Modern Ruins

Modern Ruins Julia Baeck & Chelseigh Buchanan

Cover image: The Greek Guru (2018)

Modern Ruins

University of Dundee Masters of Architecture 02 Year 5, Semester 1, 2021

06

Introduction

07 Introduction 09 The White Elephant(s)

12

Aim

13 Aim

16

Research

17 Identification 19 Initial Result 21 Alternative Angle

24

Outcome

25 Realisations 27 Points to Note 29 Emerged Patterns

32

Strategy

33 Decentralisation 37 Blockchain 39 Distributed Ledger Technology 41 FOAM 47 Proposed Strategy

54

Conclusion

55 Conclusion

58

Appendix

59 Smart Contracts

88

Bibliography

89 Bibliography 91 Image Bibliography

04

Introduction

This document is done collaboratively

by Julia Beack and Chelseigh Buchanan and is the continuation of the research document Ancient Athens.

Moving from the analysis of how the city has formed into what we see today, we can focus on an area of the city that we believe to be a major unresolved issue - the abandoned buildings.

According to the Athens Resilience Strategy Booklet set out by the city of Athens ‘‘there are approximately 1800 abandoned buildings within the municipality...” (Resilient Cities Network, 2017) . We are interested

in finding why these buildings are abandoned, where these buildings are and if there are any emerging patterns. 1 By investigating the location of abandoned building the hope is that we will be able to identify problem areas and create individual design solutions to resolve the issue.

1 Resilient Cities Network. “Athens’ resilience journey”. Resilient Cities Network .

2017. https://resilientcitiesnetwork.org/ networks/athens/

Introduction

08

Fig. 01: Mulchi (2015) Partly abandoned building in Exarcheia, Athens

The White Elephant(s) ‘’A possession that is useless or troublesome, especially one that is expensive to maintain or difficult to dispose of’’ - Farlex Dictionary 2

The initial question we found ourselves asking was, why are the buildings abandoned? An obvious answer could be the economic crisis, and whilst this did not help, it was not the first trigger for buildings becoming derelict and unused.

The problem existed before the crisis and it has a lot to do with how the industry operates and the attitude of landlords. The majority of buildings in Athens are bought, rather than rented. When owners sell their property, they decide on a number factoring in the attraction of Athens city itself and put it up for said price. Often they are overpriced and there is no interest. Instead of putting the price down, it is sat on and rarely there is a bite. Due to owners wanting to sell, they have no interest in renovating. Property tax is also low so the building can be left to sit and decay.

2 Farlex Dictionary of Idioms, “a white elephant”, Farlex Dictionary of Idioms. 2017, https://bit.ly/3LUsgzq

The White Elephant(s)

This collective attitude of owners is not the only issue, houses are often kept within families. When properties are past down to siblings there may be disagreements on whether to keep or sell. Resulting in nothing happening and again the building is left to suffer.

A third aspect is that Athens is an ancient city with, like most cities, less desireable neighbourhoods compared to others. This is noticed, people start moving out, nobody wants to move in and buildings remain vacant. Whole neighbourhoods deteriorate so much that entire zones within the centre is abandoned. To rejuvenate the area, buildings are sold for very cheap and then demolished, paving the way for developers to come in.

This is something which happened in the neighbourhood of Gazi.

Finally, there was never any planning regulations in place when the concrete multi-housing blocks [polykatoikia] started appearing and there was no planning to save or restore any existing historical buildings. Whilst historic buildings are now protected there are still not any plans to regenerate contemporary buildings so they remain abandoned.

34

Research compiled from: 3 Anastasia Koutoumanou, “Recording the use and ownership patterns of apartments in the Athenian apartment block (polykatoikia” Athens Social Atlas. Dec, 2018. https://bit. ly/363ARR4 4 Quora, “Why are there so many derelict buildings in Athens?”, Quora. 2019. https://bit.ly/3E2M1SG

10

Aim

The aim of this study is to accurately map all the abandoned buildings within the municipal boundary of Athens.* The reason for doing so is to realise the extent of the issue, no longer just a number in a government publication but an image for all involved to understand.

