. He would watch her, fixating on her tranquil expression; he wanted to memorize what she looked like when she was full with life, troubled by nothing.

He blinks and stares up, searching for her eyes. She looks into him, and he sees the moisture collected at the corners of her eyes, right where her face folds when she smiles. He searches her face, and, try as he might, he cannot find the peaceful complexion of the girl who once lay at the beach. She dries her eyes on the back of her sleeve, clears her throat, and returns to the CD’s. She speaks.

“I think you should keep it.”

“Are you sure?”

She turns, cheeks wet with tears, eyes clouded. He shrinks back.

“Yeah, maybe you and Inanna could use it.”

A stone rises in his throat. He cannot swallow.

“Shut up.”

Her face falls into her hands. He crosses the living room over to where the mobile lies on top of the pile. He yanks it up by the handle, grabs his laptop, and walks toward the door. She scrambles to her feet and follows him. He is standing in the doorway. She speaks.

“But your–“ “Keep the CD’s.”

The door swings shut in front of her, missing her nose by centimeters. She stares. Silence. There is only the sound of the swamp cooler, buzzing like a fly in her ear.

8

Facebook:

Choose Your Own Adventure

Daniela Aguilar You look at the clock, it reads “2:00 AM,” and there are three tabs open on the computer: Facebook, a Wikipedia page titled “Primordial Dwarfism,” and Twitter.

You click on the Facebook tab and type the name of your most recent ex into the search tab.

Your ex looks beautiful. Your ex looks happy. You are wrapped in a blanket with a cup of Earl Grey, the light of your computer screen and your ex’s radiant smile reflected in your eyes. You are decidedly not happy.

You click on the small “Send Message” icon beside your ex’s name.

Your fingertips act on their own accord.

“I miss you.”

Do you send the message or delete this?

Send The Message: You click send, and your stomach collides into your soft palate. There is no response. Instead, you remember cigarette smoke rings and campfires. Candles and handwritten letters stuffed into your library books and lunches. There is a soft beep emitting from the computer. You open the message.

“I miss you, too.”

You type.

“Why aren’t you out with your friends?”

Your ex types.

“What friends?”

You type.

“I almost called you yesterday.”

Your ex types.

“Why didn’t you?”

You type.

“I didn’t want to ‘bother’ you.”

Your ex types.

“Forget you.”

Your ex logs out. You curl further into the blanket draped around your shoulders and fall onto the side of your bed. You dream you are in a library. There is a shelf stacked with your favorite books; you reach upward, lifting yourself onto your toes, and pick one up. You cannot read it; someone has replaced all the words with a single handwritten note. The handwriting is loopy, delicate, and too familiar: “Forget you.”

THE END

9

Facebook: Choose Your Own Adventure Daniela Aguilar

Delete This: You lay your forefinger onto the backspace key. You click on the tab that reads “Primordial Dwarfism” and read the main article.

“Primordial dwarfism is a form of dwarfism that results in a smaller body size in all stages of life beginning from before birth. It is rare for individuals affected by primordial dwarfism to live past the age of 30.3 In the case of microcephalic osteodysplastic primordial dwarfism (MOPD) type II, there can be increased risk of vascular problems, which may cause premature death.”

When you were small, you would dream of scaling the laundry chute and riding your brother’s skateboard like it was a roller coaster. The summer you saw The Borrowers you prayed every night that you would wake up as tall as a toothpick. That summer you grew 4 inches. You have always felt small, even when you became too big for your bike and taller than your older brother.

There is a beep from your computer.

“Dude. Come out. There’s a crazy party on Melville Rd.” Do you reply to or ignore the message?

Reply To: You type.

“I can’t remember the last time I went to a party.”

That’s a lie: it was 73 days ago.

David Brecker did a keg stand and threw up out of his nose. Gregory Gibbons jumped from the third story balcony and into the shallow end of the pool, breaking his ankle. You and your ex had too much to drink and, in between curse words and tears, was, “Sometimes I don’t understand why you bother me with these things.”

Bother. Like a fly. Your chest swelled bigger than your ribs would allow. You felt too big. Your ex was sorry. It was too late.

Your computer beeps.

“Are you okay?”

Go to No. Ignore the Message: You ignore the message and close out of Facebook. You click on the Wikipedia tab and type in “Depression” on the search bar.

“Depression is a state of low mood and aversion to activity that can affect a person’s thoughts, behavior, feelings, and sense of well-being.1 Depressed people feel sad, anxious, empty, hopeless, worried, helpless, worthless, guilty, irritable, hurt, or restless.”

You are concerned that you are depressed. You open a new tab and type in: “Web MD.” In the search bar, you type in “symptoms of depression.”

You click back to the Wikipedia page.

10

Facebook: Choose Your Own Adventure

Daniela Aguilar

You click back to the Web MD page.

You click back to the Wikipedia page.

You click back to the Web MD page…

THE END No: You quickly type the word “No.” And slam the screen of your laptop in place on top of the keyboard. You glance at yourself in the mirror of your closet door. You are tall. You smile. You rip open the closet doors and grab your coat from where it lies discarded on the floor. You kick your feet into a pair of insulated boots; you haven’t been outside today, but you are pretty sure it snowed.

You bound up the stairs, and, as you tear through the front door, you call over your shoulder to no one in particular: “I’ll be back later. I think something is going on down on Melville Road.”

THE END

11

And the Legend Continues Janice Hopkins

“Are you sure you don’t want me to come keep you company?” Jeffrey asked Charlene, as she held the phone loosely against her ear with her shoulder and cheek and shuffled through the papers on her desk. “I don’t like you working there alone. It’ll be after dark before you leave.”

“I’m sure.” She laughed to herself. Jeffrey’s protective nature seemed a bit old fashioned. Half of her liked it, but the other half resented the fact he didn’t seem to think she could take care of herself.

“I’ll be fine. I’ll call security if I hear anything out of the ordinary. They’ll probably be by here when they see my lights, anyway.”

“All right, then. You take care, and call me when you get back to your dorm.”

“Will do.”

Charlene hung up the phone and started working in earnest. She’d just get the things done that had to be out by tomorrow morning and leave the rest for another day. Who knew a work-study position would be so demanding, but Dr. Richardson had said she’d get paid for the extra hours, so everything was good. She could use the money, that was for sure.

“Come in,” Charlene called, when she heard a knock on the door. Her heart picked up its pace, but it was only the janitor to empty her trash. She smiled at herself. Jeffrey had made her jumpy with all his concern.

“You going to be much longer, Miss?” Ralph asked her. Not him, too!

“Not really. Just long enough to get the things that have to be done now finished.”

“I’ll be locking up as soon as I take this trash out back, then. You be careful now, you hear?

Wouldn’t want you to have an encounter with the Brown Lady, would we?”

“The Brown Lady?” Charlene stopped what she was doing and looked up at him.

“You haven’t heard about the Brown Lady? This pretty white building with the huge columns has a long history, you know. During the Civil War, a young woman’s fiancé died in the war. I guess she didn’t have no widow’s weeds in black. Wasn’t that what they called them mourning dresses back then?

So she took to wearing brown all the time. She must have grieved in a bad way ‘cause she ended up dying herself; most said from a broken heart. Her spirit still roams these halls.”

He looked around at the walls and then back at her. “Now don’t you go getting all skeptical on me,” he said with a grin. “I see that look, but I’ve heard the woman myself. Some nights when I’m cleaning, a door will open and close with no one around. I hear noises that ain’t natural, if you know what I mean.”

“Aren’t you afraid to be here at night, then?”

He paused for a minute to consider the question. “Naw. She’s never tried to hurt anybody, far as I know. The worst thing she’s done to me is leave some dirt, grass, or twigs for me to have to clean up.

Just getting my attention, I guess. I find it in the mornings when I get here after I’ve cleaned the night before, and the place has been locked up all night. Maybe she goes out for a walk on clear nights and tracks it in.”

12

And the Legend Continues Janice Hopkins

“If she’s not dangerous, then I have nothing to fear, do I?” Charlene said with a grin.

“I figure she’d be a might scary if she ever showed herself. Some have got a glimpse of her, you know. That’s how we know she’s here and dresses in brown.”

“I’ll let you know if I see or hear anything.” Charlene tried to sound serious, but she didn’t think it came out that way.

“You do that.” Ralph did sound serious, but he waved his hand in the air as he left laughing.

Charlene stood before her desk and stretched. The tasks had taken longer than she’d anticipated, and parts of her had become stiff. She stood still for a moment to give her muscles a chance to loosen up again.

She heard a board squeak out in the hallway. She listened for a minute, but all seemed quiet. This was an old building, built before the Civil War. Old buildings squeaked and groaned.

She looked up. Ralph had left the hall lights on for her, at least. She gathered her things and walked to the door. Just as she started to flick the light switch off, she heard a shuffle that sounded close. Right outside the door would be her guess. She felt her heart start marching in double time and her throat constrict.

She turned off the light and stared at the door. If someone was moving out there, she should be able to see a shadow fall over the light coming in the cracks. Did a ghost make a shadow? She widened her eyes, trying to see through the cracks surrounding the wooden door.

After no other sound came, she let out a breath she hadn’t realized she’d been holding. Should she call security or maybe Jeffrey? She didn’t doubt that he would come.

No, it was probably just her imagination with all this talk of ghosts. There’s going to be noises in a building this old. Besides, Ralph had indicated the Brown Lady wasn’t likely to be dangerous. She smiled and shook her head. She didn’t believe in ghosts, anyway. Did she?

She took another deep breath and swung the door open. She looked all around before she stepped into the hall. She couldn’t see or hear anything abnormal.

When she’d cleared the door and turned to check the lock, she saw him. He immediately stepped from behind the door and grabbed her, slamming her against the wall. Her lips had just begun to part for a blood-curdling scream, when his hand clamped over her mouth, pushing the call for help down into her throat.

She couldn’t tell much about him. He wore a ski mask, sun goggles, and gloves. He’d even sewn a piece of cloth as a flap to cover the nose hole in the mask. His body sandwiched hers between him and the hard wall while he roughly rubbed against hers.

“Come on, pretty lady. We can do this the easy way or the hard way. I hope you’ll choose easy, because I’m not into beating on pretty ladies, and it’d be a shame to break any part of this sexy body.

If you relax and let me have my way, I’ll guarantee you’ll enjoy it.”

Charlene’s legs turned to rubber as his meaning sank in. “Pretend to cooperate,” some inner voice seemed to say. “You’ll have a better chance of getting away if you do.”

13

And the Legend Continues Janice Hopkins

She tried to nod, but her head was held against the wall too firmly. She managed to grunt a soft “uh-huh.”

“That’s my girl.” His hand loosened a bit on her mouth, but it didn’t leave. With his other one, he fumbled around her body, finally catching the top of her shirt and ripping it open. Buttons flew in all directions.

He must have decided he needed his other hand, because it left her face, but without its pressure, her legs gave way, and she crumpled to the floor. She tried to decide if there was something she could do. She didn’t think she had enough strength to make a run for it and doubted she had enough to scream now. Besides, he looked athletic and strong. Her body was betraying her, and the realization of how lifeless she’d become surprised her.

