CHARGED Electric Vehicles Magazine MAR/APR 2013

ELECTRIC VEHICLES MAGAZINE CHARGEDEVS.COM MAR/APR 2013

A NEW

LEAF LOCALIZED

,

MANUFACTURING,

& A FOCUS ON INFRASTRUCTURE P. 44

50 ,000 GLOBAL SALES

AND

Counting

LINEAR’S NEW ACTIVE CELL BALANCER P. 24

OXIS ENERGY BETS ON LITHIUM–SULFUR P. 36

ESTONIA’S NATIONWIDE CHARGING GRID P. 28

ULTRACAPS CREEP INTO AUTOMOTIVE P. 58

DC Quick Charger

THE VEHICLES contents

• 208 Vac three-phase 20–50 kW output • Access control, payment and networking options

44

• CHAdeMO and SAE combined charging system—coming soon

AC Level 2 Commercial Charging Station

A New LEAF

44

Longer ranged and lower priced - the 2013 Nissan LEAF

• 30, 48 and 70 amperes

84 Lighter, Leaner, Longer

• Single, dual and optional Level 1 outlet styles • Field-upgradable payment and networking options for future-proofing

84

The race to bring green automotive solutions into mainstream, global markets

90 Geneva

Supercars, hybrids and EVs take the stage

AC Level 1 & Level 2 Residential Charging Station

current events

• 16 and 30 amperes

12

• Ideal for single- and multi-family homes • Attractive stainless steel enclosure

12

13

Henrik Fisker leaves Fisker Automotive Tesla exceeds sales target and predicts profit

13

Mercedes B-Class EV in 2014, and S-Class PHEV?

Long Beach Transit to buy BYD buses, others protest

14

Auto industry groups protest CA’s ZEV mandates

Balqon to build electric buses in China

Electric Vehicle Charging Stations on the

on

and at

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AC Level 2 Commercial Charging Station

AC Level 1 & Level 2 Residential Charging Station

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THE INFRASTRUCTURE contents

28 Nation

wide

Estonia installs the world’s first nationwide network of DC fast chargers

28

78 Working

together Avoiding EVSE-to-vehicle interoperability issues

current events

20

Leviton releases 9.6 kW charging station

21

US adding 180 public chargers per month

23

78

Collaboratev to encourage network interoperability WA State proposes fines for ICEing out EVs

20

THE TECH contents

24 New active

balancing system

High (efficiency) hopes for Linear’s new active balancer

24

36 Yellow brick road

OXIS Energy is banking its business on lithium-sulfur

54

36

It’s in the details

Digatron Firing Circuits’ new stop-start testing rig

58 Ultra capable

Can Maxwell leverage its early ultracapacitor experience into a ubiquitous complement to batteries?

66 Battery abuse

Q&A with Erik Spek, Chief Engineer at TÜV SÜD Canada

74

66

The process

Quality control and battery manufacturing

current events

17

16

KAIST discovers method to extend Li-air battery life

17

New process for producing solid-state Li-ion electrolyte

19

Report: Solid-state batteries will lead by 2030

Publisher’s Note

Christian Ruoff Publisher

Red light, green light I see the widespread adoption of electric vehicles as a foregone conclusion. Sure, there are details that need to be worked out, and that could take a while. The exact timeline is a little tricky to predict at this point, but sooner or later gas-free vehicles will transform the automotive landscape (oh, and also significantly impact the world’s economy, revolutionize the energy industry, forever alter military operations...pretty much change the way we’ve done everything for the past hundred years).

Outside of these pages, however, many don’t see things so clearly. No matter.

What does appear to be widely accepted is the short-term proliferation of microhybrid vehicles. In particular, stop-start technology that shuts the engine off during idle (at a red light, for example).

These vehicles are NOT plugged in, and, in most cases, the battery power is not used to propel the vehicle. So, why should Charged care enough to cover them?

Well, as it happens, turning the engine on and off repeatedly can be brutal on batteries. And in stop-start systems there is a great need for advanced energy storage devices, which we care about deeply particularly, the integration of advanced energy storage devices into the automotive industry on a large scale.

That is the promise that comes with the proliferation of stop-start technology - moving the needle on the high-tech, high-efficiency systems we will come to expect as standard in new vehicles. From advanced leadacid and nickel-metal hydride to lithium-ion, ultracapacitors and beyond.