Residents and visitors of the city see the buildings everyday, but because they are so common, they become accepted as part of the urban fabric.

Athens is seen as a modern ruin.

Once all buildings have been identified [to the best of our capability] we wish to propose two independent solutions as an attempt to resolve the unused shells that are scattered throughout the urban environment and bring purpose back to the abandoned city layer.

* With the effect of Covid19 on the current climate and travel restrictions, university guidelines have meant it was not possible to travel to Athens. Alternative research solutions were created, and although it may not be 100% accurate, it is the most accurate we can get at this time.

Aim

14

Fig. 02: Photograph by author (2014) Crowded street in central Athens

Research

Identification List The first step of mapping the abandoned buildings was to create a system to identify them.

We designed a ‘checklist’ of items and if a building met half or more, it would be recognised as abandoned.

[The list is as adjacent]

dead plants etc.]

-

taped off with red and white tape

Once we were able to recognise what

Identification

NUMBER

OBSERVATION

1

Graffiti on the walls

2

State of disrepair [internally and externally]

3

Boarded up [timber planks/metal sheets]

4

Padlocked/chained doors

5

Posters all over facade [street level]

6

Scaffolding [stopping parts from falling onto street below]

7

For sale sign

8

No sign of life [closed windows/shutters/dead plants etc.]

9

Taped off with red and white tape

18

we deemed to be an ‘abandoned building’ the next question to solve was: how do we find them?

The initial attempt was to go through a website containing multiple estate agencys’ listings and determine which of them were abandonded.

From this we were able to map out some of the buildings, however, not all due to incorrect and absent addresses on the website. We soon realised we were missing out a lot of buildings and that we needed to use another method of retrieving data.

Since these buildings were listed to be sold, they could be seen as the ‘official recognition’ of the abandoned buildings as people are trying to do something about them.

Nonetheless, we quickly saw that this is an extremely small percentage of the derelict buildings in Athens.

Initial Result

North Scale 1 : 50 000

Acropolis

20

Fig. 03: Drawn by author(s)

This brought us to google maps [street view 2019]. By systematically searching the streets on google, we were able to map out many more buildings. The ones which have truly been forgotten and fallen below the radar.

We are aware that the information is slightly dated however due to current circumstances, we consider this to be the ‘actual recognition’ of the sitatuation.

Whilst we were able to map out a large zone within the central boundary, we made the educated decision to assume the patterns would be replicated across the unsurveyed zones. Instead of continuing the time-consuming study of the whole area, we felt we had a large enough area covered to represent the problem and decided against carrying on the investigation any further. This enabled us more time to develop design proposals, giving use back to the buildings.

Alternative Angle

North Scale 1 : 50 000

Acropolis

22

Fig. 04: Drawn by author(s)

Outcome

Realisations For a building to be determined as ‘abandoned’ it had to be fully unused, so whilst we have been able to find a large number of buildings, this does not cover the structures where the residential upper floors are empty and the ground floor retail units are still in use.

From virtually walking the streets of Athens we were able to not only locate the abandoned buildings but also develop and understanding of the urban environment in more than just a 2D map.

The strict list used to identify the buildings (see page 18) meant that many were excluded. Mainly this was due to the ground floor still being used for retail even if the upper floors were eroding and unused. This observation shows how it is residential that is abandoned, retail is not. This could provide us with an insight into what function to give the buildings in our independent proposals.

Realisations

Moreover, whilst comparing street view to the older digital map we had, we were able to change and update the plan accordingly. We realised there are more ‘gap sites’ than we initially thought. The city is still incredibly dense however it may be exaggerated by lack of interest and differences across the city. It becomes hard to identify holes when they are the same size as the polykatoikias.