“Eager for this, I see.” He laughed as he fell to his knees beside her and began to open his pants.

“Already flat on your back.” She rolled to her side.

“Unhand her, you cad,” a female voice said from across the lobby.

His head whirled around, and he jumped to his feet. “You want some, too?” he asked, straining to see. His voice didn’t sound nearly as confident now. “I can give it to both of you.”

“Didn‘t you hear me? I said to leave her be.”

“And just what do you think you can do to stop me?” His voice sounded shaky as he took a step to the side to get a better view.

“Oh, I can stop you,” she said as she took a step from the shadows of the stairs. Charlene couldn’t see anything but old-fashioned, brown boots, because the man stood in her line of vision.

He let out a gasp and ran out the front door. Charlene got a glimpse of a woman dressed in an oldfashioned ankle-length brown dress, flaring out around her. She couldn’t see her face. It was hidden in the shadows of a matching brown bonnet.

The woman took a step toward Charlene but then backed into the shadows again.

Was she afraid to come nearer? Would Charlene be afraid if she did? Charlene sat up and leaned her back against the wall, trying to regain enough energy to stand.

“Are you harmed, Miss Charlene?” The woman knew her name.

“I’m okay.” Her voice came out squeaky. She took a deep breath and managed to get to her feet, but she still needed to lean against the wall. She pulled her shirt around her and held it in place. The rest of her clothes seemed to be okay. “T-thank you.”

The bonnet nodded. “You can get someone to help you?”

“I’ll call security.”

There was another nod, and the figure dissolved before Charlene’s eyes. The woman had been there and just instantly disappeared.

Charlene turned to go back into the office to call security. She would try to make sense out of what had happened later. And tomorrow she’d tell Ralph she’d seen his Brown Lady.

14

Lost

Jessica Vallejos I drove my son to the airport, his one duffel bag in the back and just enough clothes for a week away at his grandparents. I couldn’t take watching him stare out that window any longer. Ever since my wife passed a month ago, he’s stared out that window, thinking she’s on her way home. He’s only five and still hasn’t grasped the concept of death. We tried buying him a goldfish, but it’s still alive. My wife died too soon.

I had no choice but to put him on that airplane by himself. I could not go and face my wife’s parents, knowing she wouldn’t be there. Maybe if he stayed with them for the week, they could find a way to explain death to him.

At the airport, they assigned a flight attendant to be with him at all times to make sure he knew where he was going. She gave me her number. 749-2266, such an easy number to remember, and one I will never forget.

I watched him as we walked with her, my little boy excitedly holding her hand, his teddy bear in the other hand, gripped tight. He looked back and waved at me. I’ll never forget that little smile. I watched the plane take off and made my way back home.

An hour later, I collapsed onto my couch, emotionally and physically exhausted. Almost instantly, I fell into a deep sleep, where I was visited by what I thought was an angel. She was beautiful. Her hair was dark, and her eyes were the brightest blue.

I could see her motioning for me to come forward, and, when I did, she screamed. I jumped and heard her say, “THE PLANE HAS CRASHED.” My heart began to race as I tried to ask her where, but the words didn’t come out. She then whispered in my ear, “In the woods, right outside of town.”

And with that, she disappeared into a flash of light.

I woke up startled and sweating. I had to go to the woods. I jumped up and put my clothes on as fast as I could, my hands shaking. I began to dial the number, 749-2266, but there was no answer. It didn’t even ring. The line just went dead. So I got in my car and drove to the outskirts of town.

I must have looked crazy, walking around those woods, calling his name, when I knew he couldn’t hear me. I knew he was dead. I looked to my left and looked to my right, yet nothing but trees. I sat down and began to weep. My cry was so loud, anybody could hear. I screamed at the top of my lungs, “WHY ME?! WHAT DID I DO TO DESERVE THIS?” I started to shake and weep even more. Then I heard this voice. I couldn’t make out what it said.

Then I heard it again.

“Follow me,” said the voice.

I looked up and saw a shadow. What was I thinking? I’m just seeing things. I’m probably going crazy, yet something told me to follow it. I walked behind the shadow, through the thick forest, past the creek, to a small area of the woods. As soon as we reached the area, I began to weep once more. I saw all the plane parts from the crash.

15

Lost

Jessica Vallejos I walked up and began throwing the pieces of the plane to the side, searching for my son. There were about a hundred dead bodies, still and cold. I started going through the bodies to find my son, but he was not there. Eventually, I had gone through everything, and he was nowhere to be found.

I called 911 and told them what I found. They were at the scene less than ten minutes later. They asked me how I found it, and I lied and just said I was hiking. They told me to go home and get some rest because I had been through such a traumatic event.

As I was sitting at home, all I could think about was my son. Where could he be? I knew he was still out there. A human body didn’t just disappear. The next few days were hectic. They cleaned up the scene and said that there were no survivors.

Once they were done, I decided to go back out to search for my son. I ended up in the same area in the woods, but I couldn’t find anything. Once again, I saw the shadow. This time, it was more of a human shape. I followed it through the forest until it came to an abrupt stop. I looked, and I saw a piece of the airplane wing.

I gasped as I lifted the wing and saw my son lying there, unconscious. I put my hand up to his wrist, and he still had a pulse. I picked him up and ran, fighting the tears that were beginning to fall.

I reached the hospital in about an hour. The nurses gasped when I came in carrying him. I told them what happened, and they put him on a stretcher immediately.

I sat in the waiting room shaking, not sure what was going to happen next. I looked out the window and saw the shadow again. I was about to go outside when the doctor came to my side.

“I’m so sorry,” he whispered. “There’s nothing more I can do. He’s on life support, and it’s your choice what to do.”

I just stared at him. I felt the tears begin to fall. He helped me up, and we went into the room.

I sat beside him as the doctor gave me a few minutes with him. I put my hand on his arm and said, “I am so sorry. This is all my fault. What kind of father would do this to a child? First, I lost your mother, and now I’m going to lose you.”

I closed my eyes and began to pray silently. Once I was done, I lifted my head, because I felt an arm around my shoulder. I looked over to see the shadow. It all made sense now. I could read the shadow completely. It was my wife. She stared me in the eyes and smiled.

“It’s time,” she whispered. “He needs to be with his mother.”

I stared at her, confused. I looked at her and looked at him. She put her hand on my hand, and I could almost feel the warmness from her. I looked up, and she just nodded her head as I began to remove the life support. I heard the machine next to me and looked up as the monitor let out a last, long beep on the moment of his death.

I put my head down on the bed and began to weep. This time it was soft, but it still hurt. I felt a tap on my shoulder. I looked up and saw my wife and my son standing side by side. He looked at me and whispered, “Be strong for us, Daddy. We love you.”

He kissed my cheek, and they disappeared.

16

Poetry The Lie Inside Belief Victor Chilaka..........................................................................................................18 4 AM Haley Haggard.........................................................................................................19 I Would Write a Poem...

Haley Haggard.........................................................................................................20 A Goodbye by Another Name Christopher Hargrove..............................................................................................21 Ancestors Janice Hopkins.........................................................................................................22 In Grace’s Eyes Beverly Kwakye........................................................................................................23 Lady of Faith Aaron Palmer...........................................................................................................24 So You’re Fat Wendy Wilson.........................................................................................................25

17

The Lie Inside Belief Victor Chilaka

Believe, But give ear not unto what seems to be sound, Else you’ll be deceived Into what appears to be true, That which stands to be your reality.

For betwixt what you Believe Is surely a Lie. A man’s Belief Is the beacon to his salvation But can only yield Life When he puts his Faith before the Enmity That abides within his conscience.

Thus, he can cast aside his Being And be granted eternal Life, Which is the reward for his tempered Belief.

The moment you start to Believe In the doctrine of your brethren Is when you bid Valediction To the Ethical integrity of your mind.

Then the path you used to Live Is Inverted, leading your wandering soul To the dead end of Evil.

18

Let downfall come to the naïve Who Believed in those who claimed “For better or worse,” he said, “You meet all my needs,” she said, “A savior to our people,” they said.

The Effervescent nature of truth Refracted from the Mirror image of their Being Reveals their unruly heart, tainted of the Devil.

Remember this well now, dear friend: What lies inside your Belief Might be the Lie to end your Life.

So fail not to recognize the Evil In what you Believe, Because only then Will you truly be able to Live.

4

am

Haley Haggard 4:32 am I sit up and look around my room, only to see different shades of black, each just as lonely as the next.

I’m convinced that sleep is only for those who have never been broken, like Sleeping Beauty only needs rest because she is beautiful.

I guess that’s why I always find myself awake at this time.

4:35 am Ever since I was a child, I knew that my mind would be a scary place to visit.

It never shuts down, never quiets.

I’m sorry that I force you to live in my thoughts; I know it’s exhausting.

4:41 am The night sky is my only company.

I find peace in the fact that it has an infinite number of secrets, waiting to be discovered.

I suspect you do, too.

4:54 am I am a walking pharmacy equipped with a personality made up of pills, Trying to find a combination of chemicals that will formulate the perfect daughter.

No type of drug can meet your expectations.

I’m sorry that I’m not enough.

19

I Would Write a Poem. . .

Haley Haggard

I would write a poem… but my father always told me to get to the point, so I’ll write this list instead.

10 things you should know before falling in love with me:

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1. I don’t know why people make sadness look so appealing. From where I’m sitting, it looks like broken tracks, an exhausted engine, and a tunnel with no light at the end. Unfortunately, my train is already traveling at full speed, and the brakes stopped working when I was 7. Maybe you could show me how to fix them.

2. When I was little, my parents decided that my teeth needed fixing. They were crooked and jagged, filled with empty spaces and crevices. Although they are straight now, not even four years of braces could fix that I struggle to spit my words out through the cracks and that I stutter when they get stuck. I’m hard to understand, but I promise I will try to communicate without tripping over my sentences.

3. My older brother taught me that someone’s time and attention were something I would have to fight for.

For a long time, I thought it was easier not to be seen or heard. I am my brother’s sister, and his traits seep out of my pores more fluidly than I thought they would; I still can’t decide if I’m proud of that. I will try to learn how to share.

4. I love poetry, my dog, and making you happy.

5. My family loves loudly, the same way the thunder demands the earth know its dedication to lightning.

I am quiet. I love the same way the grass grows in the springtime, sprouting infinitely higher without ever making a sound. I hope you will be able to notice.

6. I have been trying to shrink my body since I was 15. I had a deadly notion that, if I took up less space, maybe the world wouldn’t notice as many of my mistakes. I am starting to learn that numbers look better in class than they do on a scale; I am punishing my body to fill a void in my mind. You can’t solve a mental problem with a physical solution, and the only peace of mind I’ve ever had is you. Sometimes I backtrack and starve myself until I can’t feel anything. Don’t be scared, and please don’t run away. I will always get better.

7. I have been diagnosed with ADD and anxiety with “OCD tendencies.” For a long time, I was deafened by the sound of my parents’ disappointment, so I never heard the doctor’s suggestion to take medicine.

It took 719 miles and 16 hours of distance before I could understand that taking these medications doesn’t make me “crazy.” If I start to get upset, please just let me be. I’m not asking you to fix me; I’m learning to do that myself.