In the past year, I have heard countless auto execs predict the use of stop-start tech in every new vehicle - in as little as ten years, some say.

“A no brainer,” as Ted Miller, Ford’s Senior Manager of Energy Storage Strategy and Research, recently called it.

So, in case you were wondering, that is why we cover stop-start technology in this issue, and will continue to in future issues.

stop start

EVs are here. Try to keep up.

Christian Ruoff Publisher

ETHICS STATEMENT AND COVERAGE POLICY AS THE LEADING EV INDUSTRY PUBLICATION, CHARGED ELECTRIC VEHICLES MAGAZINE OFTEN COVERS, AND ACCEPTS CONTRIBUTIONS FROM, COMPANIES THAT ADVERTISE IN OUR MEDIA PORTFOLIO. HOWEVER, THE CONTENT WE CHOOSE TO PUBLISH PASSES ONLY TWO TESTS: (1)TO THE BEST OF OUR KNOWLEDGE THE INFORMATION IS ACCURATE, AND (2) IT MEETS THE INTERESTS OF OUR READERSHIP. WE DO NOT ACCEPT PAYMENT FOR EDITORIAL CONTENT, AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED BY OUR EDITORS AND WRITERS ARE IN NO WAY AFFECTED BY A COMPANY’S PAST, CURRENT, OR POTENTIAL ADVERTISEMENTS. FURTHERMORE, WE OFTEN ACCEPT ARTICLES AUTHORED BY “INDUSTRY INSIDERS,” IN WHICH CASE THE AUTHOR’S CURRENT EMPLOYMENT, OR RELATIONSHIP TO THE EV INDUSTRY, IS CLEARLY CITED. IF YOU DISAGREE WITH ANY OPINION EXPRESSED IN THE CHARGED MEDIA PORTFOLIO AND/OR WISH TO WRITE ABOUT YOUR PARTICULAR VIEW OF THE INDUSTRY, PLEASE CONTACT US AT CONTENT@CHARGEDEVS.COM. CHARGED ELECTRIC VEHICLES MAGAZINE IS PUBLISHED BY ISENTROPIC MEDIA. COPYRIGHT © 2013 BY ISENTROPIC MEDIA. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. REPRINTING IN WHOLE OR PART IS FORBIDDEN EXPECT BY PERMISSION OF ISENTROPIC MEDIA. MAILING LIST: WE MAKE A PORTION OF OUR MAILING LIST AVAILABLE TO REPUTABLE FIRMS. IF YOU PREFER THAT WE DO NOT INCLUDE YOUR NAME, PLEASE WRITE US AT CHARGED - ELECTRIC VEHICLES MAGAZINE, ATTN: PRIVACY DEPARTMENT, PO BOX 13074, SAINT PETERSBURG, FL 33733. POSTMASTER: SEND ADDRESS CHANGES TO CHARGED - ELECTRIC VEHICLES MAGAZINE, ATTN: SUBSCRIPTION SERVICES, PO BOX 13074, SAINT PETERSBURG, FL 33733. SUBSCRIPTION RATES: $29.95 FOR 1 YEAR (6 ISSUES). PLEASE ADD $10.00 FOR CANADIAN ADDRESSES AND $36.00 FOR ALL OTHER INTERNATIONAL ADDRESSES. ADVERTISING: TO INQUIRE ABOUT ADVERTISING AND SPONSORSHIP OPPORTUNITIES PLEASE CONTACT US AT +1-727-258-7867. PRINTED IN THE USA.

Laurel Zimmer Associate Publisher Charlie Morris Senior Editor Markkus Rovito Associate Editor Jeffrey Jenkins Technology Editor Joey Stetter Contributing Editor Nick Sirotich Illustrator & Designer Nate Greco Contributing Artist Contributing Writers Jeffrey Jenkins Michael Kent Charlie Morris Markkus Rovito William F. Vartorella Gregory Wyche Contributing Photographers Alan D Nathan Gibbs Melissa Hincha-Ownby Michael Kent Ryan Ozawa Sam Posten III Anh Quan Cover Images Courtesy of Nissan Special Thanks to Kelly Ruoff Sebestien Bourgeois For Letters to the Editor, Article Submissions, & Advertising Inquiries Contact Info@ChargedEVs.com

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CURRENT events Tesla exceeds sales target and predicts profit Tesla Motors has announced that it sold 4,750 units of its Model S electric sedan in the first quarter, cruising past the target of 4,500 that it set in its February shareholder letter. As a result, the company will adjust its Q1 financial guidance from achieving an operating profit (which excludes capital expenses) to full profitability.

