Architectural Impressionism // Chloe Kisela

ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM The Juxtaposition of Biophilic Design & Environmental Psychology in the Pursuit of Human Wellness

Chloe Kisela Master of Architecture | Final Independent Project Proposal | Fall 2023 Advisor: Daniel Hoffman | Arizona State University

table of contents PART 01: INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.........................................................................................................3-6 PART 02: PRINCIPLES OF BIOPHILIC DESIGN & ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY..................................7-12 BIOPHILIC DESGIN: THE HUMAN RACE’S DEEP-ROOTED CONNECTION TO NATURE ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: A SCIENTIFIC BASIS FOR BIOPHILIC DESIGN

PART 03: ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM, POSSIBLE DESIGN SCENARIOS & CASE STUDIES ............13-38 ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM: A PROPOSED CONCEPTUAL BASIS FOR WELLNESS ARCHITECTURE FOUR POSSIBLE DESIGN SCENARIOS: ENCAPSULATION, DIFFERENTIATION, RECESSION & DIFFUSION FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT: A CASE STUDY OF EXEMPLARY DIFFUSION & ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM

PART 04: METHODS OF REPRESENTATION & CONCLUDING REMARKS ...............................................39-42 BIBLIOGRAPHY .....................................................................................................................................43-44

part 01: introductory remarks

CHLOE KISELA

THE PROBLEM: A NATURAL DISCONNECT & THE MENTAL HEALTH CRISIS

PART 01: INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM

It is my belief that, as architects and students of architecture, our work must go beyond aesthetics and function and towards the pursuit of a greater good. We have a larger social obligation to help others, both individuals and the larger society, in whichever ways we are most equipped to do so. Inspired by my educational background in psychology, I have found my desired area of contribution to be in the exploration of the role of architecture in healing both human body and mind, as well as how the incorporation of nature and artistry into wellness programs can amplify healing while also promoting sustainability and ecological justice. Architecture and designed space have the power to create meaningful and lasting effects on the human experience as both the built and natural environments are constantly influencing our mental states, moods, physical health, and overall wellbeing. However, there are underlying societal issues which will need to be addressed in the pursuit of this “wellness architecture.” And yet, instead of acting as a hinderance to the design process, I have found that our acknowledgement of these issues has the potential to advance research on human wellness, inform more holistic design practices, and even create positive social change carried out through architecture.

We are currently living in an age in which our lives within the built environment are becoming increasingly separate from and in direct conflict with nature. There has been a societal shift towards the pursuit of technology and advancement that has led to a more sedentary, indoor lifestyle, where connection to and interaction with nature is seen as “primitive.”1 I would also argue that some of us might not necessarily view nature as primitive, but rather as a luxury that is meant to be enjoyed on rare occasions or as secondary to the built environment. Overall, we are currently at a potential turning point in the history of architecture in terms of the relationship between the built and natural worlds. In addition, we are witnessing the expansion of a severe mental health crisis across the U.S. and the rest of the developed world. Anxiety, depression, and the suicide rate have increased dramatically since the turn of the century, with some linking this increased prevalence to deeper, underlying social causes, or “the sick society view.”2 REFERENCES 1. Stephen R. Kellert, Nature by Design: The Practice of Biophilic Design (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 1-3.

2. Awais Aftab and Benjamin G. Druss, “Addressing the Mental Health Crisis in Youth - Sick Individuals or Sick Societies?,” JAMA Psychiatry 80, no. 9 (June 2023): 864, https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/article-abstract/2806247.

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CHLOE KISELA

THE PROPOSED SOLUTION: BIOPHILIA, ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY & ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM

PART 01: INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM

In this proposal, I will make the argument that the inclusion of biophilic and psychological principles in the design of our buildings can increase occupant satisfaction and lead to improved mental and physical health outcomes - in no way solving the aforementioned crises of mental health and separation from nature, yet still positively contributing through architectural design in the pursuit of a healthier society. Research has shown that the human race’s historical relationship with the natural world has informed and shaped the development of our behavioral tendencies and mental preferences1, and thus, the incorporation of the natural environment into the design of our built structures has the potential to positively impact human health and wellbeing. I will be viewing this concept of “biophilic design”1 through the lens of environmental psychology, examining the ways in which our human spatial tendencies inform the theory of and contribute to the application of biophilic principles. The inclusion of these developed theoretical constructs invites us to begin to ask questions such as, “What purpose do we want architecture to serve for the human race?,” “How do we want architecture to contribute to human wellbeing?,” and even “How can we blur the boundaries between the natural and built environments?”

Indeed, If there is one key idea that bridges the gap between theoretical research and applied design practices, it would be the pursuit of human wellness through architectural abstraction or diffusion. This blurring of boundaries between nature and the built environment is the basis of a concept I will refer to as “Architectural Impressionism.” I believe Architectural Impressionism to be a natural offshoot of biophilia and environmental psychology as they relate to architectural design while also being directly related to the artistic movement that is visualized in the paintings of many Impressionist artists. Thus, by combining our research of biophilic design and environmental psychology with the study of qualities of Impressionists paintings, I argue that we might begin to create abstracted areas of three-dimensional transitional space that effectively blur the distinction between the natural and built worlds. I argue that this enhanced blur between the natural and built environments - this bleeding of the qualities and boundaries between the two - might just be the ultimate goal of biophilic design. By situating the occupant in a context that is at once both built / designed while also deeply in tune with nature, we can take advantage of the combined positives that each context would normally offer separately.

I believe that viewing the design of the built world through this lens of Architectural Impressionism, which I am uniquely conceptualizing through the study of biophilia and psychology, could be the key to ensuring its harmonious existence with the natural environment.

REFERENCE 1. Stephen R. Kellert, Nature by Design: The Practice of Biophilic Design (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 1-3.

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CHLOE KISELA PART 01: INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM

wellness architecture in southwestern ohio Wellness architecture, or architecture which houses programming directly related to the treatment of those with mental or physical ailments, has great potential to make a real difference in the lives of those it serves. Wellness architecture is, at its core, centered on human wellbeing and is directly related to the mental health crisis. I propose that we apply Architectural Impressionism, as well as the concepts of biophilia and environmental psychology that I am using as a theoretical basis, in the pursuit of the design of a mental health facility located in southwestern Ohio. In the design of such a program, I believe we might see how the inclusion of abstracted transitional space could lead to a deeper harmony with natural surroundings, increased regulation and control over one’s own personal space3, and improved patient outcomes and healthcare employee satisfaction. Locating the project in southwestern Ohio would situate us in the context of a rapidly urbanizing area4 that is at the crux of the debate between development of the built and conservation of the natural. The Cincinnati metropolitan region, specifically, is one of the fastest-growing areas in the United States, consisting of an “expanding mosaic of managed lands, developed areas dominated by structures, and patches of natural habitats”5 that lend themselves to a potential blur between natural and built. By analyzing this potential blur and the relationship between the built and natural worlds in this context, we might gain larger insights into our societal need for applied biophilia and environmental psychology and, in doing so, create a real-world stance for Architectural Impressionism in our technological age. Therefore, through the pursuit of this project, we should be able to study the applied concept of Architectural Impressionism while also positively contributing to health outcomes and promoting an enhanced societal harmony with nature.

FIGURE 01 | Scale: 1 in = 4.15 mi An aerial photograph of Warren County, located in the southwest corner of Ohio between Cincinnati and Dayton and a prime example of a rapidly developing region. The western side of the county contains multiple developing municipalities while the eastern side features state parks and areas of natural conservation.

Developing cities & villages

State parks

REFERENCES 3. Ian Donald, Environmental and Architectural Psychology: The Basics (New York: Routledge, 2022), 60-61.

4. Sarah E. Kolbe et al., “Effects of natural and anthropogenic environmental influences on tree community composition and structure in forests along an urban-wildland gradient in southwestern Ohio,” Urban Ecosystems 19, no. 2 (January 2016): 915, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-016-0531-7.

5. Sarah E. Kolbe et al., “Effects of natural and anthropogenic environmental influences on tree community composition and structure in forests along an urban-wildland gradient in southwestern Ohio,” Urban Ecosystems 19, no. 2 (January 2016): 917, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-016-0531-7.

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part 02: PRINCIPLES OF BIOPHILIC DESIGN & ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

CHLOE KISELA PART 02: PRINCIPLES OF BIOPHILIC DESIGN & ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM

BIOPHILIC DESIGN: THE HUMAN RACE’S DEEP-ROOTED CONNECTION TO NATURE Despite the great diversity and vast array of differences that distinguish members of the human race from each other, there is one underlying, deep-rooted quality that serves to tie us all together - our evolutionary history within and heavy reliance on the natural world for survival. Our ancestors’ lives were intricately intertwined with their environments as they relied heavily on nature for survival, so much so that “the human body, mind, and spirit largely developed in adaptive response” to their surrounding environmental factors.1 This innate connection between humanity and nature has predisposed our brains to seeking and finding order in our surroundings1, and though we have since developed a more adversarial relationship to nature, seeing it as something needing to be overcome in the name of advancement (Kellert, vii), we still have an “inherent tendency to interact with and experience nature” - a phenomenon referred to as biophilia.1 Because of this deep evolutionary link between our species and nature, I propose that the application of biophilic principles in architectural design may have the possibility to lead to improved physical wellbeing and increased psychological comfort across all types of occupant populations.

While some may argue that biophilia is no longer applicable in our modern technological age, the increasing sedentariness of our society suggests that biophilia may be more relevant and important than ever before.1 In fact, research has shown that our brains are still heavily predisposed to natural stimuli, so much so that environmental factors have the potential to alter our subconscious responses and behaviors. One experiment, the results of which were published by Arne Öhman in 1986, revealed that the vast majority of participants responded negatively to subliminal environmental images that could be viewed as “fear-relevant” (such as dangerous predators of the animal kingdom) while remaining unresponsive to the manmade threats of technological weapons and fire hazards.7, 8 In other words, no matter how much we might try to distance ourselves from nature, we will never be able to escape our innate predispositions and reactions to environmental stimuli or our proclivity for interaction with safe, comforting natural phenomena.

ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM AS THE FUSION OF: 1. BIOPHILIC DESIGN

2. ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

3. ARTISTIC IMPRESSIONISM

REFERENCES 1. Stephen R. Kellert, Nature by Design: The Practice of Biophilic Design (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 1-3.

6. Stephen R. Kellert, Nature by Design: The Practice of Biophilic Design (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), vii.

7. Arne Öhman, “Face the Beast and Fear the Face: Animal and Social Fears as Prototypes for Evolutionary Analyses of Emotion,” Psychophysiology 23, no. 2 (March 1986):123, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.1986.tb00608.x.