8. I have a habit of owning other people’s responsibilities, something I picked up when my dad left. Size 12 shoes don’t fit the feet of a six-year-old girl, and my body was never meant to carry a family of four.

When he left, my mom began to get crushed by the weight of it all, and, although I was only four feet tall and 60 pounds, I stepped underneath to help hold it up. I will do this with you, too. Please don’t let me.

9. I am both a gypsy and a maple tree. I like to leave places before I can ever get really attached, but the roots of my heart always manage to dig deep into the ground, allowing my branches to grow long enough that they can brush away the sadness of those that surround me. Maybe one day that will make sense; I hope you’ll stay long enough to figure it out.

10. When I love, I love really hard. I can’t promise you much, but I can promise that, when you are drowning in a sea of darkness, I will be a lifeboat ready to save you. When you are excited, I’ll be your bottle of champagne. When you’re having a bad day, I’ll be your blanket, ready to wrap around you and keep you safe. I will love you.

A Goodbye by Another Name Christopher Hargrove

As your laborer, I toiled for you In ever-increasing adversity.

My heart and soul, my hammer and sickle.

Each day another crack, each day another piece lost, Until brought to their breaking point as tools, such as they are.

Was the difficulty and strife worth it?

Was such hardship rewarded with respect and praise?

Did I receive as much devotion and care as I put into my labor for you?

All that is needed is a simple look upon my worn-down hammer and blunt sickle, And the answer is clear.

Difficulty and strife were rewarded with indifference and criticism, Hardship rewarded with unreasonable expectations, And devotion and care rewarded with manipulation and deceit.

You saw me not as a man but as a slave to be cast aside, and cast me aside you did.

A betrayal by any other name is just as difficult to bear.

It is with that I finally walk away to repair my broken hammer and sickle, Far from your vast plantation of falsehoods.

But you won’t miss me, as your actions clearly state; You’ve long since found a new slave to work in my place.

And I won’t miss you, as someone worthy of my heart and soul will take your place.

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Ancestors Janice Hopkins

I am my mother and father, Struggling to pull a living From impotent red clay.

I’m my poor grandparents, Tramping the secluded Appalachians To harvest timber’s treasure.

I’m made of countless who came To North Carolina long ago— An English doctor sailing across an ocean In hopes of finding New World success, Daniel Boone ever pushing west, To have freedom from the wilderness, A scoundrel who fled to Texas And discovered oil at Spindletop, An Indian married to her Dutch soldier.

I hear whispers of countless ancestors Who blazed trails for me to follow And left visions for me to dream.

They move about me, in and out, And leave fingerprints across my brow, As they help to shape and mold.

I am a composite of them all, But the image of none.

22

In Grace's Eyes Beverly Kwakye

Fallen far from grace, in a quaint shiver he stood.

Tousled hair with an uneven smile, feelings of happiness grew vile.

The best friend who would never leave me has now reached his destiny.

Faint memories faded away, in the tears that blurred my sight.

He is no longer a sufferer but a warrior ready to make his flight.

Open arms and open wings shining from above, The Lord awaits him patiently with open arms and love.

No longer will he suffer, no longer will I cry.

With all my hope, strength, and might, I will never forget his fight.

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Lady of Faith Aaron Palmer

Hollowed hearts and scar-filled walls build a house of torment and grief.

Blackened skies and perpetual storms flood and drown life.

Memories etched on every surface, all screaming blood.

Hangman’s noose tightening offers comfort and a place to rest.

Zeus be damned for this hell, Fitting for deeper creatures than Hades.

For here in this castle prison, Cerberus lies, Charon calmly rows the River Styx, Misery grows on trees and regret wild in the fields below the hill.

Such a prison on a perch deliberately placed for the vantage of the vanquish of love.

Yet beyond the black clouds and frightened mountains, behind the lightning, the thunder, and the rain, like God’s hand calling, to push out and end this apocalypse.

Clothed in shining white, so vibrant to shield mortal eyes. Could this? Is this?

Aphrodite? Penelope? The lady of faith sent to save a sinner’s soul?

Driving with her across the great hate, godly winds sprouting roses and lilies, deer and doves.

All evil that ruled this land, cast away by a broken heart’s renewal. Broken walls and shattered chandeliers become whole again. Fountains of Cupid spring from empty wells. Steps of marble arise as her feet touch my mountain hell.

Bringer of life, Breathe into me.

24

So You're Fat Wendy Wilson

“You have such a pretty face.”

The words haunt you.

They haunt me.

Such simple words, Wrapped in a disguise, Playing as a compliment, Pity dripping from each syllable.

Such a shame.

Such a waste.

I’d rather your sticks and stones; At least the scars are pretty, Not like these Ugly twisted words, Etched on the soul, Spat with a forked tongue.

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V isual Art CRUELTY Nfon Asuquo...........................................................................................................28 Teapot Nard-esa King..........................................................................................................29 Love the Skin You’re In Ashley Micheal.........................................................................................................30 Gull Joshua Pender...........................................................................................................32 Birds Robert Powell...........................................................................................................33 Diversity, Habitat Association, and the Presence of Ehrlchia sp. in a Riparian Tick Community Nathan Parker..........................................................................................................34 Spirit of the Forest Robert Powell...........................................................................................................36 Church of Sant’Agnese, Rome, Italy Zulay Romero..........................................................................................................37 A Happy Cindy Thirsala Wiggins.......................................................................................................38 Fall Mood Thirsala Wiggins.......................................................................................................39 Harvest Totems (Peanut Stacks) 2014 Wendy Wilson.........................................................................................................40

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Cruelty Nfon Asuquo Digital • 2014

28

Teapot Nard-esa King

Little Loafer’s White Stoneware Clay • 2014

29

Love the Skin You're In Ashley Micheal

Photography • 2014

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31

Gull

Joshua Pender

Photography • 2013

32

Birds

Robert Powell

Photography • 2014

33

Diversity, Habitat Association, and the Presence Nathan Parker

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of Ehrlichia sp. in a Riparian Tick Community

35

Spirit of the Forest Robert Powell

Photography • 2012

36

Church of Sant 'Agnese, Rome, Italy Zulay Romero

Photography • 2014

37

A Happy Cindy Thirsala Wiggins

Acrylic on Canvas • 2014

38

Fall Mood Thirsala Wiggins Ceramic • 2014

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Harvest Totems (Peanut Stacks) 2014 Wendy Wilson

Oil on Canvas • 2014 Featured on the cover

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Music

Austin Munden Mixed Up Heart

The song is about living with the guilt I had after ending a relationship last spring. The majority of that summer ebbed and flowed between times in which I was happy with my choices and times that I wasn’t. The lyrics are like a letter to myself when I was feeling low. I recorded the vocals and guitar live in August of 2014 and the piano track some time afterwards. I chose to make the chords and lyrics very simple and straightforward because, at the time, it felt like what I needed to hear.

Listen to Austin Munden’s composition: www.chowan.edu/BrownLady/Music

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Academic Papers American Expansion and Its Contribution to the Civil War Austin Hall...............................................................................................................44 Drinking Motives and Booze: The Relationship Between Social Anxiety and Alcohol Consumption Among College Students Angelica Satchell......................................................................................................53 Effects of Handling Stress on the Immune Function of Umbra Pygmaea Jylian Wilde.............................................................................................................59

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American Expansion and Its Contributions to the Civil War Austin Hall The Civil War’s official hostilities began when the first shots were fired at Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1861. Long before the Civil War, however, the United States had been divided along sectional lines, and the origins of this division were based on political, economic, social, and cultural beliefs.1 The one issue that caused the largest divide amongst the people of the country was the issue of slavery. Slavery had existed in the nation since colonial times and was a thriving economic resource for many people. Despite the many slave owners, there were many more who opposed it for political, social, and even religious ideals. The issue of slavery was actually not that large of an issue in early America and was able to be dealt with by political compromise and legislation. As time went on and America started to expand, the issue of slavery became a very big issue. It eventually became such a big problem that it was no longer able to be dealt with by compromises and legislation, which then led to many hostilities in the nation between pro-slavery and anti-slavery citizens. As a result of American expansion, the slavery debate became so big of an issue that it eventually led to the start of the Civil War. When the colonization of America began, slavery was a viable economic resource for many people.

During the Revolutionary War period, slavery began to decline and seemed to be on the way to extinction. Despite its decline, it began to rise again after the war was over when the cotton culture spread throughout the South, along with large-scale cultivation of crops such as tobacco, sugar, and rice.

With this large-scale agriculture production, slavery became the main labor force behind its growth, and the work of slaves was what gave the majority of the South its wealth.2 The southern society, economy, and political organizations were all controlled by the upper class, which was composed of the wealthy elite planters and slave owners. This was true despite the fact that large-scale planters accounted for just a small portion of the southern population. The majority of the South’s population was small-scale farmers who did not own slaves or had very few of them. These small-scale farmers who owned few if any slaves made up most of the population in the South, yet they had little if any say in the social, political, and economic atmosphere of the South. In spite of their lack of control in southern society, there was no animosity from the small farmers against the wealthy elite for the control they had over them. This was mainly because they strove to become like them. The ones who did not own slaves or owned very few of them also did not hold any hatred against the elite because of the popular idea that slavery made whites the dominant race. Along with racial superiority, non-slave owners did not oppose the large, wealthy slave owners because of the fear they shared of freed slaves. The majority of the white southerners feared that, if the slaves were freed, they would act out violently against them and bring down the white race’s superiority.3 This general consensus belief that slavery was good, both from an economic and ideological perspective, created a bond between white southerners.

While the southern economy grew to being mainly based on agriculture, the North was going in a different direction. The northern society and cities had begun to grow, and farming was no longer the 1 Charles P. Roland, An American Iliad: The Story of the Civil War (Lexington, Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky, 2004), 1.

2 Roland, An American Iliad, 3.

3 Ibid., 4.

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American Expansion and Its Contributions to the Civil War Austin Hall

key economic production source.4 The region had become more industrialized, and its economy was mainly in manufacturing.5 The wealthy elite in society were composed of business and factory owners, bankers, merchants, and professional tradesmen. As the region grew more industrialized, farming began to fade away to a very small portion, and slavery was eventually abolished in the North. The North had abolished slavery for a number of reasons, including moral beliefs, economic reasons, and racial tensions. Some of the northern population believed that the institution of slavery was fundamentally wrong. They believed that slavery went against the ideas of “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness” laid out by the founding fathers and that it was morally wrong to enslave another human being.6 There were also economic reasons behind the North’s abolition of slavery. The region was mainly based on manufacturing. This new economy meant that they no longer required the use of slave labor. Along with the new manufacturing economy, the northern people began to believe in the idea of individual labor, effort, and reaping the benefits of one’s own work. With this new belief, the majority of the northern population opposed slavery because of how slave owners were not working for themselves and were reaping the benefits of the work of the slaves. They also opposed and abolished slavery because they did not want to compete with it for work.7 In the manufacturing market, people might hire slave labor, and this would allow them to undermine the wages for white workers.