Not all the abandoned buildings are left as empty shells. There are a sites where squatters, immigrants and/or refugees use the buildings as places to teach and learn. Where the Greek language is taught and where these teachers can be sheltered.

The abandoned buildings are so common, yet the intricate network they form and the importance of them to the unknown population of Athens should not be lost. Thought will have to go in to ensure these people do not lose their classrooms and homes, instead, we will create these spaces for them - which will also enable a more seamless way for refugees to be integrated into the city.

26

Fig. 05: Google Street View (2019) Examples of buildings where the ground floor is functioning and upper floors are vacant.

Points to note about the abandoned buildings: - Ground floor: posters [of things to come]. Facade becomes about future covering the historic facade and memory [ignorance?]

- First floor: added barrier to prevent building falling on pedestrians - Upper floors: left to ruin - There would be more buildings marked as ‘abandoned’ but with the ground floors in use [residential is abandoned, retail is not] - There are more ‘gap sites’ than first thought - The city is still dense, however it may be exaggerated by the lack of interest or difference, it becomes harder to spot holes - ‘Brat’ graffiti and abundance in certain neighbourhoods - Many are not even buildings anymore, just supported facades

Points to Note

28

Fig. 06: Google Street View (2019)

Following the method of locating the abandoned buildings, patterns started to emerge. These patterns create opportunity for larger scaled interventions.

Where corner blocks could be transformed into public plazas.

Whole blocks may be completely redesigned where new relationships between neighbouring streets could be created. Buildings across streets could enable pedestrian pathways to be widened where activity could take place instead of a building ruining.

So, it is not just the abandoned buildings which exist, but abandoned junctions, blocks and streets which all have a huge impact on the city environment.

Emerged Patterns

Corners of Blocks

North 100 m

Within Blocks

Google street view survey Real estate sales survey

Between Blocks

30

Fig. 07: Drawn by author(s) Fig. 08: Drawn by author(s) Fig. 09: Drawn by author(s)

Strategy

Decentralisation “The transfer of control of an activity or organization to several local offices or authorities rather than one single one.”

- Oxford Dictionary

5

In a centralised system, all users are connected directly to a central server that contains all data to be distributed, analysed and controlled.

A decentralised system means that users have access to multiple servers that each contain the relevant data.

In case of failure at one server there is access to others, and they can be deployed at a more local level.

Decentralisation is closely related to a distributed system where there is no element of centralisation, each user has equal access to data, it is fully democratised.

5 Oxford Lexico, “Decentralisation”, Oxford Lexico. https://bit.ly/3uxuleF

Decentralisation

C E N T R A L I S E D

D E C E N T R A L I S E D

34

Fig. 10: Drawn by author(s) Illustration explaining centralised vs decentralised

Decentralisation is most recognised in the context of power or authority, which is not the whole truth.

Any field can incorporate tools or the mindset of decentralisation.

Resources, production, fabrication capacity, finance, design talent and even creativity can be decentralised.

Later in this document [see Proposed Strategy on page 47] an otherwise centralised tracking and planning process will be conceptualised and presented in a decentralised manner.

A, if not the , key tool of decentralisation is blockchain.

Decentralisation

36

Fig. 11: Noun Project (various artists)

Blockchain Blockchain consists of blocks that hold information. The blocks are stored on a network of computers and servers anywhere in the world.

Information on blockchain is written in code. Different blockchains amount to different information, for example, the cryptocurrency Bitcoin has one blockchain.

There are two aspects that make blockchain attractive to use.

Blockchain is immutable. Each information block has a time-stamp and an individual hash key [a code].

One block holds both its own hash key and the previous one’s, this way they stay connected [chained] Blockchain is also distributed peer to peer, meaning that they are democratised and open source. Anyone who joins gets a copy of the blockchain. The more participants, the more reference points or “backups” there are.

New or changed blocks are verified by all the copies, e.g. no central authority is needed for verification.