8. Stephen R. Kellert, Nature by Design: The Practice of Biophilic Design (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 9.

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ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM

EXPERIENTIAL BIOPHILIA Biophilic principles as applied in an architectural context - a concept that Stephen Kellert aptly refers to as biophilic design - strives to improve humanity’s physical and mental health and wellbeing through the application of natural motifs and environmental conditions in the design of a work of architecture.9 However, biophilic design is only likely to instill true emotional connections in occupants when included in various applications that offer a multitude of repeated connections with nature throughout the entirety of the design.10 Furthermore, these applications should ideally be immersive, integrated, communal, symbolic, and “authentic” to the essence of the natural world if we are to create lasting impressions.10 This can be accomplished through the introduction of various experiential frameworks and attributes, of which Kellert has proposed several that he labels as either a “direct experience of nature,” an “indirect experience with nature,” or an “experience of space and place.”11 Direct experiences typically involve the application of overt natural phenomena in architectural contexts, including those of light, air, water, and plant life, while indirect experiences evoke qualities of these natural phenomena, such as texture, geometry, and patina, in distinctly built forms.11 On the other hand, Kellert’s spatial attributes include theoretical concepts that relate to the connection between the built and the natural, including those of prospect and refuge and transitional space.11 Prospect-refuge theory, while utilized by Kellert in his proposal for biophilic design, is a concept originally formulated by geographer Jay Appleton. Concerned with “environmental perception as the key to all adaptive behavior,” Appleton describes the importance of visual information gathering (i.e. seeing) from places of concealment and safety as critical to survival.12 The act of concealment leads to the creation of the refuge, the location of the subject, which is distinct and separate from the prospect, or the object which is being viewed. Prospect-refuge theory as applied to biophilia by Kellert insinuates that long distances and uninterrupted sight lines providing a visual connection between spaces can offer occupants a sense of visual safety and shelter.13 Relevant studies have found evidence for the usefulness of prospect-refuge theory as a built design tactic when natural environments are involved, but have failed to find much support for the theory in dense urban settings.14 This seems to suggest that the concepts of prospect and refuge may be intrinsically linked to biophilia and humanity’s relationship to the natural world, enforcing the potential applicability of the theory as an attribute of biophilic design. In addition, the innate distance that exists between prospect and refuge invites the application of transitional space, another concept that Kellert claims as an attribute of biophilic design insofar as it “facilitate[s] adaptive shifts from one condition to another...by creating links” that can heighten one’s sense of safety and security.15 I propose that these two biophilic attributes - namely, prospect and refuge and transitional spaces - are key components of Impressionist architecture that is rooted in biophilia and will argue for their role in potential design scenarios in part 03.

REFERENCES 9. Stephen R. Kellert, Nature by Design: The Practice of Biophilic Design (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 17.

10. Stephen R. Kellert, Nature by Design: The Practice of Biophilic Design (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 18-24.

11. Stephen R. Kellert, Nature by Design: The Practice of Biophilic Design (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 26-27.

12. Jay Appleton, “Prospects and Refgues Re-Visited,” Landscape Journal 3, no. 2 (September 1984): 93, https://www.jstor.org/stable/43322970.

13. Stephen R. Kellert, Nature by Design: The Practice of Biophilic Design (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 90-91.

14. Annemarie S. Dosen and Michael J. Ostwald, “Evidence for prospect-refuge theory: a meta-analysis of the findings of environmental preference research,” City, Territory and Architecture 3, no. 4 (May 2016): 12, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40410-016-0033-1.

15. Stephen R. Kellert, Nature by Design: The Practice of Biophilic Design (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 99.

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CHLOE KISELA

ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: A SCIENTIFIC BASIS FOR BIOPHILIC DESIGN

ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM

PART 02: PRINCIPLES OF BIOPHILIC DESIGN & ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

One key facet underlying Kellert’s theory of biophilic design involves the ideas of safety, security, and regulation of one’s own environment. Several of Kellert’s many proposed attributes of biophilic design are based in the notion of interaction with nature as a means through which humans have ensured their safety16 and enhanced their physical and mental health.8 This underlying theme of regulation of one’s wellbeing via nature, I argue, is rooted in environmental psychology and human spatial behavioral tendencies. The psychological concepts of crowding, isolation, and privacy are particularly important in understanding our human desire for a sense of control over our bodies and our environments.

The concepts of social and spatial density are physical3 and directly observable in our daily lives. Social density refers to the amount of people in a given area, while spatial density indicates the amount of physical space being taken up by each person.3 While an excess of density could be interpreted negatively in certain contexts, it is not inherently an uncomfortable experience3; for example, in the appropriate context (such as a densely packed party in a known location with familiar faces), high social or spatial density could be interpreted positively. On the other hand, the concept of crowding is distinctly psychological, arising when one feels their surrounding environment’s social and spatial densities are too high and that “the amount of space they have is inadequate to meet their goals or needs.”3 The sensation of crowding, or the “perceived restriction and infringement” of one’s personal space, can lead to aggression, hormonal imbalances, and other symptoms commonly associated with stress.17 Alternatively, when density is perceived as being too low, one may experience a different psychological phenomenon known as isolation.3 The possible consequences of chronic social isolation include loneliness, depression, increased risk of cognitive decline18, and even increased risk of a shorter life span.19 In other words, both crowding and isolation - and the lack of control over one’s personal space that leads to them - can have very real physical and mental health implications.

ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM AS THE FUSION OF: 1. BIOPHILIC DESIGN

2. ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

3. ARTISTIC IMPRESSIONISM

REFERENCES 3. Ian Donald, Environmental and Architectural Psychology: The Basics (New York: Routledge, 2022), 60-61.

8. Stephen R. Kellert, Nature by Design: The Practice of Biophilic Design (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 9.

16. Stephen R. Kellert, Nature by Design: The Practice of Biophilic Design (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 5.

17. Daniel Stokels, “On the distinction between density and crowding: Some implications for future research,” Psychological Review 79, no. 3 (May 1972): 276, https://doi.org/10.1037/h0032706.

18. Julianne Holt-Lunstad et al., “Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review,” Perspectives on Psychological Science 10, no. 2 (March 2015): 235, https://doi.org/0.1177/1745691614568352.

19. Julianne Holt-Lunstad, “The Potential Public Health Relevance of Social Isolation and Loneliness: Prevalence, Epidemiology, and Risk Factors,” Public Policy & Aging Report 27, no. 4 (April 2017): 128, https://doi.org/10.1093/ppar/prx030.

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CHLOE KISELA

REGULATION AS THERAPY

ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM

PART 02: PRINCIPLES OF BIOPHILIC DESIGN & ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

If crowding and isolation can be seen as consequences of a lack of regulation, then privacy could be viewed as a positive implication of healthy regulation. Privacy allows one to control, but not prevent, human interactions in accordance with their social desires unique to their current context.3 In other words, one may require a higher level of privacy in certain situations, and a lesser amount in others. In addition, people exhibit what Erving Goffman has referred to as “front-stage” and “backstage” behavior, adjusting their behaviors based on the amount of privacy inherent within each context20 and the typical behaviors exhibited by others in these contexts. The importance of regulation, adjustment, and personal space can also be found in the concept of territoriality, in which we afford ourselves a sense of ownership (both large- and small-scale) over space21 and, in doing so, “increase the range of options...and maximize [our] freedom of choice.”22 Encroachment upon our personal spaces can result in discomfort and even withdrawal23, indicating our need for control over our environments, specifically private spaces.

Psychology professor Ian Donald claims that spatial environments are linked to humans’ mental health and have the potential for therapeutic applications. Donald categorizes rehabilitative space as either passive environments for therapy, or containers in which therapy happens to take place, or environments that are therapy, which actively support the therapeutic treatment through their design.24 While architectural spaces can positively influence public health through “physical design, land use patterns... [and] transportation systems,”25 built space also has the potential to negatively impact health outcomes by triggering emotions from an individual’s past traumas.24 Therefore, the upmost care must be taken when incorporating therapeutic programs into the built environment by providing designated space for both public and private activities. Two sociological terms originally developed by Humphrey Osmond in 1957 denote different types of space that are oriented for and orient people towards distinct types of interaction. Sociopetal spaces encourage human interaction and are more public-oriented26; floor plans may be open to encourage movement between groups of people, and seating areas will tend to incorporate chairs facing each other. Conversely, sociofugal spaces separate bodies and inhibit interaction, and likely includes boundary walls and isolated seating areas.26 Each type of space, both sociopetal and sociofugal, can be useful when implemented in the appropriate context (such as sociopetal designs in public-facing areas and sociofugal designs in more private ones). However, space that is meant to be utilized in a certain way but is designed as the opposing type (such as space for socializing designed in a sociofugal way) tends to be unsuccessful and can even lead to negative outcomes.21 In short, it is essential that we designate and separate public and private spaces so as to allow people to regulate and choose between them without fear of one bleeding into the other, which could ultimately result in a decreased sense of personal space and increased discomfort from conflicting spatial designs.

REFERENCES 3. Ian Donald, Environmental and Architectural Psychology: The Basics (New York: Routledge, 2022), 60-61.

20. Erving Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Garden City: Doubleday, 1959): 128.

21. Ian Donald, Environmental and Architectural Psychology: The Basics (New York: Routledge, 2022), 64-66.

22. Julian J. Edney, “Human Territoriality,” Psychological Bulletin 81, no. 12 (December 1974): 965, https://doi.org/10.1037/h0037444.

23. Erving Goffman, Relations in Public: Microstudies of Public Order (New York: Basic Books, 1971): 30.

24. Ian Donald, Environmental and Architectural Psychology: The Basics (New York: Routledge, 2022), 134-135.

25. Amelia Lake and Tim Townshend, “Obesogenic environments: exploring the built and food environments,” Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health 126, no. 6 (November 2006): 263, https://doi.org/10.1177/1466424006070487.

26. Benjamin R. Meagher and Kerry L. Marsh, “Seeking the safety of sociofugal space: Environmental design preferences following social ostracism,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 68 (January 2017): 193, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2016.07.004.