Another, more popular reason the North abolished slavery was because of the same racism that was in the South. Most northern whites held racist views against African-Americans and did not see them as equals and did not want to be around them.8 More importantly, in order to make sure slavery did not affect their lives, most of the northern population had abolished slavery because they did not want the institution of slavery to expand. If expanded to other parts, slavery would continue to grow, and it would close in on their lives. With it being allowed to expand, it would never be brought to an end.

As the two regions of the nation began to grow and develop economically and socially, they began to clash over the issue of slavery. In the North, the abolition movement took shape, and they tried to expel slavery from the nation. Abolitionists pointed out the many injustices that slavery imposed on African-Americans, such as imprisonment, sexual violence, poor living conditions, and cruel treatment from their overseers.9 They used religion to show how slavery went against Christian teachings and its golden rule of “do unto others as you would have others do unto you.” They pointed out how Africans had been kidnapped from Africa and sold into slavery. They used Christian preachings to show they believed that the kidnapping of Africans went against the biblical teachings that said theft was a sin.10 For these reasons, many northern and anti-slavery citizens began to work to abolish slavery from the nation.

Southern slave owners responded to this attack against slavery and tried to bring it to an end by speaking out against the abolitionists’ claims and to justify and protect slavery. Slave owners first argued against the abolitionists by claiming that, since they had purchased the slaves as their property, it was their right to own them. They then argued how, as property, slaves should be protected by the 4 James L. Houston, Calculating the Value of the Union: Slavery, Property Rights, and the Origins of the Civil War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 15.

5 Roland, An American Iliad, 8.

6 Ibid., 4.

7 Ibid., 9.

8 Ibid.

9 Ibid., 4.

10 Houston, Calculating the Value of the Union, 16.

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American Expansion and Its Contributions to the Civil War Austin Hall

government, that their slaves could not be taken away from them, and that no individuals could have their property taken away from them without their permission.11 They then pointed out how slavery was not evil and how it was needed for society, both economically and socially. Senator James Henry Hammond wrote a speech that he delivered to the Senate to justify slavery in which he presented what is known as the “Mudsill Theory.”12 In the speech he pointed out how, in society, there will always be an upper class and a lower class and how it is the duty of the lower class to do the hard and menial labor, while the upper class works to improve and make society better. He said how this labor separation in society is needed because, without the lower class doing the hard labor, the upper class would have to do it and would not be able to do the work needed to improve and further advance society.13 He pointed out how, in the South, they found their lower class, or “mudsill,” with slave labor and how it allowed the upper class to do the work that was necessary to improve southern society.

Southern slave owners also spoke out against the accusations of the violent beatings against slaves.

They spoke of how it made no sense and was economically counterproductive to beat and hurt their source of labor and income. They needed them healthy to be able to work, and, if they caused harm, then they would only be hurting themselves. In most cases, they even pointed out how slaves were very well taken care of and had food, shelter, clothing, and very comfortable lives.14 They even used the Bible as a religious way to justify owning slaves.15 They would cite the Bible using Ephesians 6:5-8 that said, Slaves, obey your earthly masters with respect and fear, and with sincerity of heart, just as you would obey Christ. 6Obey them not only to win their favor when their eye is on you, but as slaves of Christ, doing the will of God from your heart. 7Serve wholeheartedly, as if you were serving the Lord, not people, 8because you know that the Lord will reward each one for whatever good they do, whether they are slave or free.

With both sides providing their arguments, the two regions of the nation began to dispute with one another over whether or not slavery should exist in the nation and began to divide sectionally based on the issue.

The disputes between the abolitionists in the North and the pro-slavery South were very small, and the divide between them was not that large in the early years of antebellum American society. As time went on, however, the issue of slavery grew larger and sent the nation into upheaval following the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. During the seventeenth century, France had established colonies in America and controlled a large amount of land that stretched across the country from Louisiana all the way to Montana.16 At the same time of their colonization, U.S. settlers began to move further west and settled in the Ohio and Tennessee River Valleys. These settlers relied heavily on the use of the Mississippi River and the port of New Orleans for survival and trade.17 After France had given up most of their control of these lands to Spain and Britain during the French and Indian War, they 11 Ibid., 15.

12 James Henry Hammond, The Mudsill Speech, 1858.

13 Ibid.

14 Roland, An American Iliad, 5.

15 Ibid., 9.

16 “Louisiana Purchase,” History.com, accessed April 3, 2014, http://www.history.com/topics/louisiana-purchase.

17 Ibid.

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American Expansion and Its Contributions to the Civil War Austin Hall

got it back when the new French leader, Napoleon Bonaparte, successfully led his country to gain control of the lands again in 1802. With France now back in control of the Mississippi River and New Orleans, many Americans began to fear that Napoleon would exclude and prohibit America’s use of the areas that they desperately needed use of for survival and trade.18 American politicians quickly started working to try and negotiate an American purchase of New Orleans. At this time, France was willing to sell not only New Orleans but their entire section of American territory. The purchase of this territory would be a huge benefit to America, and the U.S. government purchased the entire Louisiana territory in 1803 for $15 million.19 The Louisiana Purchase of 1803 gave the U.S. control of roughly 530,000,000 new acres of land. This tremendous amount of new land would be broken up into separate territories and, after they were populated, would be added to the Union as states. With these new territories open, westward expansion continued as thousands of people started to move out west. With this expansion occurring, a big issue was developing that once again divided the nation sectionally. This heated argument between the different sections of the Union revolved around one thing: slavery.

With the new territories being settled by Americans, the expansion westward was causing the northern and southern sections of the nation to find themselves at odds with each other over the issue of slavery and whether or not it would be allowed in these new lands. Previously, southern slave states and northern free states had maintained an equal balance in America, causing neither side to have an advantage over the other. With this new land, the previous balance came into question due to the decision if they would ban or allow slavery. Also, at this time Missouri was applying for statehood as a slave state, causing the issue of slavery in the new territories to grow even more intense.20 With the possibility of the balance between the slave and free states being turned in the favor of one side, the westward expansion caused both sides to clash over the issue, putting the nation on the verge of war.

It was clear that a decision must be made, and Congress began its work to try and solve the issue and prevent a war.

After long debates in Congress, a solution was finally developed by U.S. Senator and Speaker of the House Henry Clay, a solution that was called the Missouri Compromise of 1820.21 This piece of legislation was developed to allow Missouri to enter the Union as a slave state, while also adding Maine to the Union as a free state to uphold the balance. It also drew the border line of slavery in the new territories and the rest of western America with the use of the 36˚30’ latitude line. It said that slavery would be banned in lands above it but would be allowed below it. 22 The Missouri Compromise of 1820 was passed through Congress and solved the slavery issue and sectional divide and averted the nation from a war. Unfortunately, the slavery debate and the sectional divide rose yet again with the further expansion of the western lands.

Spain had been a dominant world power in history, but their influence and position as a world power had fallen drastically in the 1800s. With its decline, Mexico won its independence, and, when Americans saw this, they began to move further West into the Mexican territory of Texas. While U.S. citizens were settling in Texas, many of them carried their slaves with them. With them bringing 18 Ibid.

19 Ibid.

20 Scott Farris, Almost President: The Men Who Lost The Race But Changed The Nation (Connecticut: Lyons Press, 2012), 27.

21 Ibid.

22 Ibid.

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American Expansion and Its Contributions to the Civil War Austin Hall

slavery into Texas, problems between the American settlers and Mexico started to arise because Mexico had set a ban on slavery.23 The Americans who brought their slaves with them refused to free them or to leave Texas, and many of them revolted against Mexico. American forces in Texas were defeated at the small yet famous battle of the Alamo. Despite this defeat, the American forces quickly regrouped and led a strong fighting force against Mexico, and, after many hard-fought battles, they helped Texas win its independence in 1837.24 After gaining its independence, Texas was populated by more American settlers moving west. With a large and growing population, Texas then applied to the U.S. Government for annexation. Texas’s application for statehood brought the slavery debate back up as a major issue once again and put the North and South at odds because it applied to be a part of the Union as a slave state. If Texas was added as a slave state, it would upset the balance between free states and slave states that the Missouri Compromise of 1820 had kept in place. Unable to successfully keep the balance between the sections, Texas was put off from being added to the Union. However, it came back into question with the Mexican-American War that lasted from 1846-1848.

The Mexican-American War began when President James K. Polk wanted to add Texas to the Union, along with many other lands from the Oregon Country and the territory of California.25 This was not going to happen, though, because the Oregon Territory was controlled by the British, and California was controlled by Mexico. Polk wanted to take control of these areas from these countries.

He started to threaten them with attacks and basically tried to start a war with Britain and Mexico so he could take the lands from them.26 Britain caved to the threats and gave Polk and the U.S. control of the Oregon Country. Mexico, on the other hand, would not give in to Polk and maintained their control of California. To try and force them to give up the territory in 1846, Polk sent U.S. troops to the U.S./Mexican border and stationed them along the Rio Grande River between the two countries.

The border between the U.S. and Mexico was very vague, and neither side knew exactly where it was most of the time. This caused troops to sometimes cross the borders accidentally, which resulted in skirmishes between the two opposing forces. This was all a part of Polk’s plan. Polk had sent the troops there in the hopes that Mexican forces would attack them. With a physical attack from Mexico on American soldiers, he would have an excuse to push for Congress to declare war on Mexico. He could then use the war to take California by force. Sure enough, when Mexican troops killed American soldiers, Polk was able to declare war on Mexico, and the Mexican-American War began in 1846.27 The U.S. won the war relatively easily, and, at the end of the war, the two nations signed the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo. This treaty ultimately gave the U.S. control of California along with other areas. With this massive amount of new land to organize and add to the Union, people began to move westward once again and in large numbers. This expansion of people moving and settling in these new areas of the country made the nation uneasy with the slavery issue.

With the slavery issue present once again, Congress found itself in a heated debate on what decision they would make regarding slavery in these new areas. Some extreme northerners believed in enacting the Wilmot Proviso, which would federally ban slavery in all of the newly acquired land. Extreme southerners argued against this, claiming that it would be discrimination against them if slavery was 23 Michael S. Green, Politics and America in Crisis: The Coming of the Civil War (Santa Barbara, California: Praeger, 2010), xix.

24 Ibid., xx.

25 Rachel Filene Seidman, The Civil War: A History in Documents (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 33.

26 Green, Politics and America in Crisis, xxi.

27 Ibid.

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American Expansion and Its Contributions to the Civil War Austin Hall

excluded from these new lands and would be unconstitutional.28 Other members who were not in favor of the Wilmot Proviso believed in the extension of the line of the Missouri Compromise of 1820 to the Pacific coast. The remaining group of politicians got behind the ideas of Stephen A. Douglas, who proposed his idea of “popular sovereignty,” which would leave it up to the people of the land to vote to decide if they would have slavery or not.29 These different views on what decision should be made to deal with slavery in the new land further divided the sections of the country. There were even threats to break up the Union when some southern states threatened to secede if the Wilmot Proviso was enacted.30 In order to solve the issue once again and turn the nation away from war, Henry Clay stepped in and proposed the Missouri Compromise of 1850, and it was pushed through by Stephen A. Douglas.