Blockchain

It makes it extremely hard to hack a blockchain since it is more or less impossible to a) modify all the connected blocks and b) alter every copy of that blockchain.

Fig. 12: Hamilton (2021) [edited by author(s)] Illustration of the concept of blockchain

38

D LT Distributed ledger technology are databases that can share and synchronise with other databases.

All blockchains are DLTs, but not all DLTs are blockchains.

Cryptocurrency is the most known form of blockchain but the DLT technology is today used in many ways. Smart contracts [see Appendix page 59], non-fungible tokens [NFT], and decentralised autonomous organisations [DAO] are other examples.

For the study of the abandoned buildings in Athens, we developed a strategy using blockchain and the existing platform FOAM.

Distributed Ledger Technology

Fig. 13: Lopez (2017) [edited by author(s)] Illustration of the concept of blockchain

40

FOAM FOAM is a crowdsourced and decentralised world map that uses radio signals rather than GPS and is built on the Ethereum blockchain.

FOAM can assign the “space-less” information on blockchain with realworld locations, both in 2D and 3D. The map system can be used for - Supply chain, verifiable accurate product tracking

and

- Insurance, trusted spatial information that supports contract enforcement and automated conflict resolution - Transportation, support growth of mobility services and autonomous vehicles - Location intelligence, traffic movements and actions of people

6

6 Foamspace Corp, “FOAM Whitepaper”, FOAM, Jan 5, 2018. https://bit.ly/37Fz70G

Information condensed by Jay McAllister

FOAM

Users own their personal location information, controlling when and with whom they choose to share their location. FOAM is committed to solving this need by providing spatial protocols, standards, and applications that offer a higher level of security and resiliency than conventional location-based geospatial technologies .

42

Fig. 14: FOAM (2022) Printscreen of central Europe in the FOAM map with “Signal Heatmap” layer on

FOAM accurately confirms the location of POIs [Point of Interest] with CSCs and TCRs: Crypto-Spatial Coordinate (CSC) Ethereum smart contract addresses, with corresponding addresses positioned in physical space, that can claim, reference or read the location in the physical environment.

Token Curated Registries (TCR) The crypto-economic model curating human-readable lists of economics gives independent token holders an incentive to curate the list’s contents.

Points of Interest (POI)

7

7 Foamspace Corp, “FOAM Whitepaper”, FOAM, Jan 5, 2018. https://bit.ly/37Fz70G

Information condensed by Jay McAllister

FOAM

Combining CSCs and TCRs allows information such as topography and density to be mapped along with markets and community forces.

Validated by those who contribute to the relevant locality.

44

Fig. 15: Foamspace Corp (2018) Illustrations of CSC, TCR and POI

GPS is commonly used for location finding in everyday devices.

Simply put, GPS requires four satellites: one, two and three measure the device’s x, y, and z coordinate.

The distance is calculated by the time it takes for the satellite to receive signals from the device. Time is not absolute and the satellites’ clocks can not be identical always, so a fourth satellite is used to synchronise the clocks [of the first three satellites] for the calculation to be accurate.

FOAM uses the same principle only that instead of centrally owned satellites, it is based on four “zone anchors”, which can be a computer or router owned by anyone.

A vast difference between the two systems is that GPS shows receipts of data, but one can interact with the FOAM network. 8

8 FOAM Protocol. “The Importance of Time Synchronization - FOAM @ Distributed Global” Youtube video. https:// bit.ly/3O4aETC. Uploaded on Mar 15, 2019

FOAM

46

Fig. 16: Drawn by author(s) GPS and FOAM signals explained

The mapping process of abandoned buildings we best saw fit with our circumstances was tedious and very time-consuming.