Co-founder and executive chairman Henrik Fisker announced that he has left Fisker Automotive. “The main reasons for his resignation are several major disagreements that Henrik Fisker has with the Fisker Automotive executive management on the business strategy,” the company said in a statement sent to media outlets.

Henrik Fisker, who made a name for himself designing sports cars for BMW and Aston Martin, co-founded Fisker Automotive in 2007 with Bernhard Koehler. The company successfully launched its Karma plug-in hybrid luxury sedan - a fine automobile by all accounts - but has recently been plagued by a string of disasters, from vehicle fires to floods to media firestorms, capped by the meltdown of its sole battery supplier, A123.

Henrik Fisker yielded the CEO post in February 2012 to Tom LaSorda, who passed the baton to Tony Posawatz in August. Recently the privately-held company has been talking about bringing in new partners and/or investors, and there are rumors that it may end up being taken over by a Chinese firm.

Fisker’s resignation “certainly won’t do the company any favors,” auto industry analyst Ed Kim told Delaware Online. “From a public perspective, it would be taken as a sign of further unrest and some problems if the founder leaves.”

12

Photo courtesy of Fisker Automotive

Henrik Fisker leaves Fisker Automotive

The company has decided to drop the small battery option for the Model S due to lack of demand.

Only four percent of customers chose the 40 kWh battery pack. Those customers will receive the 60 kWh pack, but range will be software-limited to 40 kWh. It will have the improved acceleration and top speed of the bigger pack, and can be upgraded to the 60 kWh range for an undisclosed price.

Also, all 60 kWh cars will be built with Supercharger hardware. Tesla is betting that everybody will eventually buy the Supercharger upgrade, which offers unlimited free long-distance travel for life.

“

I am incredibly proud of the Tesla team for their outstanding work. There have been many car startups over the past several decades, but profitability is what makes a company real. Tesla is here to stay and keep fighting for the electric car revolution. I would also like to thank our customers for their passionate support of the company and the car. Without them, we would not be here.

Elon Musk, Tesla co-founder and CEO

”

vehicles the vehicles

Long Beach Transit to buy BYD buses, others protest

Mercedes B-Class EV in 2014, and S-Class PHEV?

Photos courtesy of Mercedes-Benz USA

Photo courtesy of BYD

The German automakers are plugging in. Audi introduced its first PHEV, the A3 Sportback e-tron, VW has promised an electric version of its blockbuster Golf later this year, and now Mercedes has unveiled its B-Class Electric Drive.

Daimler hasn’t offered many details, but it seems that the new EV sports a 134 hp motor with 228 pound-feet of torque, and a 28 kWh lithium-ion battery. It has a top speed of 100 mph and a range of “around 115 miles.” It’s scheduled to go on sale in the US in early 2014.

Back in July, Daimler said that the upcoming BClass would be based on the MFA front-wheel-drive platform, and would be powered by a Tesla-developed drivetrain - including the motor, battery pack and power control circuitry.

Meanwhile, a couple of crusading reporters from the Australian magazines Motoring and Car Advice seemed to get a scoop when images and a drivetrain schematic of a plug-in S-Class were “inadvertently revealed” at a media presentation in Germany.

However, it’s no secret that Mercedes has an S-Class PHEV in the pipeline. The company displayed its Vision S500 Plug in Hybrid concept at the 2009 Frankfurt show. It had a 3.5-liter V6 gas engine, a 45 kW electric motor and a 10 kWh lithium-ion battery. Some have speculated that the new PHEV may appear when Mercedes reveals the details of its new S-Class models in May, but spokesman Jerry Stamoulis didn’t make that sound very likely. “The reality is that there is a lot of spec still to be confirmed; the car is so far away for us,” he told Motoring.com.

The Long Beach Transit Board voted to award a $12.1 million contract to purchase 10 electric buses to a US subsidiary of the Chinese firm BYD. The contract is funded mainly by the federal government’s Transit Investment for Greenhouse Gas and Energy Reduction (TIGGER) program, one of the largest federal grants yet awarded for electric buses.

The new buses, with a range of up to 155 miles, will be deployed on pilot routes in 2014.