The Missouri Compromise of 1850 contained several parts that were made to appeal to both the slave and free states. For pro-free state northerners, the compromise allowed for California to be added to the Union as a free state. This was because California would be able to become a State immediately due to its large population and it already having a state constitution that banned slavery. The compromise also banned the slave trade in Washington, D.C.31 The Missouri Compromise of 1850 also had several components of it that were made to appease the pro-slave state southerners. For them, Utah and New Mexico would be left alone and allowed to handle the slavery issue themselves with the use of “popular sovereignty” to allow them to decide its fate in their states. Additionally, Texas had its debt repudiated and was allowed to enter the Union as a slave state. The last way the compromise appeased pro-slave southern states was due to it strengthening the Fugitive slave Act by legally forcing law officials to assist with the arrest and retrieval of runaway slaves anywhere in the country.32 With both sides somewhat happy, the Missouri Compromise of 1850 temporarily solved the slavery issue and cooled the possible war tensions between the anti-slavery North and the pro-slavery South. The slavery issue remained at an armistice until presidential hopeful Stephen A. Douglas began his career as the Chairman of Territories and worked to try and further expand the nation.

Stephen A. Douglas was a member of Congress and was a devout advocate of national expansion and the settlement of all of the area between the oceans. He believed that the success of the Union rested in expanding the nation’s boundaries from coast to coast.33 He also wanted to construct a transcontinental railroad that would start in the North and go all the way to the Pacific coast. As the head of the Senate Committee of Territories in 1853, he began to push his idea of national expansion and the construction of the railroad and began to work to see them pushed through. He first proposed the construction of the railroad and then pushed for legislation to organize the remaining land of the Louisiana Purchase that had been unsettled. This land was known as the Nebraska Territory and started at the northern and western borders of Missouri and spanned all the way to the Rocky Mountains; it had remained as untouched land by settlers.34 Many politicians believed in his ideas and supported him, while others stood in his way and opposed his ideas of the railroad and territory organizations 28 Daniel Farber, Lincoln’s Constitution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), 9.

29 Roland, An American Iliad, 10.

30 Farber, Lincoln’s Constitution, 9.

31 Ibid.

32 Ibid.

33 Douglas R. Egerton, Year of Meteors: Steven Douglas, Abraham Lincoln, and The Election that Brought on the Civil War (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2010), 19.

34 Roland, An American Iliad, 17.

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American Expansion and Its Contributions to the Civil War Austin Hall

and worked to block them.

It was mainly northern politicians who supported Douglas’s proposals, and mostly southerners who opposed them. Southerners continuously blocked his proposal to organize the Nebraska Territory because they wanted to stop the northern railroad from being built in order to enhance the southern one that was about to be constructed. They also continuously blocked his proposal of the organization of the Nebraska Territory to prevent the Wilmot Proviso from being enacted that would ultimately ban the possibility of slavery existing there. Finally, their view on slavery was becoming more extreme, and they were demanding more guarantees for their right to own slaves and to be able to take them with them wherever they went. Northerners at this same time were growing more upset with southerners because of how their beliefs and demands for slavery were blocking the expansion of the U.S. and its railroad.35 This time period was one of great turmoil and anxiety in both the nation and in the government. The issue of slavery had now become a tremendous problem because it was hindering the spread of the nation and was dividing it further apart. Seeing how slavery was the big issue that it was and its effects on the nation, Douglas knew that, if he was going to move forward with his plans, he was going to have to gain southern support.

In order for his plans and work of American expansion to take place, Douglas needed to get southern approval for them. Since the issue of slavery was the cause of their disapproval, Douglas thought that the best way to gain their support was to take the slavery debate out of Congress’s hands and give it to the people. He thus developed and proposed to Congress his Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854. This act would take the Nebraska Territory and split it into two separate territories, one Nebraska and the other Kansas, and then both would be settled.36 In order to solve the slavery debate, the act left it up to the inhabitants to make the decision based on his idea of popular sovereignty that said they would vote if they would have slavery or not, and the majority decision would stand.37 To Douglas, this was a Democratic solution, and he believed that taking it out of the hands of Congress would solve the question of slavery by appealing to both sides.38 Douglas believed that popular sovereignty would appeal to the South because it would somewhat guarantee them protection to own slaves. By letting the people vote, all they had to do was get enough people to vote to allow slavery in the land, and it would guarantee their right to have slaves. He also imagined that it would appeal to the South because their power in Congress had slowly been falling, and taking the debate out of Congress and putting it in their hands would give them some power again. It also seemed to meet the South’s needs by making slave holders feel equal in power to the non-slave holders of the North.39 Douglas believed it would appeal to the North because he knew that this would actually limit the expansion of slavery, which was what they wanted. He knew that the land in Kansas and Nebraska was not suitable for large-scale agriculture and farming, so most of the slave owners in the South would not be willing to risk a move there because it had unproductive land. Douglas thus believed that both Kansas and Nebraska would actually become free states.40 He introduced his bill in January of 1854, and it came up for debate in Congress. Meanwhile, 35 Farris, Almost President, 57.

36 Ibid., 56.

37 Ibid., 57.

38 Ibid.

39 Ibid., 56.

40 Ibid.

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American Expansion and Its Contributions to the Civil War Austin Hall the southern and northern societies were getting news of his proposed bill, and, unlike his hopes of appealing to both sides, it outraged them both. The southerners were highly upset at the act because it did not, in fact, guarantee them protection to hold slaves at all. They concluded that the larger population of the North would provide them with more people who were willing to move to Kansas and Nebraska and settle there. This would give the anti-slavery North more votes in the Senate that would outnumber the pro-slavery South, and thus Kansas and Nebraska would not have slavery.41 They believed that, by Kansas and Nebraska becoming free States, the North would then have control in Congress and eventually would work to outlaw slavery in all the states.42 The northerners, on the other hand, saw Douglas as a pawn who was working for only the southerners. They believed this because the act completely repealed the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 that banned slavery east of the Mississippi River and the Missouri Compromise of 1820 that expelled slavery north of the 36˚30’ latitude line.43 By repealing these previous legislative actions, this act was making previously declared “free” lands open to the possibility of slavery, and it outraged northerners. They also believed that, with this act, Douglas was working to help promote southern progress more than the entire nation’s. By allowing for popular sovereignty, northerners believed Douglas was working for the South because, by allowing slavery to expand further, it would result in the growth of southern political and economic power over the North. As an overall response, northerners believed that this act was made to benefit the South more and not the entire Union, and they despised Douglas for it.44 Neither the North nor the South liked the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 or the idea of popular sovereignty. Both sides believed that it benefited their opposition more, and it only made the sectional divide grow worse. Despite such broad opposition, after three months of debate and deliberations in Congress, the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 was passed on May 22, 1854.45 As it became law, the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 marked the start of a gigantic westward migration of pro-slavery and anti-slavery citizens in order to make these lands become either free or slave. Abolitionist groups urged northern abolitionists to move to these lands to ban slavery in them, and they began to form many organizations to help their cause in the territories.46 One of the most famous abolitionist organizations was the Emigrant Aid Company of New England. This organization raised money and sent it as aid to the anti-slavery emigrants in the territories. On the other side, southern pro-slavery advocates also began to move west to try and settle the lands in order to make sure slavery was allowed there. When the voting process over whether slavery would be allowed in the territories came, most of the pro-slavery voters were actually citizens of Missouri who simply crossed the border to vote to make sure that slavery would be allowed in Kansas.47 As large numbers of both anti-slavery and pro-slavery settlers began to move into Kansas and Nebraska, a large amount of violence erupted.

It lasted for several years and caused that violent time period to be known as “Bleeding Kansas.” The violence between the anti-slavery and pro-slavery forces in Kansas and Nebraska can be seen as the actual first hostilities of the Civil War. 41 Ibid., 58.

42 Ibid.

43 Ibid.

44 Roy F. Nichols, “The Kansas-Nebraska Act: A Century of Historiography,” The Mississippi Valley Historical Review 43, no. 2 (September 1956): 189.

45 Green, Politics and America in Crisis, 70.

46 Seidman, The Civil War, 41.

47 Ibid., 43.

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American Expansion and Its Contributions to the Civil War Austin Hall

Roughly seven years after the passing of the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, the first actual shots of the Civil War rang out in Charleston, South Carolina, between Confederate and Union forces. There are many reasons why the North and the South fought a war against each other. The one thing that most Americans agree on is that it was fought over the issue of slavery. Slavery started out as a minor issue in the nation between the two sides during the colonization of the east coast of America. The issue of slavery only became a big issue with America’s growth and expansion to more areas of the nation. As America expanded and grew, the slave issue grew with it. The debate of whether or not slavery would extend to these new areas was dealt with by political compromises and legislation like the Missouri Compromises of 1820 and 1850. As the Union continued to expand to a larger area, though, the issue became so big that political compromises were no longer possible. Unable to defuse the situation between pro-slavery and anti-slavery Americans, hostilities eventually broke out between the two sides.

Therefore, it can be argued that America’s expansion was one clear cause of the Civil War, as the slavery issue and the tensions it caused between the North and the South grew so heated that only war could settle the dispute.

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Drinking Motives and Booze: The Relationship Between Social Anxiety and Alcohol Consumption Among College Students Angelica Satchell Research has shown that a variety of college students consume alcohol and many students experience problems in relation to their use of alcohol. In addition, research has shown that students who experience social anxiety are at higher risk for experiencing alcohol-related problems (Schry & White, 2013). According to Ham and Hope (2006), college students are unique in regards to drinking and social anxiety. College problem drinking is a major public health concern because of the negative consequences. (College students experience different social situations.) In addition, college students may drink, depending on the situation, to reduce social anxiety. Furthermore, multiple college students that are socially anxious expose themselves less to social situations to avoid fearful outcomes.

Social Anxiety and Alcohol Use Among College Students Various studies on college students have shown that social anxiety is correlated with alcohol use.

Research shows that the occurrence of this issue may be increasing among college students, along with more advertisement of social drinking. In a study of 118 psychology students done by Norberg, Norton, and Oliver (2009), participants experienced some social anxiety. The participants were from an Australian university. The researchers measured the lack of consistency in social anxiety and drinking among college students. The results suggest that improving methodology can enhance the understanding of the correlation between social anxiety and drinking. In addition, Norberg et al.’s results showed that women who are socially anxious are more likely to have problems with alcohol compared to men who are socially anxious. Furthermore, the researchers explained how socially anxious women may experience higher rates of alcohol-related issues compared to socially anxious men. This finding may be due to men tending to avoid social activities that involve alcohol more than women. In addition, women tend to drink more than men when consuming alcohol if they are at a social event that has alcohol. These results suggest that previous research about drinking to cope may follow a set of principal differences, failing to consult gender.

In comparison, Stewart, Morris, Mellings, and Komar (2006) examined the relationship between social anxiety and multiple drinking motives. This study was designed for the purposes of understanding the relationship between levels of social anxiety and drinking variables. The study consisted of 157 non-clinical undergraduate drinkers (71% were women). The average age of drinkers was about 21. Researchers measured these variables using The Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale (FNE-B), The Social Avoidance and Distress Scale (SADS), The Drinking Motives Questionnaire Revised (DMQ-R), The Rutgers Alcohol Problem Index (RAPI), and a demographic questionnaire.