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CHLOE KISELA PART 02: PRINCIPLES OF BIOPHILIC DESIGN & ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM

THEORETICAL MODELS FOR WELLNESS ARCHITECTURE There are several theoretical models that are used in the design of therapeutic environments, or what I am calling “wellness architecture.” Each model prioritizes different outcomes which result in differing design tendencies, all of which could potentially be applicable to the design of a mental health facility. One of these models is the custodial model, which is often seen applied in prison settings and involves the separation of those who could be considered “high risk” or “dangerous to themselves or others.”27 While this could lead to increased safety of staff and non-violent patients, the custodial model could potentially lead to feelings of isolation (as well as the negative consequences that result from it) in the patients who are separated. Alternatively, the medical model is focused on the treatment of the mind in a distinctly medical context, similarly to how one would treat the body.27 However, the application of traditional medical practices to psychiatric illnesses has remained controversial27, with some attacking the model’s view of dualism of mind and body28 and many questioning the model’s (lack of a) role in keeping non-dangerous patients and staff safe. Lastly, and in stark contrast to the facility typology of the medical model, the normalization model strives to create a “’home-like’ environment” and to “provide support for its users while at the same time remaining as ‘normal’ as possible.”27 Normalized wellness architecture allows for personalization, comfort, and enhanced regulation, and the inclusion of private spaces has shown to “contribute to patient well-being.”29 I argue that a successful mediation between the custodial, medical, and normalization models will result in the highest levels of patient and staff satisfaction and safety. Techniques that can contribute to the successful implementation of these models, which are backed by research, include reducing crowding and overstimulation stressors (such as high density areas and sporadic noise levels), providing open and transitional space for staff observation of patients, and implementing distractions and connections to nature throughout the design.30 The latter of these two, in particular, call to mind the concepts of prospect and refuge and transitional space, key attributes of biophilic design.

I argue that the environmental psychological topics discussed in this section provide a theoretical basis for the understanding of biophilic design. Our human needs for regulation, control, personal space, and freedom - all of which biophilia claims we seek to derive from the natural world - can be physically articulated in the design of built structures. By incorporating the attributes of biophilic design in the design of spaces that allow patients to regulate their own behaviors while also promoting the safety of the staff, we can provide an ideal atmosphere for the therapeutic program that prioritizes the wellbeing of all who come into contact with it. Such an environment might look like privatized patient rooms that allow individualized control over environmental stimuli, open communal space (which is separated from private rooms) that is in the direct line of sight to nurses’ stations, and an abundance of courtyards, gardens, day-lit rooms, and other applied biophilic spaces.

REFERENCES 27. Ian Donald, Environmental and Architectural Psychology: The Basics (New York: Routledge, 2022), 139-142.

28. Joan Busfield, “The concept of medicalisation reassessed,” Sociology of Health & Illness 39, no. 5 (January 2017): 759, https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.12538.

29. Constantina Papoulias et al., “The psychiatric ward as a therapeutic space: systematic review,” The British Journal of Psychiatry 205, no. 3 (September 2014): 171, https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.114.144873.

30. Roger S. Ulrich et al., “Psychiatric ward design can reduce aggressive behavior,” Journal of Environmental Psychology 57 (June 2018): 55, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2018.05.002.

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part 03: architectural impressionism, possible design scenarios & case studies

CHLOE KISELA PART 03: ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM, POSSIBLE DESIGN SCENARIOS & CASE STUDIES

ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM

ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM: A PROPOSED CONCEPTUAL BASIS FOR WELLNESS ARCHITECTURE Architectural Impressionism, while rooted in theories developed by other researchers, is largely a concept of my own creation. The term itself comes from an informal blog post by aspiring architect Luca Onniboni, in which he posits the concept as a “possible architectural theory.”31 In the blog post, Onniboni describes his desire for architecture to reflect reality, evoke emotional responses, and possess qualities of mystery and infinity that can be found in Impressionist paintings.31 However, the author does not clearly define the term “Architectural Impressionism,” provide references, suggest techniques or built responses, or offer any deeper foundational research on which the theory should rest. In other words, Onniboni’s basic explanation of Architectural Impressionism has inspired me to take the idea and develop it further into my own unique concept through original research, writing, and drawing. I fully credit Onniboni for the creation of the term, though we must also acknowledge other theoretical constructs that I have used as bases for the developed concept. I have chosen to utilize the previously discussed theory of biophilic design, which I am viewing through the lens of environmental psychology, as the foundation for my conceptualization of Architectural Impressionism. Specifically, the biophilic attributes of prospect and refuge and transitional spaces32, as well as the psychological concepts of privacy, personal space, and environmental regulation as they relate to the design of architectural spaces and other human spatial behaviors33, have informed this new take on Architectural Impressionism. I have also studied the qualities and characteristics of Impressionist paintings and analyzed, through color mapping, the similarities between the flows of color and diffuse boundary conditions that can be seen in Claude Monet’s work and my own photographs of the landscape of southwestern Ohio with the intent of better understanding the Impressionist qualities of the context in which I plan to design. By combining these three areas of study - biophilic design, environmental psychology, and Impressionism - I argue that I have crafted my own unique take on Architectural Impressionism.

ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM AS THE FUSION OF: 1. BIOPHILIC DESIGN

2. ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

3. ARTISTIC IMPRESSIONISM

REFERENCES 31. Luca Onniboni, “Architectural Impressionism – A possible Architectural Theory,” Archiobjects, published April 23, 2015, https://www.archiobjects.org/architectural-impressionism.

32. Stephen R. Kellert, Nature by Design: The Practice of Biophilic Design (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 90-99.

33. Ian Donald, Environmental and Architectural Psychology: The Basics (New York: Routledge, 2022), 60-76.

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ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM

THE NARRATIVE OF MODERN LIFE The term “Architectural Impressionism” is derived from the Impressionist movement in the art world that began in the 19th century. Thus, it follows that Architectural Impressionism should share similar characteristics and qualities to those often found in Impressionist paintings, but translated from a two-dimensional canvas into a three-dimensional interactive environment. Impressionism first appeared in the 1870s in the organization and exhibition of the work of a “group” of independent artists, all of whom actually had quite different artistic tendencies and distinct styles.34 Though they resisted the conceptualization of their organization as a “unified movement,” the group’s art eventually began to be referred to as Impressionism, with the name being derived from Claude Monet’s Impression, Sunrise and the criticism it received for being an unfinished sketch or “impression.”34 Despite the fact that the techniques used under the umbrella of Impressionism are varied, there are distinct qualities that are typically shared among them and that can be applied to works of Impressionist architecture.

Though Impressionism was not immune from its share of critics, progressive writers of the 19th century found something to celebrate in the art movement’s “depiction of modern life.”34 Depictions of everyday leisure activities and landscapes can be seen in many famous Impressionist paintings34, and this innate connection to the human experience could prove an important link between Impressionist art and architecture.

Architecture which seeks to embody Impressionism should relate directly to the human experience, including human scale, activities, and comfort, by providing abundant space for relaxation and enjoyment while also seeking to influence how one should go about these activities via the architectural promenade.

The architectural promenade, a concept originally posited by renowned architect Le Corbusier, has been described as a “moving image narrative device” that incorporates designed destinations, pathways, and discoveries35 as a method of facilitating human interaction with built spaces. Through the situating of architecture as an active player in the lives of those who come into contact with it, we can imbue these everyday activities with a tactile, spatial quality, translating the two-dimensionality of an Impressionist painting into three-dimensional architecture.

REFERENCES 34. Margaret Samu, “Impressionism: Art and Modernity,” The Metropolitan Museum of Art, published October 2004, https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/imml/hd_imml.htm.

35. François Penz, “The architectural promenade as narrative device: practice based research in architecture and the moving image,” Digital Creativity 15, no. 1 (2004): 39, https://doi.org/10.1076/digc.15.1.39.28152.

FIGURES 02 & 03 An exercise in comparison color mapping featuring a color-mapped image of Claude Monet’s 1872 painting Impression, Sunrise (top) and a color-mapped personal photograph of the southwest Ohio landscape at sunset (bottom). Note the similarities in highlights located within the sky as well as the darker figures stretching along the horizon line.

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ABSTRACTION & JUXTAPOSITION Impressionist art has also been described as being “difficult to define” due to its abstracted forms made from short, unblended brushstrokes34 that create more of an overall atmosphere or feeling as opposed to easily definable details and that imbue the art with a mysterious quality which invites human interpretation and contemplation. Thus, architecture which seeks to embody Impressionism should be open to allowing itself to be somewhat moulded and shaped by its inhabitants, which would not only encourage the active participation of these inhabitants, but could also lead to the added benefits of increased adaptability and longevity of the structure. Imperfections and oddities need not be hidden but can be left exposed, and a focus on the creation of abstracted transitional space rather than the perfection of definable details should be prioritized. This incorporation of transitional space can contribute to an enhanced abstraction or blurring between more clearly delineated spaces while once again calling to mind the architectural promenade and the influence of architecture on the activities of its occupants.

Perhaps due to these links between art, everyday life, and the blending of space, Impressionism can also be seen as an embodiment of the juxtaposition between nature and technology. Artists of the Impressionist movement tended to reject previously established styles and frequently incorporated “new technology and ideas” in their depictions of modern life.34 Claude Monet, in particular, featured urbanization and modernization in his works through the inclusion of factories and railways34 in addition to much more natural contexts. This depiction of both built and natural phenomena, oftentimes on the same canvas, is deeply connected to biophilia and can be easily translated, with the application of biophilic attributes, into a real-world, architectural context. Thus, architecture which seeks to embody Impressionism should regard neither nature nor technology as greater than the other, but as two critical aspects of architectural design that work best when closely intertwined. Natural phenomena can be enhanced when technology is incorporated (for example, through the inclusion of sustainable strategies such as solar panels, geothermal heat pumps, rainwater harvesting devices, etc.), and a juxtaposition between the two would allow them to harmonize in non-destructive ways. Due to increasing urbanization around the globe, particularly in my chosen context of southwestern Ohio4, it has become increasingly important to find ways to mediate between the natural and built worlds, a goal which has been shown as having strong roots in Impressionism.

REFERENCES 4. Sarah E. Kolbe et al., “Effects of natural and anthropogenic environmental influences on tree community composition and structure in forests along an urbanwildland gradient in southwestern Ohio,” Urban Ecosystems 19, no. 2 (January 2016): 915, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-016-0531-7.

34. Margaret Samu, “Impressionism: Art and Modernity,” The Metropolitan Museum of Art, published October 2004, https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/imml/hd_imml.htm..

FIGURES 04 & 05 An exercise in comparison color mapping featuring a color-mapped image of Claude Monet’s early 20th century painting San Giorgio Maggiore at Dusk (top) and a color-mapped personal photograph of the southwest Ohio landscape in late evening (bottom). Note how figures originating in the sky dome are similarly reflected across the horizon line onto the ground plane in both images.