Not everyone is pleased about the contract going to a Chinese-controlled company. South Carolina-based Proterra, one of five other firms that competed for the contract, sent a 16-page letter to Long Beach Transit, in which Proterra General Counsel Marc Gottschalk wrote that BYD “has presented a bus that has virtually no US-made content, has no US manufacturing [and] has no buses in revenue service in the US.” Gottschalk also said that BYD has “a history of overpromising and under-delivering.”

US Representative Alan Lowenthal (D-Long Beach) also wrote a critical letter to Long Beach Transit in March. “Although the choice of all electric vehicles is a positive step…outsourcing manufacturing to China raises serious concerns,” he wrote. “I would hope that the transit board would consider purchasing American-made alternatives, such as those currently being used by local transit authorities like Foothill Transit.”

The terms of the federal grant require that the buses be manufactured in the US. In December, BYD announced plans to begin building electric buses in the US in 2013. Senior VP Li Ke told the Xinhua News Agency that the factory will be in California, and will be able to produce 50 to 100 buses in 2014.

Michael Austin, Vice President of BYD America, dismissed the objections saying that BYD has more than 180,000 employees and has put more than 1,000 buses in service in the last three years.

MAR/APR 2013 13

vehicles

the vehicles

Auto industry groups protest CA’s ZEV mandates

Balqon to build electric buses in China

Two auto industry lobbying groups, the Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers and the Association of Global Automakers, have petitioned the EPA to reconsider California’s Zero-Emission Vehicle (ZEV) requirements, Automotive News reported.

Under the agreement, SAIG will purchase Balqon’s electric drive system, featuring its proprietary ZEVQON Flux Vector AC controller and HIQAP high-energy lithium batteries, which SAIG will incorporate into a 22-foot bus chassis. Both companies will provide engineering resources for integration, testing and certification of the new buses for onroad use in China and North America.

SAIG, a subsidiary of Fulin Group, owns and operates over 5,000 diesel inner-city buses in West China, and has recently received several grants from the Chinese government to produce low-emission vehicles.

“

China’s recent regulatory initiatives and incentives to reduce diesel-powered vehicle emissions help commercial viability of new technology electric vehicles. The increased rate of urbanization in China has led to renewed emphasis on reducing air pollution resulting from diesel-powered buses in urban centers throughout China.

Balwinder Samra, Balqon CEO

”

14

Photo by nathangibbs (flickr)

Photo courtesy of Balqon

Balqon Corporation, a California-based developer of commercial EVs, powertrains and battery storage systems, has signed a joint development agreement with Chinese firm Sichuan Automobile Industry Co (SAIG) to manufacture inner-city electric buses.

The new rules, most of which begin to take effect in 2018, would require automakers to sell an estimated 1.4 million EVs, PHEVs and/or hydrogen fuel cell vehicles in California by 2025. Nine other states are expected to adopt similar standards.

Companies that fail to sell the required number of ZEVs can purchase credits from those with excess sales. The impending regulations have inspired several other automakers to produce “compliance cars,” but so far, these models have seen little marketing and few sales.

“It is impossible to predict today whether infrastructural developments, oil prices, consumer confidence and other factors will converge such that automakers will be able to persuade buyers to choose [ZEVs],” says the lobby groups’ petition. “Current data and trends suggest that it is highly unlikely that the industry will be able to meet that mandate.”

“If California were to require that one-half of an auto manufacturer’s sales in the state consist of twodoor subcompact hatchbacks with 4-speed manual transmissions by 2018,” the petition says, “that standard would not be feasible because the motoring public will not purchase that many vehicles with those characteristics.”

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the tech the tech

KAIST discovers method to extend Li-air battery life

By Gregory Wyche

Researchers from the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) have discovered a means to extend the lifetime of lithium-air (Li-air) batteries, a technology that offers the promise of higher energy densities than those achievable with conventional lithium-ion batteries. They report their findings in the February issue of the Journal ChemSusChem.

Li-air batteries are hindered by problems surrounding the high-energy free radicals generated at their cathodes. These radicals, which are oxygen molecules with an extra electron, have a tendency to interact with lithium electrodes, leading to the production of chemical species that are difficult to break down. Reversing the synthesis of these chemical species is deemed to be the greatest challenge for Li-air technology by the researchers at KAIST, and their unique solution was to combine two literal opposites, the solvent propylene carbonate (PC) and an ionic liquid (IL).