Additionally, researchers examined social anxiety (i.e., social anxiety and distress vs. fear of negative evaluation) and drinking behavior (i.e., drinking quantity, drinking frequency, and alcohol problems).

Results showed that fear of negative evaluation was significantly correlated with drinking problems.

Only for social avoidance and distress, social anxiety was negatively correlated with drinking frequency.

Results showed that undergraduate problem drinkers scored higher on the Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale and Social Avoidance and Distress Scale compared to the non-problem drinkers. Other results 53

Drinking Motives and Booze: The Relationship Between Social Anxiety and Alcohol Consumption Among College Students Angelica Satchell

showed that “social avoidance and distress was inversely related to drinking frequency� (p. 678). This finding may be expected because some socially anxious individuals consume less alcohol because they are concerned about negative social situations. Also, since they are avoiding social situations, they evade social opportunities where alcohol is consumed. There was a significant correlation between coping and conformity-motivated drinking with Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale and Social Avoidance and Distress Scale. Overall, this study focused on the specific aspects of social anxiety related to specific drinking variables.

In a similar study, Ham, Zamboanga, Bacon, and Garcia (2009) predicted that negatively reinforcing reasons for drinking would mediate the relationship between social anxiety and hazardous drinking (quantity, consequences, and symptoms of dependence). The study included undergraduates from a university in the southeastern U.S. and measured social anxiety, hazardous drinking and drinking motives. Researchers found that social anxiety was positively correlated with coping, conformity, enhancement, and social motives. In comparison, for men only, all but enhancement and conformity motives had a positive correlation to social anxiety. Even though all the drinking motives were correlated with social anxiety, negative reinforcements (coping and conformity) were stronger predictors compared to the positive reinforcements (social and enhancement). The conformity motives and the positive reinforcement (social and enhancement) motives did not mediate the association between social anxiety and hazardous drinking. Additionally, as social anxiety levels increased, negative reinforcement (coping) became more associated with hazardous drinking. Furthermore, negative reinforcement (conformity) did not mediate the relationship between social anxiety and hazardous drinking.

Additionally, research done by Ham and Hope (2006) examined a model of college students with problem drinking, including social anxiety and psychosocial variables. They studied whether social anxiety is negatively related to drinking. This study also examined if drinking norms, expectancies, and valuations served as links between social anxiety and drinking frequency among college students.

The 228 participants were undergraduate psychology students who did not attend the campus alcohol intervention program (ASTP). Of the 228 participants, 39.5% were women and 60.5% were men with the average age being 19. The study measured social anxiety using the Interaction Anxious Scale and Social Phobia Anxiety Inventory. Other scales that were used are The Rutgers Alcohol Problem Index, The Alcohol Use Questionnaire, The Comprehensive Effects of Alcohol questionnaire, and a demographic questionnaire. Positive expectancies were positively correlated with more frequent drinking. On the other hand, negative expectancies were negatively correlated with the drinking variables (i.e., perceived drinking norms, positive expectancies, social anxiety, weekly alcohol consumption, valuations, alcohol-related problems, religious involvement, gender). However, there was a negative relationship between religious involvements and drinking variables (perceived drinking norms, positive expectancies, social anxiety, weekly alcohol consumption, valuations, alcohol-related problems, negative expectancies, gender). The relationship between perceived drinking norms and drinking and alcohol-related problems was seen as the most prominent. Positive expectancies were related to problem drinking, but perceived drinking norms had a stronger relationship towards college problem drinking. Overall, results suggest problem drinking amongst college students is an important variable for further study.

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Drinking Motives and Booze: The Relationship Between Social Anxiety and Alcohol Consumption Among College Students Angelica Satchell

Present Study A variety of college students consume alcohol. There have been multiple studies on college students focusing on the topic of social anxiety and alcohol consumption. Studies show inconsistent results. Overall, research on college students has shown that social anxiety and alcohol are significantly correlated. The present study examined the relationship between social anxiety and alcohol among college students. Hypothesis (1) stated that social anxiety would be associated with the amount of alcohol consumed. It was predicted that women high in social anxiety consumed more alcohol than men high in social anxiety. It was expected that social anxiety was negatively correlated with the amount of drinking. Hypothesis (2) stated that drinking motives (social, coping, enhancement, and conformity) would be associated with social anxiety. The participants included in the present study were a distribution of undergraduate students from Chowan University. A questionnaire was given to a variety of college students.

Method Participants The sample in this study consisted of a convenience sample of Chowan University undergraduate students (N = 136). There were 56 males and 75 female participants who ranged in age from 18 to 68 (M = 20.75, SD = 5.46). The sample was 62.5% African American, 25.7% Caucasian, non-Hispanic, 2.2% Mexican/Hispanic American, 2.2% Multicultural, and 3.7% other ethnicities. No incentives were given. This research was approved by the IRB and followed APA guidelines.

Materials Social Anxiety. The survey may be found in the Appendix. To assess social anxiety among college students, items were taken from the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS). The responses range from 0-4, with 0 being not at all characteristic or true of me and 4 being extremely characteristic or true of me. Some sample questions include “I have difficulty making eye contact with others,” “I become tense if I have to talk about myself or my feelings,” and “When mixing in a group, I find myself worrying I will be ignored.” Eggleston, Woolaway-Bickel, and Schmidt (2003) and Terlecki, Buckner, Larimer, and Copeland (2012) found the Social Anxiety and Alcohol Use: Evaluation of the Moderating and Mediating Effects of Alcohol Expectancies to be reliable and valid.

Alcohol Use. Furthermore, to assess alcohol use among college students, The Drinking Motives Questionnaire-Revised (DMQR) was applied (Cooper, Russell, Skinner, & Windle, 1992; Cooper, 1994). This scale measures four primary characteristics (motives), which reflect different motives for drinking: social (e.g., because it helps you enjoy a party), coping (e.g., to forget your worries), enhancement (e.g., because you like the feeling), and conformity (e.g., so you won’t feel left out). This scale is measured on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (almost never/never) to 5 (almost always/ always). Cooper (1994) found the DMQR to be valid and reliable.

Two questions were asked pertaining to whether participants consumed alcohol and the amount of alcohol that was consumed in a typical week during the past three months. A sample question was 55

Drinking Motives and Booze: The Relationship Between Social Anxiety and Alcohol Consumption Among College Students Angelica Satchell

“Did you consume any alcoholic beverages (beer, wine, liquor) in the past three months?” with the participant marking Yes or No. Another question was “How many alcoholic beverages (beer, wine, liquor) did you consume in a typical week during the past three months?” Participants answered the question by writing the average number of alcoholic beverages they consumed under each day of the week.

Results A 2 x 2 Factorial ANOVA was used to determine the interaction between gender and social anxiety on the amount of alcohol consumption. The proposed method tested for differences in levels of social anxiety and alcohol consumption for women and men. The cut-off value for high social anxiety for the original SIAS had to be modified. One person was considered high in social anxiety. To make the new cut-off, which was made to test the interaction and main effects, “no/almost no” social anxiety were the participants that scored between 0 and 0.99 on average. Participants who were considered “slight/higher” social anxiety had an average score of one or higher. Women who scored on average “no/almost no” social anxiety and “slight/higher” social anxiety did not differ significantly from men who scored on average “no/almost no” social anxiety and “slight/higher” social anxiety. There was no significant interaction between gender and social anxiety (F(.29) = .67, p = .74) on the amount of alcohol consumption. In addition, there was no significant gender difference (F(1.29) = 2.96 , p = .27) or social anxiety difference (F(.26) = .60 , p = .61) in the amount of alcohol consumption.

To determine the relationship between drinking motives (social, coping, enhancement, and conformity) and social anxiety, Pearson Correlations were used. Due to errors, two questions had to be taken from the questionnaire: “To celebrate a special occasion” and “To forget about your problems.”

This statistical analysis was used for reported drinkers only. There was a significant positive correlation between social anxiety and the coping (r(.212), p = .034) and conformity (r(.211), p = .035) motives.

There was no correlation between the social (r(-.06), p = .49) and enhancement (r(.04), p = .64) motives and social anxiety.

Discussion The present study contributes to the expanding body of literature examining the relationship between social anxiety and alcohol consumption among college students. The present study included two hypotheses. It was hypothesized that there would be an interaction between gender and social anxiety on the amount of alcohol consumed. It was expected that women high in social anxiety would consume more alcohol than men high in social anxiety. No support was found for the hypothesis.

Among the students who reported consuming alcohol, hypothesis (2) stated that all the drinking motives (social, coping, enhancement, and conformity) would be positively correlated with social anxiety. Partial support was found for this hypothesis.

Previous research has shown that men who have high social anxiety consume less alcohol than women who have high social anxiety (e.g., Norberg et al., 2009). For low to moderate social anxiety levels, men drank significantly more alcohol than women. Students high in social anxiety reported drinking less frequently compared to students who reported low to moderate levels of social anxiety. In 56

Drinking Motives and Booze: The Relationship Between Social Anxiety and Alcohol Consumption Among College Students Angelica Satchell

contrast to previous research, the present study did not support these findings. Specifically, there was no significant interaction between gender and social anxiety on the amount of alcohol consumption.

Also, there was no significant gender or social anxiety difference in the amount of alcohol consumption.

Women, overall, did not differ from men in drinking.

Additionally, previous research found that social anxiety was positively correlated to all four drinking motives (social, coping, enhancement, and conformity) (e.g., Ham et al., 2009). For men only, there was a positive correlation between social anxiety and social and coping motives but a negative correlation between social anxiety and enhancement and conformity motives. The present study found that there was a significant positive correlation between social anxiety and coping and conformity motives, but no correlation between social anxiety and social and enhancement motives.

The results of this study did not show support that there was an interaction between gender and social anxiety on the amount of alcohol consumed. It is plausible that the reported sample did not have high social anxiety. Also, it is possible that levels of social anxiety do not determine the amount of alcohol that a student consumes. Perhaps some students like being around other students to socialize, and their levels of social anxiety, if any, do not matter whether or not they drink.

The results showed partial support for the correlation between social anxiety and drinking motives (social, coping, enhancement, and conformity). There was a significant positive correlation between social anxiety and the coping and conformity motives. There was no correlation between social anxiety and the social and enhancement motives. These findings are inconsistent with previous research. The findings of the present study suggest that students’ drinking increases when they are trying to cope and conform, also known as negative reinforcements (Ham et al., 2009) with their peers. Perhaps students feel more comfortable consuming more alcohol when they feel that they are not relating to their peers or when it comes to how they feel about themselves.