We present a faster, up to date and decentralised strategy for surveying the abandoned buildings in Athens using FOAM. (Fig. 17 on page 50)

Proposed Strategy

48

03 Made public on the Etherium blockchain

PUBLICLY STORED ON BLOCKCHAIN

02 The data is verified and checked for fraud by other overlapping zones

VERIFIED BY OVERLAPPING ZONES

UPLOAD DATA TO LOCAL ZONE

01 Evidence of an abandoned building is uploaded to a local zone, consisting of the four closest zone anchors Photographic evidence staisfied by a set of requirements, identified by AI. Can be uloaded by owners, locals or bypassers.

Proposed Strategy

06 .7 5 ns

Consensus reached on the local zone blockchain

04 .00 .50 ns

Fours zone anchors that syncronise their clocks to create its own ‘time zone’

LOCAL ZONE

The accurate position is measured by the time it takes for the data to reach the different anchors.

5 .0 0 6 .7

01

.2

0.

00

Signals sent form a LPWAN (low-power wide-area network) that is cheap and can be widely installed.

It is expected to be avaliabe in phones in the future.

0 ns

[90 Ermou, Athens Google street view, 2019]

ns

A fixed radio beacon, such as a router, that anyone could contribute with and get rewarded for in FOAM tokens ZONE ANCHOR

50

Fig. 17: Drawn by author(s) Proposed mapping strategy explained

An advantage of using FOAM is that the mapping is not exclusively exterior.

Those who have access can do the same inside.

This means can expand development buildings and maintenance indoors.

Proposed Strategy

that the strategy to tracking the of the abandoned digital proofs of outdoors and

52

Fig. 18: Drawn by author(s) Illustration of FOAM mapping indoors

Conclusion

To conclude, abandoned buildings are very present, where Athens works as a two-layered city; the working city and the abandoned city. The information we were able to collect shows how the abandoned buildings are scattered across the whole of Athens centre. It gives us a base plan to work with for creating interventions that are decentralised in nature. The scattered nature informs us of how the buildings affect everyone, whether they are a resident or a visitor there is no avoiding in any neighbourhood. The idea of these abandoned buildings being the ‘parasites’ of the city emerges as they are slowly draining the energy of the larger working city system. We aim to take this information forward and either turn the abandoned city into a working city of a distinct nature or allow them to blend back into the existing functioning environment.

Conclusion

Fig. 19: Photograph by authors (2022) Model of Athens highlighting the abandoned buildings with transparent shells

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Appendix

What are Smart Contracts?

Created by the author s as par t of the unit’s group work.

These are the questions, and answer s, that arose during the research of smar t contracts.

Smart contracts is a type of software [not linked to a company name] for creating contracts in code rather than in words.

The software is still relatively new and not used by many people yet.

Its main purpose is to regulate the exchange of resources between participants.

Despite its name it is not a form of artificial intelligence, meaning it cannot make its own decisions or do anything that the smart contract has not been told to do.

Smart Contracts

e

code code

software software

sof

60

Fig. 20: Noun Project [Edited by author(s)]

In what way are Blockchains and Smart Contracts related?

Blockchains are used as a platform for smart contracts to be created on.

The smart contracts are stored inside an information block, i.e. it becomes part of the chain. Therefore, they share the same features such as being immutable and distributed.

Smart Contracts

62

Fig. 21: Noun Project [Edited by author(s)]

When did Smart Contracts come about?

American computer scientist, Nick Szabo, proposed the idea of smart contracts in 1994. However, it took 22 years to become something that is recognised.

2016 was the first year it started to get real interest, mainly due to the birth of the digital currency Bitcoin and the development of blockchain itself.

Nick Szabo [invented bit gold in 1998] proposed the idea of ‘Smart Contracts’

1994 Smart Contracts

Started to be of global interest

22 years

2016 64

Fig. 22: Noun Project [Edited by author(s)]

What is the purpose of Smart Contracts?

The purpose of smart contracts is to define rules and penalties around an agreement [same as traditional contacts] but in a way that simplifies business and trade between anonymous and identified parties.

It does so without compromising authenticity and credibility.