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THREE-DIMENSIONAL INTERACTIVITY In addition to abstracted transitional space and the adjacency of nature and technology, Impressionism also has several other ties to biophilia. These include Impressionist paintings’ incorporation of light, shadow, and other natural phenomena as well as the positioning of the subject (the viewer) in relation to and at a distance from the object (the painting).34 Both of these concepts can be readily translated into the three-dimensional context of an interactive architecture and are also deeply tied to the notion of biophilic design. The use of light, water, and other natural entities can be seen as an expression of direct biophilic principles while the relationship between subject and object parallels the experiential concept of prospect and refuge.11 It follows that architecture which seeks to embody Impressionism should incorporate areas for observation, retreat, and involvement with nature into the design - but not in ways that merely encourage passive viewing, but instead active involvement of the occupant as a participant in the design. As I will argue in the following discussion of my four proposed design scenarios, Architectural Impressionism is best embodied when we emphasize this conversion of the passive viewer of Impressionist art into the active participant of Impressionist architecture. Though there are many possible ways in which we can apply the concepts of biophilic design and the qualities found in Impressionist art to create successful design projects, I will argue that the truest form of Architectural Impressionism will be found in diffuse spaces which are abstracted, human-centric, and interactive through the introduction of the architectural promenade.

REFERENCES 11. Stephen R. Kellert, Nature by Design: The Practice of Biophilic Design (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 26-27.

34. Margaret Samu, “Impressionism: Art and Modernity,” The Metropolitan Museum of Art, published October 2004, https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/imml/hd_imml.htm.

FIGURES 06 & 07 An exercise in comparison color mapping featuring a colormapped image of Claude Monet’s 1878 painting Arm of the Seine near Vetheuil (top) and a color-mapped personal photograph of a southwest Ohio water landmark (bottom).

Note how both images feature distinct pathways that lead to distant horizon lines.

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FOUR POSSIBLE DESIGN SCENARIOS: ENCAPSULATION, DIFFERENTIATION, RECESSION & DIFFUSION In order to create a proposal for a mental health facility which embodies this new conceptualization of Architectural Impressionism, we must apply the theories previously studied in the creation of actual design concepts. For this purpose, I shall describe four design scenarios which I argue culminate in the embodiment of Architectural Impressionism: encapsulation, differentiation, recession, and diffusion. While I believe all four scenarios have their merits as potentially successful bases for the application of biophilia, environmental psychology, and the qualities found in Impressionist paintings, it is only the fourth scenario - namely, diffusion - that I argue is the purest form of Architectural Impressionism. The scenarios progress from simple incorporation of the natural into the built, to a distinct separation between the two, to a theoretical positioning of the occupant in relation to them, and ultimately to the introduction of the architectural promenade and transformation of two-dimensional space into three-dimensional space.

I argue that the first three scenarios each exist as a distinct foundation upon which diffuse spaces can be conceptualized, and thus, encapsulation, differentiation, and recession are each presented as their own unique pathways towards the end goal of diffusion. Through the creation of habitable space that mirrors the motifs found in Impressionist paintings via the application of biophilic principles, I believe we can afford patients in the proposed mental health facility a greater sense of psychological regulation of their personal space and, in doing so, promote better health outcomes and interactions between patients and healthcare workers. Through our exploration of the following scenarios, I will make the argument that Architectural Impressionism is achieved when we blur the boundary between the natural and the built by imbuing built forms with characteristics usually found in nature and by creating an architectural promenade within and through abstracted perimeter conditions.

ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM INCREASES AS WE PROGRESS ENCAPSULATION

RECESSION

DIFFUSION

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SCENARIO 01: ENCAPSULATION CONCEPTUAL SUMMARY & THEORETICAL BASIS ENCAPSULATION (.n) /in-kap-sə-lā-shən/

Traditional definition: enclosing in or as if in a capsule; epitomizing, summarizing36 Proposed definition for Architectural Impressionism: containing of elements which would normally be exterior to the context; enfoldment of the natural into the built The first and perhaps most intuitive way of incorporating nature and biophilic principles into architectural design is via encapsulation, or the surrounding of the traditionally “exterior” natural environment within the traditionally “interior” built environment. Through the act of encapsulation or enfoldment, a microcosm of the natural world becomes enclosed within a built architectural context, in effect isolating it and separating it from the context of the larger natural site. Encapsulation both acknowledges and deepens these notions of context and layering; just as one may see an architectural design as being encircled by the larger context of the natural world in its entirety, this scenario adds an additional layer to the concept through the inclusion of an isolated natural environment within the built context.

In other words, in encapsulation, a microcosm of nature is contained within the built which, in turn, is contained within the larger natural world, each being separate and distinct from the others. Through the application of encapsulation, we can begin to observe the juxtaposition of nature and technology in a real world environment, a relationship that was heavily explored as a concept in Impressionist paintings.34 Additionally, this act of enfolding brings about the creation of distinct boundaries between the built and the natural, boundaries that have the potential to become permeable transitional spaces as encapsulation progresses towards diffusion (as will be described in scenario 04).

FIGURE 08 REFERENCES 34. Margaret Samu, “Impressionism: Art and Modernity,” The Metropolitan Museum of Art, published October 2004, https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/imml/hd_imml.htm..

36. “Encapsulate,” Merriam-Webster, accessed November 24, 2023, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/encapsulation.

Abstract diagram of encapsulation.

Built space

Natural space

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CONCEPTUAL SUMMARY & THEORETICAL BASIS I argue that encapsulation is rooted in the principles of biophilia and environmental and development psychology, specifically, in the concepts of privatization, regulation, and holding. The concept of physical holding inherently involves encircling, layering, and enfolding. The sense of comfort that comes from the act of being held can be traced back to infancy and the safety of an individual’s relationship with his or her parents37 as well as, I argue, the larger human race’s historical evolution in and dependence on the natural world.1 Thus, immersing ourselves in an enfolded natural context has the potential to conjure up positive emotions associated with holding and dependency (both on other humans as well as on nature) within a safe, secure environment. In addition, the process of encapsulation creates a distinctly interior natural zone, one that is only accessible via the built. This higher level of privacy and regulation of interaction could have positive implications for psychological health and wellbeing33, and allowing ourselves to have a greater sense of control over personal and private space can encourage connection and interaction with nature without excessive risk.

In short, encapsulation involves the containment of natural zones and oases that are within (yet distinct from) the built environment and, due to its facilitation of enhanced social regulation and privacy, should have a positive impact on patient experiences and outcomes. However, as encapsulation inherently involves distinguishing the built from the natural, an architectural promenade has not yet been introduced, and diffusion / Architectural Impressionism has not yet been achieved. In addition, the act of containment and segregation of a microcosm of nature could discourage occupants from exploring the natural world beyond this boundary condition, potentially leading to isolation (and all of the negative consequences of such a feeling) of occupants located on the interior side of this boundary. Though encapsulation has both its advantages and disadvantages and is, overall, a relatively simplistic approach to biophilic design, I believe it can be used as a strong foundational basis on the path to diffusion and is a valid step towards Architectural Impressionism.

REFERENCES 1. Stephen R. Kellert, Nature by Design: The Practice of Biophilic Design (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 1-3.

33. Ian Donald, Environmental and Architectural Psychology: The Basics (New York: Routledge, 2022), 60-76.

37. Jeffrey Karl Ochsner, “The Experience of Prospect and Refuge: Frank Lloyd Wright’s Houses as Holding Environments,” American Imago 75, no. 2 (summer 2018): 196-199, https://doi.org/10.1353/aim.2018.0010.

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SCENARIO 01: ENCAPSULATION ARCHITECTURAL EXAMPLES & APPLICATIONS Säynätsalo Town Hall (1949) by Alvar Aalto could be seen as an example of the concept of encapsulation in action. The design features a U-shaped building which encircles a prominent courtyard38, which in turn contains vegetation and allows for the introduction of an abundance of sunlight. The building almost completely surrounds the interior courtyard, creating a layering of space that separates the courtyard from the larger site context. However, Aalto has taken the design further than mere enfoldment and has allowed for the boundaries between the natural and built to become permeable, transitional, and blurred38; this natural progression past enfoldment towards diffusion shall be discussed in more detail in scenario 04. As such, it is still important to recognize that encapsulation has been taken as the first step in this progression and is essential to the building’s overall approach to biophilic design.

FIGURE 09

FIGURE 10

FIGURE 11

Säynätsalo Town Hall exterior, as seen in photograph from courtyard.

Säynätsalo Town Hall interior, as seen in photograph looking towards courtyard.

Annotated plans of Säynätsalo Town Hall. Scale not provided by architect.

Image retrieved via https://www.archdaily.com/783392/ ad-classics-saynatsalo-town-hall-alvar-aalto.

Image retrieved via https://www.archdaily.com/783392/ ad-classics-saynatsalo-town-hall-alvar-aalto.

Base plans retrieved via https://www.archdaily.com/783392/ad-classics-saynatsalo-townhall-alvar-aalto.

Built space

Natural space

REFERENCE 38. Luke Fiederer, “AD Classics: Säynätsalo Town Hall / Alvar Aalto,” ArchDaily, published March 9, 2016, https://www.archdaily.com/783392/ad-classics-saynatsalo-town-hall-alvar-aalto.

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SCENARIO 01: ENCAPSULATION ARCHITECTURAL EXAMPLES & APPLICATIONS The Khoo Teck Puat Hospital (2010), designed by Chris Johnston, also utilizes terraces and natural zones contained within an interior perimeter to create oases of comfort within the “organized chaos” that is the health care program.39 A technology-driven and sustainable39 encapsulation of nature provides space for private reflection, allowing patients and staff to regulate their social interactions and mediate between separate sociofugal spaces (those that limit interaction) and sociopetal spaces (those which encourage interaction).26 Contained corridors and gardens provide a sense of holding, and the incorporation of abundant plant life allows for a juxtaposition between nature and the rectilinear built form of the structure similar to that seen in Impressionist paintings.

FIGURE 12

FIGURE 13

FIGURE 14

The Khoo Teck Puat Hospital exterior, as seen in photograph looking towards courtyard.

The Khoo Teck Puat Hospital exterior, as seen in photograph from courtyard.

Annotated plan of the Khoo Teck Puat Hospital. Please see scale on plan, provided by architect.

Image retrieved via https://rmjm.com/the-architects-perspectivekhoo-teck-puat-hospital/.

Image retrieved via https://living-future.org/case-studies/award-winner-khoo-teck-puathospital/.

Base plan retrieved via https://cooper.edu/project/khoo-teck-puathospital.