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Drinking Motives and Booze: The Relationship Between Social Anxiety and Alcohol Consumption Among College Students Angelica Satchell

References Buckner, J. D., Schmidt, N. B., & Eggleston, A. (2006). Social anxiety and problematic alcohol consumption: The mediating role of drinking motives and situations. Behavior Therapy, 37(4), 381-391. doi:10.1016/j.beth.2006.02.007 Cooper, M. (1994). Motivations for alcohol use among adolescents: Development and validation of a four-factor model. Psychological Assessment, 6(2), 117-128. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.6.2.117 Cooper, M., Russell, M., Skinner, J. B., & Windle, M. (1992). Development and validation of a three-dimensional measure of drinking motives. Psychological Assessment, 4(2), 123-132. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.4.2.123 Eggleston, A., Woolaway-Bickel, K., & Schmidt, N. B. (2004). Social anxiety and alcohol use: Evaluation of the moderating and mediating effects of alcohol expectancies. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 18(1), 33-49. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2003.07.005 Ham, L. S., & Hope, D. A. (2006). Incorporating social anxiety into a model of college problem drinking: Replication and extension. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 20(3), 348-355. doi:10.1037/0893-164X.20.3.348 Ham, L. S., Zamboanga, B. L., Bacon, A. K., & Garcia, T. A. (2009). Drinking motives as mediators of social anxiety and hazardous drinking among college students. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 38(3), 133-145. doi:10.1080/16506070802610889 Norberg, M. M., Norton, A. R., & Olivier, J. (2009). Refining measurement in the study of social anxiety and student drinking: Who you are and why you drink determines your outcomes.

Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 23(4), 586-597. doi:10.1037/a0016994 Schry, A. R., & White, S. W. (2013). Understanding the relationship between social anxiety and alcohol use in college students: A meta-analysis. Addictive Behaviors, 38(11), 2690-2706. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.06.014 Stewart, S. H., Morris, E., Mellings, T., & Komar, J. (2006). Relations of social anxiety variables to drinking motives, drinking quantity and frequency, and alcohol-related problems in undergraduates. Journal of Mental Health, 15(6), 671-682. doi:10.1080/09638230600998904 Terlecki, M. A., Buckner, J. D., Larimer, M. E., & Copeland, A. L. (2012). Brief motivational intervention for college drinking: The synergistic impact of social anxiety and perceived drinking norms. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 26(4), 917-923. doi:10.1037/a0027982

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Effects of handling stress on the immune function of Umbra pygmaea Jylian Wilde Abstract Understanding the physiological effects of stress in fish is important for aquaculture, fish husbandry, and population conservation. The presence of stress in fish causes the hypothalamopituitary-interrenal (HPI) axis to release the glucocorticoid hormone (GC) cortisol triggering an increase in circulation of white blood cells (WBCs), cells designated to fight infections. The most noticeable difference in WBC count in amphibians due to GCs is an increase in neutrophils and a decrease in lymphocytes. Both leukocytes are involved in immune response. Neutrophils respond to infections and are phagocytic. Lymphocytes mediate cell responses due to immune threats. In this field experiment, we tested the hypothesis that Umbra pygmaea (eastern mudminnows) would exhibit an increase in neutrophils and decrease in lymphocytes due to handling stress. Minnows were captured using minnow traps and were placed in a bucket with a small amount of swamp water, in which they were rocked back and forth for an hour before obtaining blood (stressed group). Other individuals were bled within five minutes of retrieval from the minnow traps (control group). To obtain blood, minnows were decapitated and a hematocrit tube was used for collection. Blood smears were made from the blood obtained and later stained for viewing under a microscope. A white blood cell count was conducted to determine if stress handling affected the circulation of leukocytes. Considering two outliers within the control group, leukocyte circulation was not affected. Without these outliers, circulation was affected. This type of study exhibits the roles of cortisol on leukocytes within this species and may be used as a field indicator of stress.

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Effects of handling stress on the immune function of Umbra pygmaea Jylian Wilde

Introduction Understanding stress physiology is important when assessing how stressors, such as pollution and human disturbance, can affect the health and behavior of animals (Barton, 2002; Davis and Maerz, 2008). In vertebrates, stressors trigger a sequence of adaptive responses, stimulating the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (interrenal in fish) axis, which stimulates release of glucocorticoids (GC). This suite of responses begins with the hypothalamus secreting corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which then triggers the pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH). The presence of ACTH stimulates adrenal or interrenal cells to release GCs, cortisol being the primary GC in fish (Davis and Maerz, 2008; O’Connor et al., 2012; Ricciardella et al., 2010).

GCs serve a myriad of functions associated with stress response, including driving gluconeogenesis, suppressing reproductive hormones, influencing immune response, and increasing metabolic rate (Davis and Maerz, 2010; Martin et al., 2011; Ricciardella et al., 2010; Woodley and Lacy, 2010).

One of the functions of GCs is altering the concentration of white blood cell (WBC) circulation as an aid in coping with stress (Davis and Maerz, 2010; Ricciardella et al., 2010; Woodley and Lacy, 2010). An increase in GC concentration induces an increase in leukocyte circulation, specifically neutrophils and lymphocytes (Davis and Durso, 2009; Davis and Maerz, 2008; Davis and Maerz, 2010). Neutrophils respond to infection, inflammation, and stress and serve phagocytic purposes.

Lymphocytes are also involved in immunity, regulating immune defense and production of antibodies (Davis and Maerz, 2008; Davis and Durso, 2009). As cortisol levels rise, an increase in neutrophil circulation (neutrophilia) and decrease in lymphocyte circulation (lymphopenia) will occur. Lymphocytes migrate from the blood into other tissues, whereas neutrophils migrate from bone marrow into the blood. These cells are rerouted to where they are most needed to aid the individual experiencing a stressor. Neutrophilia and lymphopenia result in a higher neutrophil-toymphocyte ratio (N:L) (Davis and Maerz, 2008; Davis and Durso, 2009; Davis and Maerz, 2010).

This N:L ratio is a relatively inexpensive and easy method used to assess stress of individuals in field experiments. Other methods require higher volumes of blood and expensive, lengthy laboratory procedures (Davis and Maerz, 2008).

Using hematological parameters (such as leukocyte profiling) as an alternate method to measuring glucocorticoids to assess physiological stress has benefits and drawbacks. This method is relatively inexpensive because the lab protocol only requires slides, stain, and a microscope. Only a small blood sample is required for the blood smear compared to what is required for a corticosterone assay. Also, larger animals would have to be used (over 15 grams) to get enough blood, whereas leukocyte profiles can be conducted on animals of various sizes because only a small drop of blood is needed. Another benefit of hematological parameters is the ability to gather baseline data due to slower leukocyte response versus hormone response. Hematological responses are also conserved across taxa in vertebrates, being beneficial in making predictions between taxonomic groups (Davis and Maerz, 2008).

Drawbacks to hematological responses include the interpretation of the data collected. While the magnitude of stress can be compared between individuals, the information does not measure immune response ability of the individuals, such as low or high fitness; if stress is due to an active response, parasites, or infection; or the overall health of the individual. Inflammation and disease responses versus stress response is also an obstacle. The presence of inflammation or disease also 60

Effects of handling stress on the immune function of Umbra pygmaea Jylian Wilde

causes neutrophilia, which in turn increases the N:L ratio. Another impediment is that the normal parameters for leukocyte profiles are unknown for most species (Davis and Maerz, 2008).

While studies have been conducted on fish to determine the physiological effects due to stress, most of these studies have focused on aquacultural fishes, such as salmonids and marine species due to their economic importance (Barton, 2002). No matter the fish, the physiological stress response is the same, meaning the body functions in releasing cortisol via the HPI axis in response to stress (Barton, 2002; Davis and Maerz, 2008; O’Connor et al., 2012; Ricciardella et al., 2010).

What differs is the range of elevation of cortisol and the factors influencing the response, such as genetics, environment, and development stage. This varies depending on species. Some species, such as scaphirhynchid sturgeons and paddlefish, may exhibit low peak levels of cortisol due to handling stress while others, such as white sturgeon, exhibit the opposite, having higher peak levels of cortisol. In general, maximum cortisol increases occur around 30 minutes to 1 hour in most fish species, with a rise beginning within 5 minutes, though exceptions have occurred (Barton, 2002; Davis and Maerz, 2008).

Understanding that stress results in an increase in cortisol circulation, it is logical that the next step is to find easier means of determining stress by indirectly measuring cortisol, specifically via leukocyte profiles, because an increase in cortisol affects leukocyte circulation. Studies have been conducted in mammals, birds, amphibians, fish, and reptiles to determine leukocyte profiles due to stress (Davis and Maerz, 2008). The common occurrence is an increase in neutrophil numbers (neutrophilia) and decrease in lymphocyte numbers (lymphopenia). The ratio formed by this occurrence is used as a means to measure stress response, because it indicates the magnitude of both the stressor and GCs (Davis and Maerz, 2008). There is a large amount of literature focusing on leukocyte profiles of fish in response to stressors, specifically pollutants or environmental contaminants, although other stressors have also been studied, just not as extensively (Davis and Maerz, 2008; Jones and Reynolds, 1997). In those studies, lymphopenia and neutrophilia were commonly reported as the results of stress, though some exceptions occurred where the opposite results were reported (Davis and Maerz, 2008).

Most studies examining stress effects on fish have been done on aquaculture and marine fish species. Some studies have examined the effects of stress on cortisol and hematology levels in freshwater fish, but the results on the level of the stress response varied. Striped bass and chinook salmon exhibited an increase in peak cortisol levels due to stress; however, Atlantic cod experienced low peak cortisol levels after exposure to a stressor (Barton, 2002). Handling and transportation stress affected the hematology of catfish and Nile tilapia (Adeyemo et al., 2009; Barton, 2002).

One study showed that rainbow trout had lower cortisol increases compared to the closely related brown trout (Barton, 2002). These studies show that stress affects cortisol levels though peak elevation varies among species.

After the occurrence of a stressor, GC levels begin to rise quickly; however, its effects are not seen until later (Davis and Maerz, 2008; Ricciardella et al., 2010; Woodley and Lacy, 2010). To gather data for a baseline, blood should be collected within 5 minutes (Davis and Maerz, 2008).

This is a benefit to using cortisol as an indicator of stress because there is a lag time between cortisol synthesis and release (Barton, 2002). Peak cortisol levels usually occur anywhere between 61

Effects of handling stress on the immune function of Umbra pygmaea Jylian Wilde

a few minutes to hours after the onset of a stressor. Though there are exceptions, most data for fish species shows peak cortisol levels occurring around 30 minutes to 1 hour after stress onset (Barton, 2002; Ricciardella et al., 2010; Woodley and Lacy, 2010).

In this experiment, the effects of stress were studied in mudminnows (Umbra pygmaea).

They are small fish with elongated, thin bodies and are normally found in freshwater streams and rivers, preferably slow moving waters with silty bottoms and ample debris and vegetation. They are located along the Eastern shore, ranging from New York to Florida, and can be found as far west as Georgia (Marcy, 2005; NatureServe, 2013). Even though mudminnows are a common freshwater species, little research has been conducted on them apart from a few studies on their pH tolerance and ability to adapt in low oxygen environments (Lucas, 2012; Mudminnows, 2014). Although little is known about the stress response in these species, it is reasonable to assume that they will respond similarly as other fish species. I hypothesized that upon stressing eastern mudminnows, the lymphocyte number would increase while the neutrophil count would decrease, resulting in a higher N:L ratio compared to the control group.