Smart Contracts

Define rules and penalties

Simplify business

66

Fig. 23: Noun Project [Edited by author(s)]

What are the benefits of using Smart Contracts?

The benefits of using smart contracts are that they allow for quicker transactions compared to a traditional contract.

The middle man is removed meaning there is no worry of human influence or error.

Lastly, they are cheaper than traditional contracts as fewer people are required to complete one job.

Smart Contracts

68

Fig. 24: Noun Project [Edited by author(s)]

Can you give an example of a smart contract?

Person A has agreed to pay Person B £100 if they get an A for their architectural thesis this year.

In a traditional contract, or handshake agreement,​ there would be no real guarantee and consequences would require legal work. Compared to smart contracts which are automatically executed.

The most common type of smart contracts are “if ___, then ___”.

So if Person B gets an A, then Person B receives £100 from Person A”

Smart Contracts

Traditional Contract

Smart contract

70

Fig. 25: Drawn by author(s)

Scenario 1/2 Person A and B create a smart contract.

Person A secures £100 into the contract [which is on the blockchain].

They can no longer access or change this fact.

Person B gets an A and immediately the money is transferred into their account as agreed.

Smart Contracts

72

Fig. 26: Drawn by author(s)

Scenario 2/2 Person B gets a B grade or lower.

The money is automatically released back into person A’s account and the contract is complete.

Smart Contracts

74

Fig. 27: Drawn by author(s)

How do the Smart Contract know if Person B got an A or not?

The smart contract knows that Person B got an A because of Oracles, which is just a name for external services that do two things: Feed real-life information to the smart contract.

Validate the information. The most common way to do this is to reconcile multiple different, public sources. If they are not unanimous, the data that most sources agree on is used.

Whilst most smart contracts use software for validating information, hardware can also be used.

However, it is less common as it is more hacker-friendly.

Smart Contracts

Feed real life information

Validates

Oracles

Hardware or Software

76

Fig. 28: Noun Project [Edited by author(s)]

Oracles is a decentralised system and it is important that it continues to be so.

If not, there is a similar situation as to traditional contracts where information is controlled by centralised ‘middle men’.

There is however not a solution as of yet to prevent the system from becoming centralised. It is a concern and potential issue which may arise in the future.

Smart Contracts

78

Fig. 29: Noun Project [Edited by author(s)]

Are there other potential issues with using smart contracts?

It is hard to alter/change after it is set up and if it is changed then the contract becomes void. A whole new contract and agreement would have to be set up [this is the same as with traditional contracts].

Safety is a potential issue as the information is stored on a public database so many are protected with a ‘key’. There is still [however small] risk of hackers succeeding or bugs in the coding.

Smart Contracts

80

Fig. 30: Noun Project [Edited by author(s)]

Can you give a more architecture related example?

Smart contracts can be used in a much more creative ways than simply replacing traditional contracts. A more architectural related example could be as follow: The landlord wants to sell his house.

The owner puts their deed into the smart contract. The house is no longer owned by the landlord (or a bank).

The correct criteria set out by the landlord on the smart contract determines who is accepted or denied.

Once a potential buyer meets all the criteria, they can accept the smart contract and they instantly own the house. Likewise, the seller instantly receives payment.

Compared to a conventional route which includes several following steps of having to go through a bank, advertising on websites and boards, securing funds, using escrow, getting insurance and finally bidding and closing, the smart contract essentially does it all in one.

Smart Contracts

C o n ve n t i

onal

rou

te

82

Fig. 31: Drawn by author(s)

Where do you create a smart contract?

Anyone can create a smart contract as long as they have the knowledge and means to do so.

Solidity is an object orientated programming [OOP] language for writing smart contracts.

Solidity is specific to the Ethereum blockchain and was created

by Christian Reitwiessner, Alex Beregszaszi and several other former Ethereum core contributors.

Is Ethereum the only platform?