Built space

Natural space

REFERENCES 26. Benjamin R. Meagher and Kerry L. Marsh, “Seeking the safety of sociofugal space: Environmental design preferences following social ostracism,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 68 (January 2017): 193, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2016.07.004.

39. “The Architect’s Perspective: Khoo Teck Puat Hospital,” RMJM, published September 28, 2015, https://rmjm.com/the-architects-perspective-khoo-teck-puat-hospital/.

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SCENARIO 01: ENCAPSULATION ARCHITECTURAL EXAMPLES & APPLICATIONS These projects, which I argue have incorporated encapsulation as a biophilic design response, provide examples of encapsulation that I believe can be used within the context of wellness architecture located in southwestern Ohio. Enclosed courtyards off of public lobbies and natural terraces situated outside of private rooms can grant patients and visitors opportunities to regulate their interactions between public (sociopetal) and private (sociofugal) space, offering a greater sense of stability and predictability in an otherwise unpredictable environment. Due to the seasonal weather in Ohio, these areas might benefit from being enclosed completely during winter months and open to the sky in summer months, which could be accomplished via retractable awnings or skylights. The incorporation of plants, water, and fresh air in these contained zones would act as a direct application of biophilic attributes11 and, because of our positive predisposition to natural stimuli1, could help mitigate stressful situations inherent in a mental health care facility.

WHEN COMBINED WITH DIFFERENTIATION, CAN PROGRESS INTO

ENCAPSULATION

RECESSION

REFERENCES 1. Stephen R. Kellert, Nature by Design: The Practice of Biophilic Design (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 1-3.

11. Stephen R. Kellert, Nature by Design: The Practice of Biophilic Design (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 26-27.

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CONCEPTUAL SUMMARY & THEORETICAL BASIS DIFFERENTIATION (.n) /di-fə-ren(t)-shē-ā-shən/

Traditional definition: development from the one to the many, the simple to the complex, or the homogeneous to the heterogeneous40 Proposed definition for Architectural Impressionism: the separation and adjacency of distinctly natural and built elements in order to develop a contrast between them Another way of articulating the relationship between the natural and built environments involves differentiating between, or highlighting the separation between, the two. This technique is related to, yet quite different from, encapsulation; while the process of enfolding creates natural spatial layers within built spatial layers, differentiation places both natural and built elements within the same layer while still ensuring their formal separation. Differentiated spaces are created when we situate aspects of the natural and built environments adjacent to each other but do not allow them to directly interact. The natural and built environments are inherently distinct from one another, and it is this very distinction that highlights their differences and draws one’s attention to their juxtaposition. In other words, rather than utilizing the elements’ adjacency for the purpose of integration and cohesion, differentiation revitalizes the boundary between the natural and built worlds with the intent of appreciating the qualities of each as separate entities. Neither environment is prioritized over the other, meaning neither is layered into the other; the natural and the built are treated as equals, and their juxtaposition creates a unique environment in which the sum is greater than the parts.

FIGURE 15 Abstract diagram of differentiation.

REFERENCE 40. “Differentiation,” Merriam-Webster, accessed November 24, 2023, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/differentiation.

Built space

Natural space

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CONCEPTUAL SUMMARY & THEORETICAL BASIS I argue that differentiation is rooted in the principles of biophilia and is uniquely tied to the modern, technologically-driven world’s adversarial relationship with nature.1 Despite the fact that humans developed in “adaptive response” to natural phenomena, current developed societies tend to see nature as something needing to be conquered or overcome in the name of progress.1 However, the fact that we do still exist in a natural world means that a clashing or juxtaposition of the built and the nature is inevitable. Rather than attempting to reconcile the differences between the two, differentiation would have us celebrate each separately. This approach shares some similarities with the Impressionist movement which, as previously discussed, often saw artists depicting technologically-driven scenes and lifestyles taking place beside a natural context.34 Rather than reject technology, painters often depicted it directly adjacent to nature, utilizing juxtaposition to emphasize the “modernization of the landscape.”34 However, while Impressionism (and thus Architectural Impressionism) could be described as abstract, interpretive, and generally blurred in form and meaning34, the scenario of differentiation portrays the boundary between the natural and built in a much starker, more clearly delineated way.

In short, differentiation involves the adjacency yet separation of natural and built forms and, due to its facilitation of the coexistence of these two worlds, should provide opportunities for patients to interact with varied environmental stimuli. However, as differentiation inherently involves distinguishing the built from the natural, an architectural promenade has not yet been introduced, and diffusion / Architectural Impressionism has not yet been achieved. In addition, the act of separation and distinguishing of certain elements from others will ultimately result in a more detailoriented architectural atmosphere, one which is lacking the Impressionist quality of abstraction.34 Though differentiation has both its advantages and disadvantages and is, overall, a relatively simplistic approach to biophilic design, I believe it can be used as a strong foundational basis on the path to diffusion and is a valid step towards Architectural Impressionism.

REFERENCES 1. Stephen R. Kellert, Nature by Design: The Practice of Biophilic Design (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 1-3.

34. Margaret Samu, “Impressionism: Art and Modernity,” The Metropolitan Museum of Art, published October 2004, https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/imml/hd_imml.htm.

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SCENARIO 02: differentiation ARCHITECTURAL EXAMPLES & APPLICATIONS Kanagawa Institute of Technology (1975), created by Junya Ishigami, is an example of an architectural project that places natural and built forms in direct adjacency to each other in a way that highlights their differences. A stark white interior and a strong, rectilinear building perimeter separate the contained built structure from the natural exterior. While plant life has been incorporated in the design of the interior, the plants are sporadic and freestanding and do not directly impact the structure of the built environment itself. Thus, while the built and the natural exist next to each other, they exist separately and stand in stark contrast to each other. Indeed, the color, texture, and shape of the built form keep “the focus on the space and the view, not the structure;”41 in other words, the noticeable difference between the natural and the built creates an emphasis on larger environmental and formal qualities of the design. In fact, in this specific project, the built structure itself begins to be imbued with qualities normally found in a more natural environment; at this point, the design has begun to progress past differentiation towards true Architectural Impressionism, which will be described in further detail in scenario 04. However, it is still important to recognize that differentiation has been taken as the first step in this progression and is essential to the building’s overall approach to biophilic design.

Built space (Indicates location of interior columns)

Natural space (Indicates potential locations for interior plant life, which is scattered in between programmed areas and is juxtaposed by the presence of built columns)

FIGURE 16

FIGURE 17

FIGURE 18

Kanagawa Institute of Technology interior, as seen in photograph looking towards perimeter windows.

Kanagawa Institute of Technology exterior, as seen in photograph from nearby tree line.

Annotated plan of the Kanagawa Institute of Technology. Scale not provided by architect.

Image retrieved via https://www.archdaily.com/66661/66661.

Image retrieved via https://www.archdaily.com/66661/66661.

Base plan retrieved via https://architecture-tokyo. com/2017/07/07/2008-kanagawa-institute-of-technologyworkshop-junya-ishigami/.

REFERENCE 41. Karen Cilento, “Kanagawa Institute of Technology Workshop / Junya Ishigami,” ArchDaily, published June 30, 2010, https://www.archdaily.com/66661/66661.

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ARCHITECTURAL EXAMPLES & APPLICATIONS This project, which I argue has incorporated differentiation as a biophilic design response, provides examples of differentiation that I believe can be used within the context of wellness architecture located in southwestern Ohio. Specifically, we can incorporate native natural species adjacent to the forms of the built environment in a way that highlights the distinction between the built and the natural. In the mosaic4 that is the southwestern Ohio landscape, there are abundant prairies, meadows, water bodies, and otherwise flattened agricultural areas that are broken up by taller woodlands and built zones. If we were to build in a flat context, for example, we could contrast the horizontality of the landscape with verticality in the built structure, and vice versa for taller contexts. In addition, when building adjacent to a running stream or other body of water, we could incorporate quiet zones for reflection or meditation in order to create a noticeable difference in noise level, thus highlighting the movement of the natural environment. Other techniques through which we could accomplish differentiation (but not necessarily Architectural Impressionism) include the use of highly-finished manmade materials, inorganic rectilinear forms, and visible technology (even sustainable technology, such as solar panels, windmills, or other active sustainable interventions). Within the context of wellness architecture, distinguished and unintegrated forms can prompt interaction and reflection from occupants, providing positive mental engagement for patients.

WHEN COMBINED WITH ENCAPSULATION, CAN PROGRESS INTO

DIFFERENTIATION

RECESSION

REFERENCE 4. Sarah E. Kolbe et al., “Effects of natural and anthropogenic environmental influences on tree community composition and structure in forests along an urban-wildland gradient in southwestern Ohio,” Urban Ecosystems 19, no. 2 (January 2016): 915, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-016-0531-7.

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SCENARIO 03: recession CONCEPTUAL SUMMARY & THEORETICAL BASIS RECESSION (.n) /ri-se-shən/

Traditional definition: the act or action of receding; withdrawal42 Proposed definition for Architectural Impressionism: the distancing of an object from the subject in a design; passive retreating and concealment of the subject Closely tied to prospect-refuge theory, the concept of recession is created through the framing of interior or exterior views (prospects) for viewing from contained sheltered spaces (refuges). In this way, recession combines both previously described scenarios of encapsulation (through the inclusion of enclosed refuges where viewing can take place) and differentiation (the separation of and distance between prospect and refuge). Prospect-refuge theory, the basis for this scenario, has been previously described as prioritizing the act of seeing from a place of concealment12 in order to offer the viewer, located in the refuge, a sense of safety and regulation of their interactions with the objects in the prospect. Prospect-refuge has been incorporated as an experiential attribute of biophilic design and is relevant to modern human wellbeing because of our “evolutionary preferences” for perceived distance.32 While the prospect could arguably be seen as traditionally natural (since during our evolutionary history, prospects would have often been exterior natural phenomena viewed from a safe, enclosed space), architectural prospects have the potential to be either exterior or interior, natural or built. The prospect / object is viewed by a subject from and through the context of a built refuge, such as a balcony, terrace, or enclosed room at the end of a long hallway.32 Key to the scenario of recession is the distance between prospect and refuge; I argue that each inherently exists independently from the other, and without the insertion of an architectural promenade between them, the prospect will forever remain inaccessible to the subject and recessed into the distance. In other words, without the inclusion of transitional space, the natural / built prospect will forever remain an image framed by a built refuge and will only be able to be distantly observed by a passive viewer.

REFERENCES 12. Jay Appleton, “Prospects and Refgues Re-Visited,” Landscape Journal 3, no. 2 (September 1984): 93, https://www.jstor.org/stable/43322970.