Engineering Details: PC has the desirable trait of low volatility. However, it reacts with radical oxygens to create irreversible chemical species, and radical oxygens act destructively on it, leading to a scarcity of PC molecules.

This scarcity depletes the system of usable sites to carry out ion transfer, robbing the battery of its capacity to generate power. ILs, on the other hand, are attractive due to their very low flammability, low vapor pressure and stability upon heating. By themselves, however, they have low oxygen solubilities and high viscosities that limit performance by slowing down the motion of ions.

By mixing an IL with a PC, the researchers found that these solvents improve experimental battery

16

lifetime considerably, each component making up for the limitations of the other. The IL, PYR13-TFSI, did not suffer from the production of irreversible by-products, and the PC has a sufficiently low viscosity - therefore high enough ionic conductivity and oxygen solubility - that the blended cells have more practical voltage than pure IL. Meanwhile, the PYR13+ ion is effective at neutralizing the radical oxygen molecules that would otherwise consume the PC. In tests involving 70 charge-discharge cycles, cells containing 50 percent IL kept 94.6 percent of their capacity and had a higher initial capacity than cells starting with either more PC or more IL. That level of stability is unprecedented for carbonate electrolytes.

As for the future of this innovation, associate professor and project supervisor Jang Wook Choi indicates that the KAIST team’s research is still nascent: “We need to develop other cell components that can be integrated better with the current electrolyte…perhaps under collaboration with industry counterparts nearby.”

On the subject of commercialization, Choi is pragmatic. “[It] may not be in the near future.

However, once Li-air cells become upgraded further by developing and optimizing all of the relevant cell components, the current approach could be a viable option or at least a useful stepping stone for bringing the Li-air battery technology to the commercial level.”

In terms of safety, Dr. Choi told Charged he believes that the presence of an IL will improve this parameter. “However, other properties such as lifetime and rate performance, rather than safety, should be improved substantially for this type of cell to be more feasible.”

New process for producing solid-state Li-ion electrolyte Researchers from Oak Ridge National Laboratory’s Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences have uncovered a new process for producing a solidstate electrolyte for lithium-ion batteries. The new electrolyte has three orders of magnitude greater ionic conductivity than the same material when conventionally synthesized. Their novel approach offers an advantage in terms of safety and also results in a broad (5 V wide) electrochemical window. Their work is published in the January 2013 issue of the Journal of the American Chemical Society.

Organic liquid electrolytes are incompatible with lithium electrodes due to safety and cyclability concerns. Currently, lithium-ion batteries use a graphite anode with lithium integrated into it. These batteries cannot use pure lithium metal because during operation the metal will form wires, called dendrites, that reach across the electrolyte from one electrode to the other and short out the cell.

As principle investigator Dr. Chengdu Liang explained to Charged, liquid electrolytes - typically organic solvents - are usually highly volatile and flammable. By replacing these liquids with solids, the risk of fire is reduced both because the volatile/ combustible component is gone and more importantly, because the solid electrolyte serves as a barrier to dendrite formation. This removes the need for a carbon anode and leads to a large improvement in energy density by permitting large-sized lithium anode batteries, which in the past were precluded for safety reasons. A 5 V electrochemical window, meanwhile, puts this configuration on par with, if not ahead of, most liquid electrolyte systems. The energy density is proportional to the square of the electrochemical window, so double the voltage means you can store four times as much energy.

“Using a solid electrolyte inside a battery has been a dream for quite a while,” said Liang.

Engineering Details: Up to this point, solid electrolytes have shown limited promise, as their ionic conductivities have

Photo courtesy of Oak Ridge National Laboratory

By Gregory Wyche

been orders of magnitude less than their liquid counterparts. Others still are not compatible with the lithium used in electrodes.

To tackle this dilemma, the Oak Ridge team eschewed developing a new exotic electrolyte composition, in favor of choosing to manipulate the nanostructure of an existing lithium thiophosphate electrolyte, with impressive results. The electrolyte the authors studied, Li3PS4, has a γ-phase that is stable at room temperature but that phase has a low room temperature ionic conductivity, i.e. 3 X 10-7 S cm-1. Upon heating to 195 °C, this phase transforms into a β-phase that has a relatively high ionic conductivity but reverts back to the less ionically conductive γ-phase after falling below 195 °C. As it turns out, however, the devil is in the details.