Ethereum is not the only platform however, other options are quite limited compared to Ethereum.

Most platforms are used for cryptocurrencies, but more and more fields are starting to make use of blockchain and smart contracts to help resolve global issues such as urban farming, organ donations and refugee management.

Smart Contracts

Solidity

Ethereum

84

Fig. 32: Public sources

Still don’t know what a Smart Contract is?

Smart contracts do three things: Store agreements they are immutable and cannot be changed Validate agreements by distribution and using Oracles Self execute agreements the potential influence of human interference or bias is removed

Smart Contracts

86

Fig. 33: Noun Project [Edited by author(s)]

Bibliography

Bibliography

Bibliography

Farlex Dictionary of Idioms. “A white elephant”. Farlex Dictionary of Idioms.

2017. https://idioms.thefreedictionary.com/ a+white+elephant Foamspace Corp. “FOAM Whitepaper”.

FOAM. Jan 5, 2018. https://foam.space/ publicAssets/FOAM_Whitepaper.pdf FOAM Protocol. “The Importance of Time Synchronization - FOAM @ Distributed Global” Youtube video. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=EFHN5vWYw1o. Uploaded on Mar 15, 2019 Koutoumanou, Anastasia.“Recording the use and ownership patterns of apartments in the Athenian apartment block (polykatoikia”.

Athens Social Atlas. Dec, 2018. https:// www.athenssocialatlas.gr/en/article/use-andownership-patterns-of-apartments-in-theathenian-apartment-block/ Oxford Lexico, “Decentralisation”, Oxford Lexico. https://www.lexico.com/definition/ decentralization Resilient Cities Network. “Athens’ resilience journey”. Resilient Cities Network . 2017. https:// resilientcitiesnetwork.org/networks/ athens/ Quora. “Why are there so many derelict buildings in Athens?”. Quora. 2019. https:// www.quora.com/Why-are-there-so-manyderelict-buildings-in-Athens

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Image Bibliography Figures not listed are drawn by author(s)

Image Bibliography

Cover image:

The Greek Guru. “Discussion starts on saving 1,800 abandoned Athens buildings”. The Greek Guru. Nov 14, 2018. https://www.greekguru.net/ single-post/2018/11/14/Discussionstarts-on-saving-1800-abandonedAthens-buildings

Fig. 01, on page 08

Mulchi, Thomas. “2-sided”. Flickr. Feb 28, 2015. https://www.flickr.com/ photos/ctmnet/16866425675/in/ photostream/

Fig. 02, on page 14

Photograph by author. 2014.

Fig. 05, on page 26

Google Street View. 2019.

Fig. 06, on page 28

Google Street View. 2019.

Fig. 11, on page 36

Noun Project (Various artists)

Fig. 12, on page 38

Hamilton, David.

“What is Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT)?”. Securities.co . Jun 6, 2021. h t t p s : / / w w w. s e c u r i t i e s. i o / w h a t - i s d i s t r i b u t e d - l e d g e r- t e c h n o l o g y - d l t /

Fig. 13, on page 40

Lopez, Marcos Allende. “Blockchain In a Nutshell”. Medium . Nov 30, 2017. https:// medium.com/@marcosallendelopez/ blockchain-in-a-nutshell-38e7a566eac1

Fig. 14, on page 42

Printscreen of FOAM map Apr 12, 2022. https://map.foam.space/#/t/?lng=0.47 62121&lat=53.4603888&zoom=3.41

Fig. 15, on page 44

Foamspace Corp, “FOAM Whitepaper”, FOAM, Jan 5, 2018. https://foam.space/ publicAssets/FOAM_Whitepaper.pdf

Fig. 19, on page 55

Photograph by author. Apr 12, 2022.

Fig. 20 - Fig. 24, Fig. 28 - Fig. 30, Fig. 33, in Appendix

‘Noun Project (Various artists)

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University of Dundee Masters of Architecture Year 5, Semester 1, 2021