32. Stephen R. Kellert, Nature by Design: The Practice of Biophilic Design (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 90-99.

42. “Recession,” Merriam-Webster, accessed November 24, 2023, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/recession.

FIGURE 19 Abstract diagram of recession.

Built space

Natural space

Visual (but not yet accessible) connection

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CONCEPTUAL SUMMARY & THEORETICAL BASIS The very concept of the “refuge” intrinsically calls to mind ideas of privacy, personal space, and territoriality, all of which are vital in one’s regulation of human interaction and avoidance of crowding discomfort.33 The enclosed nature of the refuge embodies the scenario of encapsulation, and thus, can allow for the same psychological benefits that come with encapsulation’s increased allowance for regulation of personal space. In addition, the concept of recession between the refuge and the viewed prospect lends itself to comparison to an Impressionist painting, as both convey an air of mystery and indefinability and invite viewers to observe a snapshot of modern life34 from a distance and through a frame. The very act of viewing the prospect from a refuge mirrors the experience of standing back and viewing a painting hung in a gallery. However, I would argue that recession by itself does not yet fully embody Architectural Impressionism, as architecture is an inherently three-dimensional entity in which distances are accessible via transitional space. The concept of recession could be developed further through the incorporation of an architectural promenade between prospect and refuge, which will be described in detail as diffusion in scenario 04.

In short, recession involves the viewing of relatively distant objects (either interior or exterior) from places of concealment and, due to its facilitation of the individual’s control over their personal environment, should provide opportunities for patients to healthily regulate their spatial experiences and social interactions. However, as recession inherently involves a separation between the subject and object, an architectural promenade has not yet been introduced, and diffusion / Architectural Impressionism has not yet been achieved. In addition, the distance of object from subject and the act of passive viewing do not yet situate the occupant as an active participant in the design, perhaps encouraging the sedentariness and acquiescence that biophilic design strives against.1 Though recession has both its advantages and disadvantages, I believe it can be used as a strong foundational basis on the path to diffusion and is a valid step towards Architectural Impressionism.

REFERENCES 1. Stephen R. Kellert, Nature by Design: The Practice of Biophilic Design (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 1-3.

33. Ian Donald, Environmental and Architectural Psychology: The Basics (New York: Routledge, 2022), 60-76.

34. Margaret Samu, “Impressionism: Art and Modernity,” The Metropolitan Museum of Art, published October 2004, https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/imml/hd_imml.htm.

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SCENARIO 03: recession ARCHITECTURAL EXAMPLES & APPLICATIONS Frank Lloyd Wright utilized prospect-refuge theory, knowingly or unknowingly (though likely intuitively), in most of his architectural designs (Ochsner, 186-192), perhaps the most well known being Fallingwater (1936). This project involves the application of deep-set terraces, floor-to-ceiling windows, varying ceiling heights, and large, framed panoramic views.43 While interior refuges appear to be distinct and distant from exterior prospects, separated by the boundary of window glazing, exterior refuges (such as those on terraces) provide accessible pathways to the prospect of the surrounding natural context; this accessible promenade is a natural development of the concept of recession and will be described further in scenario 04. While these examples of interior vs. exterior prospect and refuge are similar, they are different in application and will offer a different final experience for the user, either as passive viewer or active participant.

FIGURE 20

FIGURE 21

FIGURE 22

Fallingwater exterior, as seen in photograph looking from wooded prospect.

Fallingwater interior refuge, as seen in photograph looking towards glazed perimeter.

Annotated plan of Fallingwater and site. Please see scale on plan, provided by architect.

Image retrieved via https://www.tripsavvy.com/fallingwater-in-mill-runpennsylvania-2707092.

Image retrieved via https://www.elledecoration.co.uk/houses/a28464575/ fallingwater-architect-frank-lloyd-wright-masterpiece/.

REFERENCE 43. Jeffrey Karl Ochsner, “The Experience of Prospect and Refuge: Frank Lloyd Wright’s Houses as Holding Environments,” American Imago 75, no. 2 (summer 2018): 186-192, https://doi.org/10.1353/aim.2018.0010.

Base plan retrieved via https://www.loc.gov/resource/hhh.pa1690. sheet/?sp=4.

Built, interior / exterior refuges

Natural, exterior prospects

Refuge terraces

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SCENARIO 03: recession ARCHITECTURAL EXAMPLES & APPLICATIONS Villa Savoye (1929), designed by Le Corbusier, might appear to be the formal opposite of Fallingwater, but the buildings actually share many similarities in terms of prospect and refuge. Though designed as a “machine for living,”44 the structure still incorporates framed views of both exterior and interior prospects, the exterior of which showcases the surrounding natural context. The second floor is the main location of these zones of refuge, as the open plan first floor exhibits permeability and encourages movement44, and is thus more suitable for discussion as diffusion in scenario 04. The distance between the adjacent trees and these second floor refuges from which they are purposefully made viewable highlight the separation and lack of accessibility that I argue is present in recession and what distinguishes recession from diffusion. Villa Savoye has been designed as a machine yet placed within a natural context which, from the second floor, is only indirectly accessible via passive viewing rather than active engagement.

FIGURE 23

FIGURE 24

FIGURE 25

Villa Savoye exterior, as seen in photograph looking from wooded prospect.

Villa Savoye interior refuge, as seen in photograph looking towards glazed perimeter.

Annotated plans of Villa Savoye. Scale not provided by architect.

Image retrieved via https://archeyes.com/the-villa-savoyele-corbusier/.

Image retrieved via https://www.archdaily.com/84524/ ad-classics-villa-savoye-le-corbusier.

Base plans retrieved via https://www.inexhibit.com/case-studies/le-corbusier-villa-savoye-part-2architecture/.

Built, interior refuges

Refuge terraces / roof gardens

Natural, exterior prospects

REFERENCE 44. Andrew Kroll, “Architecture Classics: Villa Savoye / Le Corbusier,” ArchDaily, published October 27, 2010, https://www.archdaily.com/84524/ad-classics-villa-savoye-le-corbusier.

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PART 03: ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM, POSSIBLE DESIGN SCENARIOS & CASE STUDIES

SCENARIO 03: recession ARCHITECTURAL EXAMPLES & APPLICATIONS Certain portions of each of these projects develop further from recession into diffusion, which shall be discussed in scenario 04. However, it is still important to recognize that recession has been taken as the first step in this progression and is essential to the buildings’ overall approach to biophilic design. These projects, which I argue have incorporated recession as a biophilic design response, provide examples of recession that I believe can be used within the context of wellness architecture located in southwestern Ohio. The incorporation of low, flat, horizontally-inclined refuges would align well with the relatively flat landscape of the area, in which the prospects themselves are likely to also be low to the ground. Placing a refuge on a similar level to the intended prospect should allow for an enhanced viewing experience and sense of visual connection, even if movement between the two is limited. Providing a visual link to exterior natural prospects from refuges in patient rooms and gathering spaces would also allow patients to experience an indirect connection between the natural and built worlds and could, again, afford them a greater sense of regulation of interaction and knowledge of their environment from a place of safety. As discussed previously, greater social regulation and availability of privacy (when desired) are associated with a heightened sense of environmental control33 and stability, and could thus be utilized as a way to positively impact patient outcomes via architectural design.

WITH THE INTRODUCTION OF AN ARCHITECTURAL PROMENADE, CAN PROGRESS INTO

RECESSION

DIFFUSION

REFERENCE 33. Ian Donald, Environmental and Architectural Psychology: The Basics (New York: Routledge, 2022), 60-76.

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SCENARIO 04: diffusion CONCEPTUAL SUMMARY & THEORETICAL BASIS

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PART 03: ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM, POSSIBLE DESIGN SCENARIOS & CASE STUDIES

DIFFUSION (.n) /di-fyü-zhən/

Traditional definition: the state of being spread out or transmitted especially by contact; the softening of sharp outlines in an image45 Proposed definition for Architectural Impressionism: the blurring of the boundary between natural and built contexts; the incorporation of motifs traditionally seen in one context into another; abstracted transitions If recession is the combination of encapsulation and differentiation, then diffusion is the natural development of recession when combined with the concept of the architectural promenade. Diffusion, I argue, is created when we blur the distinction between the natural and built worlds by bringing what would traditionally be seen as exterior into the interior, and what would traditionally be seen as interior into the exterior. The visual connection between the separated prospect and refuge that was established in scenario 03 via recession is made accessible in diffusion, allowing those who were passive viewers to become active participants in the design. This creation of transitional space, through which one can quite literally promenade, transforms what was previously two-dimensional (inaccessible prospect viewed through the frame of a refuge) into three-dimensional space. This progression from two dimensions to three corresponds with the emergence of what I have called Architectural Impressionism. The overlapping of the built and natural, or the exterior and interior, and the blurred transitional space connecting them situates one in a sort of interactive, all-encompassing Impressionist painting - but not a flat canvas made of brushstrokes and paint, but rather a dynamic environment created from real world materials and architectural forms.

The abstracted shapes and colors, lack of clear definability, and unfinished details present in the work of Impressionist painters34 are articulated via the design choices themselves. Diffusion, and thus Architectural Impressionism, emphasize the importance of human interaction with and within architectural designs; therefore, they tend to address issues at the human scale and from the human perspective. This prioritizing and depicting of “modern life”34 is shared by both Impressionism as an artistic movement and Architectural Impressionism and is well-suited to tackle issues of physical and mental wellbeing.

FIGURE 26 REFERENCES 34. Margaret Samu, “Impressionism: Art and Modernity,” The Metropolitan Museum of Art, published October 2004, https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/imml/hd_imml.htm.

45. “Diffusion,” Merriam-Webster, accessed November 24, 2023, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/diffusion.

Abstract diagram of diffusion.

Built space

Natural space

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ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM

SCENARIO 04: diffusion CONCEPTUAL SUMMARY & THEORETICAL BASIS / ARCHITECTURAL APPLICATIONS & EXAMPLES While the transition from recession (scenario 03) to diffusion (scenario 04) may be the most easily recognizable, with prospects and refuges being connected via the architectural promenade, diffusion is also a natural progression of encapsulation (scenario 01) and differentiation (scenario 02) that can be seen most clearly through recession. Encapsulation, or the enfoldment of the natural exterior into the built interior, marks the beginning of an adjacency between the two worlds. Through differentiation, or the highlighting of differences between natural and built via their separation, the juxtaposition between worlds is emphasized and prospects and refuges begin to become distinct. In recession, prospects and refuges (or natural and built, exterior and interior) become fully distinct entities and are situated at a distance from each other. Finally, in diffusion, we begin to blur the distinction between the aforementioned binaries via the inclusion of architectural transition elements that encourage a promenade. In an effort to determine just what these kinds of elements might look like in an applied context, let us further reflect on the previously studied architectural precedents, many of which have already begun to take on characteristics of diffusion and Architectural Impressionism.