By adding tetrahydrofuran to the reactants used to synthesize Li3PS4 and then heating the reaction product to 80 °C, amorphous Li3PS4 is produced.

Heat a bit further, to 140 °C, and something strange happens. The amorphous Li3PS4 crystallizes into a nanoporous variant of β-Li3PS4 that is stable between 25 °C and 350 °C - in other words, at room temperature. This nanoporous Li3PS4 was shown to have an ionic conductivity three orders of magnitude greater than normally synthesized β-Li3PS4, implying that a mechanism unique to the nanoporous β-Li3PS4 serves to enhance ionic conductivity. The authors infer that surface conductivity is the main culprit behind enhanced ionic conductivity.

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the tech the tech

Report: Solid-state batteries will lead by 2030, driven by consumer electronics

A report from technology advisory firm Lux Research predicts that new battery technologies will become strong competitors with existing lithium-ion technology by 2020, and that solid-state batteries will surpass Li-ion by 2030. However, consumer electronics, not electric vehicles, will be the market driving the advances.

“While much of the motivation for next-generation batteries - whether in the public’s imagination or governments’ largesse - comes from transportation, our analysis shows that the automotive market will be the last to adopt next-generation batteries due to the extreme cost sensitivity of automakers, stringent safety and lifetime requirements, and long, cautious adoption cycles,” says Lux. Noting that Li-ion batteries currently account for a market worth more than $10 billion, Lux says it is makers

of consumer devices - today’s largest market for Li-ion technology - that will move the next generation battery market. The small, lightweight batteries available today “simply do not pack the energy required by truly novel consumer electronics.”

Lux predicts that lithium-sulfur technology “will also make strong progress, but won’t match the value propositions of solid-state and advancing Li-ion, finding only niche applications that prize excellent specific energy above all else.”

Lithium-air, which seems to have enormous potential for EVs thanks to its high energy density, is a non-factor in the consumer electronics sector, according to Lux, because of its “volumetric inefficiency and its need for peripherals.”

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the infras the infrastructure

Leviton has unveiled the Evr-Green 400 Level 2 charging station. The new device provides up to 40 A of continuous power at 240 V (9.6 kW output) and enables fastcharging of any SAE J1772 compatible electric vehicle.

The charging station is capable of providing more power than most on-board chargers in currently available vehicles will accept. In fact, the Toyota RAV4 EV is the only production vehicle with the charging capacity to fully utilize a 9.6 kW output (aside from Tesla, which uses proprietary charging hardware), and Leviton’s new device was originally developed as part of the RAV4 EV program.

However, as the preferred exclusive supplier to Ford, Toyota, and American Honda, Leviton has visibility into future EV model year products and sees the market trending towards higher-power charging.

“

We really think this is the direction that more automakers are going. I think based on what I’ve seen in terms of a road map, and in quoting future business, I see more automakers moving to larger on-board chargers.

We have a lot of interest from workplaces and municipalities for the [new 9.6 kW charging station], because they want to be future proof. If there are other vehicles coming, they want to be ready to charge them in a reasonable amount of time.

Manoj Karwa, Senior Director of Leviton’s EVSE programs

”

The 9.6 kW Evr-Green 400 features a 25-foot charging cable, and is what Leviton calls “the industry’s first 40 amp version to meet and exceed UL, CSA and NEC electric vehicle charging station requirements along with FCC Part 15 of the Federal Communications Commission for Residential Use.”

20

Photo courtesy of Leviton

Leviton releases first UL listed 9.6 kW charging station

The new charging station has an MSRP of $1,599, and is available in two cord-connected configurations for flushmount receptacle and surface-mount receptacle installations. The system is promoted as “movable,” meaning that the charging station can be unplugged and moved to another location equipped with the pre-wire installation kit, like a vacation home or a relative’s house.

Leviton offers a suite of Level 2 products and Level 1 cordsets. By the end of this year it will have its Level 2 charging products installed at 3,000 dealerships, compatible with 10 vehicle platforms.

structure US adding 180 public chargers per month Both government agencies and private owners are deploying public charging stations in the US at a combined rate of about 180 units a month, according to the latest figures from the DOE. As of this writing, the US has 5,612 public charging stations, and at the current pace, will have about 7,400 by the end of the year.