Methods Mudminnows were captured using minnow traps placed in the swamp waters at the Meherrin River Field Site located upstream of Highway 258 along the north side of the Meherrin River (36° 26’ 58” N, 77° 05’ 15” W). Within 24 hours after placing the minnow traps, minnows were collected. Stressed individuals were collected from the minnow traps and rocked back and forth in a bucket with a small amount of swamp water for one hour before blood collection (n=10).

Blood was collected from control individuals within five minutes of retrieval from the minnow traps (n=9).

Minnows were decapitated, and a hematocrit tube was used to collect blood, from which a small drop of blood was placed on a slide to make a smear. The smear was labeled with a number corresponding to the minnow (numbers 1 through 20). If more than one smear was made, a lowercase letter was used alongside the number (i.e., 1a, 1b, 1c). At least one blood smear was made for each individual. After drying for 24 hours, smears were stained using StainRITE WrightGiemsa Stain. Fifteen mL of Wright-Giemsa Stain was mixed with 75 mL of Wright-Giemsa Stain buffer prior to staining and allowed to sit for at least 10 minutes before use. Slides were placed in a glass container with methanol for 30 seconds then placed on a drying rack. Wright-Giemsa Stain was then pipetted onto the slides and allowed to sit. After 2 minutes, the stain was displaced with the Wright-Giemsa Stain/Buffer mixture via pipette. The slides set for six minutes, after which they were placed in glass containers with Wright-Giemsa Stain Buffer for 2 minutes. Slides were then allowed to air dry overnight before examination. A WBC count was then conducted at 1,000X magnification with immersion oil in a 4 cm2 area using a compound microscope.

There were two control individuals whose neutrophil counts were significantly higher than the mean, which could indicate an infection. Differences in lymphocyte numbers, neutrophil numbers, and neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratios were analyzed between control and stressed individuals with and without these two outliers. Data did not meet parametric assumptions of normality or equality of variances; therefore, a non-parametric Wilcoxon test was performed using the SAS statistical software.

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Effects of handling stress on the immune function of Umbra pygmaea Jylian Wilde

Results

As can be seen in figure 1, stressed individuals had fewer lymphocytes compared to control individuals although this was only marginally significant (p=0.07). Neutrophil count decreased and the N:L ratio decreased between the control and stress groups (fig. 2). The neutrophil count was statistically significant with a p-value of 0.01, but the N:L ratio was not statistically significant with a p-value of 0.06.

Figure 3 shows the results without the outliers. There was a decrease in lymphocyte and increase in neutrophil circulation between the control and stress groups (p=0.0010). There was a higher N:L ratio in the stress group compared to the control as can be seen in figure 4, which was considerably significant (p<0.0001).

Figure 1. With outliers, the mean lymphocyte and neutrophil numbers in control and stress groups. * indicates that the leukocyte numbers were significantly lower than the control group.

Figure 2. With outliers, the mean N:L ratio in control and stress groups. There was a decrease between the control and stressed.

Figure 3. Without outliers, the mean lymphocyte and neutrophil numbers in control and stress groups. * indicates that the leukocyte numbers w ere significantly different than the control group. There was a decrease in lymphocyte concentration and increase in neutrophil concentration.

Figure 4. Without outliers, the m ean N:L ratio in control and stress groups. * indicates a significant increase between the control and stress group.

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Effects of handling stress on the immune function of Umbra pygmaea Jylian Wilde

Discussion In vertebrates, stress is expected to cause neutrophilia and lymphopenia, resulting in a higher N:L ratio, as was hypothesized for this study on eastern mudminnows. This hypothesis was not supported by the data that includes the outliers; however, the removal of the outliers produces data that supports the hypothesis. With the outliers, handling stress resulted in lymphopenia and neutropenia, causing a lower N:L ratio, in the stress group compared to the control group. Lymphocyte and N:L ratio data was only marginally significant (p=0.07, p=0.06 respectively), but neutrophil data was significant (p=0.01). Without the outliers, handling stress resulted in lymphopenia and neutrophilia, creating a higher N:L ratio in the stress group compared to the control group, as expected. Lymphocyte data was still only marginally significant (p=0.10), but both the neutrophil and N:L ratio data was considerably significant (p=0.0010 and p<0.0001, respectively).

The overall response was a change in leukocyte profile in the stress group compared to the control group, both with and without the outliers, indicating an increase in cortisol which signifies stress; therefore, the data supports that mudminnows were stressed due to handling. It is how the leukocytes responded that is in question. There have been cases where the leukocyte profile was opposite of what was expected, i.e., an increase in lymphocyte numbers and decrease in neutrophil numbers with a lower N:L ratio (Davis and Maerz, 2008). While those results are not exactly what occurred for this field experiment (lymphopenia still occurred; only neutrophilia and a higher N:L ratio did not), it does show that there are exceptions to what is considered normal leukocyte responses due to stress. In this field experiment, however, the expected response did not occur only when the outliers were included in the data; therefore, it can be concluded that the outliers caused the unexpected leukocyte profile response.

Little research has been done on eastern mudminnows, so there are no reference values or data on which to base why the outliers had such high neutrophil counts. It is possible that the two minnows had a previous infection or inflammation prior to capture, which would cause an increase in neutrophils (Davis and Maerz, 2008). This seems a reasonable conclusion for one of the outliers that also had increased basophil, monocyte, and eosinophil count (data not provided). It was noted that one of the minnows had fin rot, but it was not determined until after gut analysis, so it was not recorded which specific minnow had this condition. One of the outliers was gravid, which could explain the higher neutrophil count for that individual; however, another minnow in the control group was also gravid and its neutrophil count was low. While studies are being conducted to better understand the correlations between how reproduction affects stress, it is in its beginning stages, so not much data is available. The data that does exist is equivocal and inconsistent (Norris and Lopez, 2011).

Unknown genetic and pre-capture environmental factors could have influenced leukocyte response for the outliers as well. Another consideration is time frame. Studies have shown that, even within the same species, different results occur based on time course, longevity and intensity of the stressor, and other factors, such as the hardiness of the fish (Adeyemo et al., 2009; Barton, 2002; Davis and Maerz, 2008). While the results without the outliers indicate that an hour of stress was an appropriate time frame for the stress group, the two outliers may have been overstressed from being in the minnow trap, or their blood could have been collected too early or late.

Mudminnows are known for their ability to tolerate conditions of low pH as well as low oxygen.

When there are high levels of carbon dioxide, minnows can use oxygen from the water. They also have 64

Effects of handling stress on the immune function of Umbra pygmaea Jylian Wilde

modified swim bladders which act like a lung, allowing them to breathe oxygen from the air (Lucas, 2012; Mudminnows, 2014; Marcy, 2005). It is interesting that an hour of being rocked back and forth in a bucket with limited water stressed the mudminnows. Central mudminnows may be better adapted than eastern mudminnows, or this scenario was similar to a predator approaching. In the presence of predators, mudminnow population counts are low, their survival techniques being to burrow or possibly move to an area of lower predation (Lucas, 2012; Mudminnows, 2014).

Conclusion The use of hematological parameters as a measurement of stress response in vertebrates is becoming a popular method. There is a connection between cortisol and leukocyte circulation as a response to stress, as can be seen in this experiment. The mudminnowsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; response to stress as seen in the data indicates that relative WBC counts can be used as an assessment of stress. Lymphopenia, neutrophilia, and a higher N:L ratio were the results of the stress group compared to the control group (without the outliers), which is expected as a result of increased levels of cortisol. These results of increased cortisol levels due to stress have been observed in many fish, including sturgeons, tilapia, cod, salmon, and trout (Barton, 2002).

Future studies that could be conducted include using a similar experiment design but manipulating time; individuals could be stressed over varying time frames with blood being collected and then compared for each of the groups. Other methods of stressing could also be used. Since mudminnows are adapted to low oxygen situations, the stress group could be individuals kept out of the water for a certain time, then compared to the control group and another group stressed, as was done in this experiment.

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Contributors Daniela Aguilar is an English Education major.

Nfon Asuquo, Studio Art (‘15). My aspiration in life is art and constantly creating unique and interesting things. My goal is to use my art to create a stable future.

Victor Chilaka, English (‘15). I am aspiring to be a fantasy novelist and, perhaps, script writer for console games. In my spare time, I like to write poetry. My piece is a manipulation of the word “Believe” and is part of a larger poetic collection that emphasizes palindromes and other word plays.

Haley Haggard, Mathematics (‘16). I enjoy writing, playing lacrosse, and anything to do with music. I aspire to make a difference by my writing, even if it only changes one person for the better.

Austin Hall graduated with a degree in History.

Christopher A. Hargrove, Business Administration (‘15). It is my dream to serve my fellow citizens as a government official. It’s my belief that America’s best days are in the future, and I want to have a role in making that come true. My piece was born in a particularly dark time in my life, but now I hope that it provides assurance to others that, no matter what you’re going through, there is always a light at the end of the tunnel.

Janice Hopkins, non-degree seeking. Writing seems to be a part of who I am. I have rediscovered my love of poetry at Chowan and have worked hard to become published. Since spring semester, I’ve learned that my first historical novel is to be released in January. How exciting is that!

Nard-esa King majored in Studio Art. Beverly Kwakye, English (‘15). I started writing poetry my sophomore year of college. I will be studying journalism in graduate school. After my graduate studies, I aspire to one day become an entertainment journalist and young adult teen fiction author.

Ashley J. Micheal, Graphic Design (‘17). By 2019, I aspire to have my own company started for Graphic Design as well as photography. Once I get my business started, I plan to give back to the community, starting with Chowan, and to charities around the world.

Austin Munden is a History major.

Aaron Palmer is an English major.

Nathan Parker graduated with a degree in Biology.

Joshua Pender, Interdisciplinary Studies (‘15). I’m becoming more fascinated each day with the way people solve problems and evolve beyond self-fulfilling prophecies. I also love singing in Chowan Singers and want to deepen my understanding of music and maybe become a music teacher one day.

Robert D. Powell, Studio Art (‘15). Working on becoming an art professor, I work in all types of art, including film, photography, illustrating, and painting. I am also currently working on a comic book, an online website, and a podcast.

I guess you can say that I’m always busy.

Zulay A. Romero, Studio Art (‘17). Art has always been a way that I define myself. I know of no other way to express myself and show others who I am. I thank God for my artistic abilities.

Angelica Y. Satchell, Psychology (‘14). Of course, I want to be a counselor! I finally get to “not” ask the question that most people think counselors ask: “So, how do you feel about that?” People are more than just statistics; they make life worth living!

Jessica Vallejos is an English major.

Thirsala Wiggins is a Studio Art major.

Wendy Smith Wilson, Studio Art and Interdisciplinary Studies (‘15). I’m a polymath that currently is exploring her creative side. I plan on attending graduate school and teaching in the future.

Jylian F. Wilde, Biology (‘14). I love animals, which is why I am currently in veterinary school. One day I hope to have a miniature pig and pygmy goat as pets (in addition to “normal” pets). Ultimately, I would like to work in a rural area while also doing mission work.

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Cover Photo “Harvest Totems (Peanut Stacks) 2014” Wendy Wilson