As I argued previously, Säynätsalo Town Hall primarily uses the concept of encapsulation in order to provide occupants the experience of contained nature within a built environment. However, Aalto also further develops this notion past encapsulation and towards diffusion by incorporating permeability into several entrances and exits directly from the courtyard into the surrounding corridors.38 In addition, the courtyard can clearly be seen in the previously shown plan as spilling outwards past the perimeter of the building via a large, green staircase.38 This blurred transitional space, which incorporates both built and natural elements, shows how encapsulation can be used as a stepping stone towards diffusion and Architectural Impressionism.

Kanagawa Institute of Technology, on the other hand, utilizes differentiation as a means of bringing occupants’ attention to both natural and built forms as separate but complimentary entities. Ishigami takes the highlighting of difference to a diffuse level, however, as he allows the built form to begin to take on qualities of the juxtaposed natural elements that surround it. The inclusion of plant life situated next to an array of slender, tenuous columns causes the columns to appear almost as trees rising in a forest, extending an invitation to visitors to take a walk / promenade through them - a quality that I believe they would not have otherwise acquired had they not been juxtaposed with the natural environment. Ishigami’s intent to create a “focus on the space and view”41 compliments this introduction of the architectural promenade and indicates the design’s underlying trajectory towards diffusion and a blurring of the boundaries between clearly defined spaces.

FIGURE 27 A staircase leading from the courtyard of Säynätsalo Town Hall as a promenade element.

Image retrieved via https://www.wikidata.org/ wiki/Q2456080.

FIGURE 28 The juxtaposed built and natural forms of Kanagawa Institute of Technology as blurred spatial categories.

Image retrieved via https://www.flickr.com/ photos/desingel/8444483036.

REFERENCES 38. Luke Fiederer, “AD Classics: Säynätsalo Town Hall / Alvar Aalto,” ArchDaily, published March 9, 2016, https://www.archdaily.com/783392/ad-classics-saynatsalo-town-hall-alvar-aalto.

41. Karen Cilento, “Kanagawa Institute of Technology Workshop / Junya Ishigami,” ArchDaily, published June 30, 2010, https://www.archdaily.com/66661/66661.

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ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM

SCENARIO 04: diffusion ARCHITECTURAL EXAMPLES & APPLICATIONS In regards to Frank Lloyd Wright’s Fallingwater and Le Corbusier’s Villa Savoye, recession can be seen evolving into diffusion via physical connections between specific prospects and refuges. In each of these architectural precedents, prospect and refuge are often articulated separately and without a physical connection; however, we can still find prominent examples of physical accessibility and enhanced three-dimensionality beginning to form between them. In Fallingwater, viewing points beyond deep-set terraces43 look out onto the surrounding forested landscape, and in some locations, the floor gives way to exterior staircases that lead the newly active subject out into the realm of the object. In Villa Savoye, a deep-set first floor allows for occupants to move freely within and through the perimeter of the building44, blurring the boundary between building and landscape via this addition of permeability, and encouraging movement between the natural and the built. These examples are, quite literally, physical manifestations of an architectural promenade between prospect and refuge, which I have described here as critical to the three-dimensionality and interactivity of Architectural Impressionism.

These projects, which I argue have incorporated diffusion as a biophilic and Impressionist design response, provide examples of diffusion that I believe can be used within the context of wellness architecture located in southwestern Ohio. Columns that branch outwards and upwards like trees, open floor plans whose unconfined expansion calls to mind large acres of farmland, contrasting enclosed-ceiling and opened-ceiling courtyards, and winding pathways that transport occupants within and through perimeter conditions towards the horizon line are all techniques which would integrate well into the landscape of the chosen context. The combination of technology and nature also has the potential to result in enhanced sustainability practices, such as through the application of integrated passive and active environmental techniques. Diffusion in passive sustainability might look like permeable corridor openings between a courtyard and building interior that invite in natural ventilation and abundant daylighting; alternatively, diffusion in active sustainability could involve the design of an integrated solar roof that subtly incorporates solar panels throughout the roof form, blending the two together through the careful selection of colors, shapes, textures, and materials. In a mental health facility, offering patients a multitude of options in which to subtly interact with and move within natural forms will allow patients to reap the benefits of experiential biophilic attributes that are immersive, authentic, and integrated into the design - all characteristics which have proven vital to the success of applied biophilia.10 Overall, concepts that should be explored in Impressionist architecture include permeability, movement, and natural motifs incorporated into built forms - all for the purpose of enhancing the human experience and promoting positive mental outcomes.

REFERENCES 10. Stephen R. Kellert, Nature by Design: The Practice of Biophilic Design (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 18-24.

43. Jeffrey Karl Ochsner, “The Experience of Prospect and Refuge: Frank Lloyd Wright’s Houses as Holding Environments,” American Imago 75, no. 2 (summer 2018): 186-192, https://doi.org/10.1353/aim.2018.0010.

44. Andrew Kroll, “Architecture Classics: Villa Savoye / Le Corbusier,” ArchDaily, published October 27, 2010, https://www.archdaily.com/84524/ad-classics-villa-savoye-le-corbusier.

FIGURE 29 An exterior staircase of Fallingwater as a promenade element.

Image retrieved via https://deepcreekinns.com/ tour-frank-lloyd-wrights-fallingwater-house/.

FIGURE 30 Permeable ground floor plan of Villa Savoye as an abstracted perimeter condition.

Image retrieved via https://www.metalocus.es/ en/news/villa-savoye-le-corbusiers-machineinhabit.

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CHLOE KISELA

FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT:

ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM

PART 03: ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM, POSSIBLE DESIGN SCENARIOS & CASE STUDIES

A Case Study of Exemplary Diffusion & Architectural Impressionism As previously discussed, Frank Lloyd Wright and his architectural works frequently feature spatial qualities and embedded promenades that are exemplary of the designed blur that is present in Architectural Impressionism. I argue that Wright’s design practices and tendencies are fantastic examples of applied Architectural Impressionism / diffusion and, specifically, that Wright’s buildings exemplify the natural progression of recession towards diffusion. Wright’s use of contained refuges looking out onto panoramic prospects combined with a circuitous architectural promenade43 invites occupants to experience more deeply the combined built and natural worlds, lending the study of Wright’s designs towards the successful application of similar practices in wellness architecture.

Wright often utilized the concept of prospect and refuge, which I have described as recession in scenario 03, to create places of comfort and concealment located deep inside his buildings. Many of Wright’s houses feature interconnected interior spaces46 with repeated elements such as fireplaces, terraces, glazing, and varied ceiling heights that relate inside to outside.43 It is Wright’s use of these key elements that creates the experience of refuge and both exterior and interior (nested) prospects43 For example, in the Arthur Heurtley and Edwin Cheney houses, Wright places the living room underneath a hipped roof in order to allow for a vaulted effect in which the sides of the ceiling are lower than the peaked center, creating an interior boundary condition that situates the edge as a refuge and the center as a prospect.43 Set-back fireplaces with built-in seating are often placed in these perimeter zones of refuge to offer opportunities for the viewing of prospects.43 Glazed windows and accessible terraces are also found along the room’s perimeter, allowing occupants to take advantage of the wide, panoramic views of the (usually wooded) natural environment surrounding the home.43 Seeing as those on the terrace will have direct lines of sight to take in surrounding views but will yet remain visually inaccessible to others on the public street, these terraces could also be classified as unique exterior refuges.43 Overall, it is clear that Wright is quite skilled at incorporating numerous points for both prospect and refuge in the programming of his homes.

REFERENCES 43. Jeffrey Karl Ochsner, “The Experience of Prospect and Refuge: Frank Lloyd Wright’s Houses as Holding Environments,” American Imago 75, no. 2 (summer 2018): 186-192, https://doi.org/10.1353/aim.2018.0010.

46. Jeffrey Karl Ochsner, “The Experience of Prospect and Refuge: Frank Lloyd Wright’s Houses as Holding Environments,” American Imago 75, no. 2 (summer 2018): 182, https://doi.org/10.1353/aim.2018.0010.

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ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM

PROMENADE & SEQUENCE Another key component to Wright’s designs is his emphasis on the sequence of movement that connects interior to exterior.46 Wright is known for his incorporation of a circuitous43 architectural promenade that, in and of itself, creates moments of prospect and refuge. For example, the front doors of Wright’s homes are often concealed from view from public streets and are accessible only via an indirect, twisting entry condition, and once inside, narrow, low-ceilinged interior hallways tend to lead to open, high-ceilinged public spaces that act as nested prospects.43 Connecting these repeated spatial experiences of prospect and refuge in a way that allows the occupant to participate in them compounds their effects43 and likely heightens the different emotions of security, mystery, and discovery that one might experience while inhabiting the space. Furthermore, the combination of recession (prospect and refuge) and the architectural promenade is the very alignment that, I argue, leads to the progression of recession into diffusion. These sequential experiences of containment and openness act as “transitional objects [which] are simultaneously created and discovered”47 and that extend an invitation for us to experiment and play with them in safe, non-stressful ways.47 The two-dimensionality of the viewed prospect is transformed into the three-dimensionality of the interactive prospect via the incorporation of transitional space originating at the refuge, such as a staircase leading down from a terrace into the garden below or an interior twisting hallway leading from private entry to public gathering space.

REFERENCES 43. Jeffrey Karl Ochsner, “The Experience of Prospect and Refuge: Frank Lloyd Wright’s Houses as Holding Environments,” American Imago 75, no. 2 (summer 2018): 186-192, https://doi.org/10.1353/aim.2018.0010.

46. Jeffrey Karl Ochsner, “The Experience of Prospect and Refuge: Frank Lloyd Wright’s Houses as Holding Environments,” American Imago 75, no. 2 (summer 2018): 182, https://doi.org/10.1353/aim.2018.0010.

47. Jeffrey Karl Ochsner, “The Experience of Prospect and Refuge: Frank Lloyd Wright’s Houses as Holding Environments,” American Imago 75, no. 2 (summer 2018): 194-195, https://doi.org/10.1353/aim.2018.0010.

FIGURE 31 Photograph of the exterior of the Heurtley House (1902), designed by Wright.

Image retrieved via https://www.chicagotribune.com/suburbs/oak-park/ct-oakcolumn-dechter-tl-0518-20170511-story.html.

FIGURE 32 Annotated plans of the Heurtley House. Scale / north arrow not provided by architect.