It’s no surprise that California is the most electrified state, with a total of 1,182 public charging stations. In second and third place are two states that are shaping up as unexpected EV hotspots: Texas, with 433 chargers; and Charged’s home state of Florida, with 353.

Among retailers, Walgreens hosts 365 stations, Kohl’s has 55 and Whole Foods has 39.

While there’s a lively debate about how many public chargers will be needed, the DOE acknowledges that they have a significant role to play: “Although the majority of EV and PHEV owners will charge at single-

family homes, public charging stations can increase the useful range of EVs and reduce the amount of gasoline consumed by PHEVs.” The DOE’s web site (www.afdc.energy.gov/locator/stations) has a host of resources for public charging fans, including an interactive map of chargers across the country and handbooks for public charger hosts and electrical contractors.

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the infra WHAT’S NEXT FOR THE ELECTRIC HIGHWAY?

Plug-in electric vehicles are at a crossroads.

September 30 – October 3, 2013 San Diego Convention Center San Diego, California USA

Sales are accelerating, but questions remain about technology costs, market evolution, consumer education and infrastructure development. At Plug-In 2013, we will discuss, debate and, ultimately, answer these questions.

• Join us for real-world reporting as we analyze how best to move forward using the data collected over the last three years.

• Secure your spot on our diverse exposition floor to connect with and develop long-term relationships with decision-makers who drive the vehicle and infrastructure markets.

It’s all here at Plug-In 2013 – the international gathering of automakers, utilities, EVSE and other component manufacturers, policymakers and key stakeholders – so mark your calendars now!

Bookmark www.plugin2013.com for continuing details.

ORGANIZER

REGIONAL SUPPORTER

astructure the infrastructure

Image courtesy of Collaboratev

Collaboratev to encourage network interoperability ChargePoint, Inc. and ECOtality, Inc. have announced the formation of a new company, Collaboratev, which aims to enable seamless interoperability among the growing patchwork of charging networks. Collaboratev will actively encourage other charging network providers to join as affiliates, which will allow them to exchange session data and perform billing reconciliation.

The idea is to provide EV drivers with easy access to participating charging stations using common authentication credentials. Users have a comprehensive picture of all charging station locations, and will receive one bill for all charging usage.

“Interoperability for EV drivers is another milestone in the widespread adoption of electric vehicles,” said Pat Romano, President and CEO of ChargePoint. “Collaboratev will give EV drivers access to all stations, locations, availability and mapping features in the public domain.”

“This is a clear sign of market maturation by establishing a seamless process for EV drivers to charge across networks,” said Ravi Brar, CEO of ECOtality. “We are fostering an open ecosystem, and invite others to join us in making it easy for EV drivers nationwide to get the charge they need whenever and wherever they are.”

“The creation of a vendor-agnostic payment processing and authentication system for EV charging would alleviate consumer concern of being tied to one charging network and would therefore make electric vehicles more attractive to mainstream vehicle buyers,” said John Gartner of Pike Research.

WA State proposes fines for ICEing out EVs To be ICEd out is to arrive at a public charging station only to find that an internal-combustion engine (ICE) vehicle is parked in the space, like the proverbial dog in the manger. Washington has become the latest state to establish fines to address this 21st-century etiquette violation.

In EV-friendly Washington, the state Senate easily approved a $124 ICEing penalty. As the Associated Press reported, Senate Majority Leader Rodney Tom pointed out that those spots are critical for EVs, which need access to charging stations, and Senator Mark Mullet of Issaquah said that he is an EV driver, and has himself been a victim of ICEing. The measure passed by a 43-6 margin and now goes to the state House.

Similar laws already exist in California, Hawaii, Portland, Oregon, and Maryland.

In Maryland, the passage of SB 340 was not without controversy. Democratic State Senator Jamie Raskin, the bill’s sponsor, said “This is a fledgling industry that we’re getting behind, and we’re hoping, as the president of the United States has said, that this becomes big business in America. [EV drivers] need to charge up their vehicles by plugging them in and the problem is they’re pulling into the relative handful of places that exist in the state where you can plug your car in and people are parked there.”

Republican Senator E.J. Pipkin did not agree.

“We’re using the power of the state to further one particular private business. I think that is not appropriate,” said he.