Note the major circuitous entry and circulation paths, annotated with Base plans retrieved via https://www.atlasofinteriors.polimi.it/2014/03/19/wrightheurtley/.

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THE UNITY OF MONISM Frank Lloyd Wright succeeds at taking the concept of prospect and refuge and transforming it into Architectural Impressionism because of how he relates subject to object. The subject (occupant) and object (his or her surroundings) are often contextualized as separate, with a typical example of recession locating the subject in a contained space and the object in an open space.48 However, researcher Kwang-ho Kim has argued that Wright’s designs deviate from this notion and tend towards monism, or the unity of subject and object48, and the “destruction of the box”48 in such a way that typical rectilinear space becomes voided, abstracted, and intertwined with the space around it. From the enhanced “spatial mobility”48 inherent in Wright’s sequences that lead from refuge to prospect emerges an organic, dynamic architecture that “unif[ies] land and architecture”49 and that successfully creates an abstracted, Impressionistic blur. When combined with the textured and naturally-finished surfaces often found in the interior of his houses50, Wright’s unifying architectural promenade takes on a tactility that lends itself to the interactiveness of the space. In its transformation into diffuse architecture, the design becomes akin to an allencompassing, real life Impressionist painting, one which invites its occupants to move around and physically experience its space with enhanced freedom, personal control, and natural harmony.

REFERENCES 48. Kwang-ho Kim, “A Study on the Concept of Prospect in Frank Lloyd Wright’s Works,” Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering 1, no. 1 (March 2002): 297-299, https://doi.org/10.3130/jaabe.1.297.

49. Kwang-ho Kim, “A Study on the Concept of Prospect in Frank Lloyd Wright’s Works,” Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering 1, no. 1 (March 2002): 301, https://doi.org/10.3130/jaabe.1.297.

50. Jeffrey Karl Ochsner, “The Experience of Prospect and Refuge: Frank Lloyd Wright’s Houses as Holding Environments,” American Imago 75, no. 2 (summer 2018): 199, https://doi.org/10.1353/aim.2018.0010.

FIGURE 33 Photograph of the exterior of the Willey House (1934), designed by Wright.

Image retrieved via http://www.thewilleyhouse.com.

FIGURE 34 Annotated plan of the Willey House. Scale / north arrow not provided by architect.

Note the major circuitous entry and circulation paths, annotated with Base plan retrieved via https://franklloydwright.org/willey-house-part-13-the-plow-thatbroke-the-plains/.

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part 04: METHODS OF REPRESENTATION & CONCLUDING REMARKS

CHLOE KISELA PART 04: METHODS OF REPRESENTATION & CONCLUDING REMARKS

ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM

TOWARDS A DIFFUSE ARCHITECTURE The human and natural worlds have been drifting apart for some time. The increasingly technological, indoor lifestyle1 of the human being unfortunately does not allow for much interaction with nature, apart from the occasional vacation or excursion, or when we need to use natural resources to our benefit. A separate crisis of mental health, though perhaps tied to similar social issues2 of loneliness and isolation, has left our country’s population longing for something greater than what we are being offered now. I have argued in this proposal that the implementation of biophilic principles, viewed through the lens of environmental psychology, in the built environment has the potential to improve human wellbeing by satisfying our inherent, evolutionary desire for communion with the natural world.1 I have further argued that the goals of biophilic design - namely, our bettered physical and mental health along with our increased harmony with nature - are best exemplified through the concept of Architectural Impressionism, which I have defined as the design of space which is abstract, human-centric, interactive, and permeable. The introduction of the architectural promenade, or the intentional design of movements and discoveries35, is critical to the creation of Impressionist or diffuse spaces which, when successful, should become akin to an all-encompassing, inhabitable Impressionist painting, one which invites its occupants to move around and physically experience the emotionally-charged space within it. Diffuse architectural designs are uniquely situated to comment on with the human experience and are thus inherently predisposed to make a real, positive impact on the human psyche. I propose that we apply this new, unique conceptualization of Architectural Impressionism, rooted in the theoretical constructs of biophilic design and environmental psychology, to the design of a mental health facility located in southwestern Ohio. The programmatic goals of such as facility could, I believe, benefit from the humanitarian and biophilic aims of such a conceptualization, and the choice of site in a landscape that is at once both rural yet rapidly urbanizing4 situates the project at the heart of the collision of the built and natural.

REFERENCES 1. Stephen R. Kellert, Nature by Design: The Practice of Biophilic Design (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 1-3.

2. Awais Aftab and Benjamin G. Druss, “Addressing the Mental Health Crisis in Youth - Sick Individuals or Sick Societies?,” JAMA Psychiatry 80, no. 9 (June 2023): 864, https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/article-abstract/2806247.

4. Sarah E. Kolbe et al., “Effects of natural and anthropogenic environmental influences on tree community composition and structure in forests along an urban-wildland gradient in southwestern Ohio,” Urban Ecosystems 19, no. 2 (January 2016): 915, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-016-0531-7.

35. François Penz, “The architectural promenade as narrative device: practice based research in architecture and the moving image,” Digital Creativity 15, no. 1 (2004): 39, https://doi.org/10.1076/digc.15.1.39.28152.

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ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM

THE PERSPECTIVAL EXPERIENCE While choosing the appropriate methods of representation for a project is always important, it is especially vital for my proposed design, which shall be rooted in qualities found in Impressionist paintings and, thus, will be a very visual, tactile, and emotional experience. In addition to the standard orthographic drawings typically created during the design process, a building conceptualized via Architectural Impressionism also invites representation through more abstracted and human-centric techniques. The creation of two-dimensional physical paintings or digital artwork exhibiting qualities often found in Impressionist paintings, such as those included in this proposal, would make for a unique and conceptually relevant way to depict the architectural design. The use of abstracted brushstrokes, blots of color or rays of light, and blurred shapes and boundary conditions would allow one to uncover the underlying impressions or qualities of my design while also analyzing its atmospheric and temporal conditions. The translation of three-dimensional Impressionist architecture back into the traditional, flat canvas of the Impressionist painting would be a quite fitting and poetic way of representing the design in two-dimensional form.

I also plan to explore representation of the design through various perspectival views and virtual walkthroughs in order to depict the architecture and site from a uniquely human perspective. In doing so, I hope to gain and share valuable insights into how biophilic design and applied psychological principles might be experienced in a real-world context. Depicting the design from both high and low perspectives, as well as from both “inside looking out” and “outside looking in,” should also allow us to effectively experience the design from the vantages of both humans and creatures in the natural world. For example, a perspective view taken from twenty feet in the air may more accurately depict the building from a tree’s point of view than one taken from on the ground, while aerial perspectives could grant insight into a birds’ eye view from the sky. Emphasizing the stance of the natural world might embolden our empathy for nature and could encourage an increased camaraderie between humans and other creatures.

Lastly, I shall continue to analyze my own photographs and videos of the chosen southwestern Ohio context with the intent of uncovering my personal preferences and biophilic tendencies for incorporation into an Impressionist design. Experiential concepts that exist within this natural landscape that I am drawn to include distant vanishing points, areas of retreat, elongated and low horizontal lines, and a sense of infinity. When I combine these traits of this specific site with the aforementioned case studies of the architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright, Le Corbusier, and Alvar Aalto, I can begin to see the design taking on a low, horizontal, spreading form (similar to that of the landscape) with a permeable ground floor plan that invites movement within and around it, creating an architectural promenade between the built space and the natural. As I continue to embark on site-specific research through various forms of realistic and abstract representation, I hope to arrive at a design that blurs the boundary between built and natural while also enhancing the wellbeing of both human body and mind.

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ARCHITECTURAL IMPRESSIONISM

“ARCHITECTURE” AS the UNION OF built & natural This proposed design project, based in the concepts of biophilic design, environmental psychology, and Architectural Impressionism, would act as an advocate for the strengthening of the blurred relationship between the natural and built worlds. In addition, as a mental health facility, the programming of the project would also serve to better the health of all those who interact with it. It is my belief than the designed blur inherent in Architectural Impressionism is a natural pathway towards enhanced human wellbeing, as it is a means towards increased integration with nature.

The dissolution of hard boundaries between the natural and built worlds into diffuse zones of permeability and movement has the potential to open up a world of architectural possibilities, leading to an expanded assortment of environmental options for the occupant and thus, I argue, an increased sense of personal control and spatial regulation. Nature is not something we should view only as an obstacle to overcome, nor as a mere tool to use in the pursuit of our design goals. Instead, let us view nature not as a means to an end, but a key aspect of the end goal itself. Let us redefine “architecture” as a combination of the built and the natural, as the overlap between these two worlds where what makes us human truly comes to life. Through my design of the proposed mental health facility conceptualized via Architectural Impressionism, I hope to lead the charge in facilitating human wellness and freedom in abstracted, individualized, and emotional environments and, in doing so, help restore some semblance of harmony between the human race and the rest of the natural world.

BUILT ENVIRONMENT IMPRESSIONIST ARCHITECTURE

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

42

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Appleton, Jay. “Prospects and Refuges Re-Visited.” Landscape Journal 3, no. 2 (September 1984): 91-103. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43322970.

Busfield, Joan. “The concept of medicalisation reassessed.” Sociology of Health & Illness 39, no. 5 (January 2017): 759-774. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.12538.

Cilento, Karen. “Kanagawa Institute of Technology Workshop / Junya Ishigami.” ArchDaily. Published June 30, 2010. https://www.archdaily.com/66661/66661.

“Differentiation.” Merriam-Webster. Accessed November 24, 2023. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/differentiation.

“Diffusion.” Merriam-Webster. Accessed November 24, 2023. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/diffusion.

Donald, Ian. Environmental and Architectural Psychology: The Basics. New York: Routledge, 2022.

Dosen, Annemarie S. and Michael J. Ostwald. “Evidence for prospect-refuge theory: a meta-analysis of the findings of environmental preference research.” City, Territory and Architecture 3, no. 4 (May 2016):1-14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40410-016-0033-1.

Edney, Julian J. “Human Territoriality.” Psychological Bulletin 81, no. 12 (December 1974): 959-975. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0037444.

“Encapsulate.” Merriam-Webster. Accessed November 24, 2023. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/encapsulation.

Fiederer, Luke. “AD Classics: Säynätsalo Town Hall / Alvar Aalto.” ArchDaily. Published March 9, 2016. https://www.archdaily.com/783392/ad-classics-saynatsalo-town-hall-alvar-aalto.

Goffman, Erving. Relations in Public: Microstudies of Public Order. New York: Basic Books, 1971.

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