MAR/APR 2013 23

the tech

(efficiency)

High Hopes for Linear’s new

H

ACTIVE

balancing system

ave you heard the old adage - no two snowflakes are alike? Well, the same goes for cells in a battery pack. No matter how precise the manufacturing techniques, there will always be some small variation in the amount of energy each cell can hold. Adding to this manufacturing reality is a number of variables that can affect how cells age and hold charge while in use, like small temperature variations within the battery pack.

On the road, anything engineers can do to keep the cells in a pack equal in their state of charge (SOC) will increase the life of the battery, or maybe even prevent the need for larger batteries in the first place, which are oversized to account for any capacity loss over time.

The problem is that any stack of cells in series is ultimately limited by the weakest cell. Because they’re all in series, they all see the same charging and load current.

During charging, if one cell reaches its upper limit first, you have to stop charging the whole stack - even though the other cells could hold more energy - because really bad things happen when lithium-ion cells are overcharged.

Likewise, when you’re discharging, the weakest cell will reach its “can’t-go-any-lower” point (or it will lose more capacity), even though the other cells have additional useful energy. So, maintaining an equal SOC throughout the stack is highly beneficial in both directions.

To keep the cells on par with one another, engineers

24

By Michael Kent

employ battery balancing systems of two basic types: passive and active.

The problem with passive Many, if not all, of the production electric vehicles on the road today utilize the passive technique - that is, if they use a battery balancing system at all (some do not for different reasons, mainly cost and complexity). But there is a problem with passive systems: They essentially throw away energy.

When some cells have a higher SOC than the others within a stack, the battery balancer discharges them.

Basically, it switches in a resistive element in parallel with each strong cell until they’re equal in SOC. This effectively makes the strong cells weak so they can all accept the same amount of energy during a charging event.

With passive balancing, the stack capacity is still limited by the weak cell, because the system does not have the functionality to properly address the low-capacity cells.

Engineers use these passive techniques, despite their inherent inefficiency, because it is a relatively simple system to build in comparison to many active system architectures that have been discussed at conferences, or in white papers and master’s theses. In an ideal world, an active system would shuttle energy from the highest SOC cell to the lowest. But with hundreds of cells in some battery packs, that functionality would require a

complex and robust topology, like some of the switch-intensive architectures that have been proposed but ultimately not found to be practical for real-world applications.

So, designing a truly feasible (read: costeffective) active balancing topology has proven to be a tough problem to solve. Nonetheless, many companies have been pursuing solutions because of the potential efficiency increases and on-road implications.

Linear Technology thinks it has found a solution. The California-based company, which specializes in high-performance analog integrated circuits, is no stranger to the application. Linear is now producing the third generation of its battery monitor chips (part number LTC6804). This device monitors up to 12 series-connected battery cells, and can incorporate a passive balancing solution. It’s a popular part, widely used by the high-volume EV makers in many of the best-known plug-in models.

Linear’s new addition to the battery pack systems family is what it calls a “high efficiency bidirectional multicell active balancer” (part number LTC3300). Charged caught up with Mark Vitunic, a Linear design engineer, to get some details.

Tell us about the active balancer. How does it work?

Mark Vitunic: Let’s say, for example, there is a stack of 12 cells connected in series, and one cell is weaker, with a lower SOC than the others.

[This part] builds up a current by taking charge out of all 12 cells that are in that stack, and then that energy is delivered only to the weak cell.

We chose a transformer-based architecture. Linear has a lot of experience with switching regulators: bucks, boosts, buck-boosts, flybacks. This part’s topology, using a transformer, is actually a synchronous flyback converter of a sort. Although, instead of regulating an output voltage, we’re essentially regulating an output current.

Basically, generating a current source directly into or out of the cell, or group of cells, that need to be balanced. We had a lot of reasons to go this route and feel strongly this is the best solution.

If you take the basic architecture in Figure 1 (next page), you’ll see a transformer, two switches and two sense resistors that exists per cell in the stack. In this example, CELL 1 has been identified as a weak cell.

The right side of the transformer, what we’re calling the

MAR/APR 2013 25

the tech primary, is essentially connected in parallel with CELL 1. The secondary side of the transformer, the left side, reaches all the way to CELL 12. The secondary of the transformer will build up a current by taking charge out of all 12 cells that are in that loop, and then when it commutates over to the primary that energy is delivered only to CELL 1.

If you have a weak cell, we think it’s better to give it some help from its local neighbors. You’ve brought them down a little bit, but now the average capacity of that group is much closer to something reasonable.

In this solution you’re actually removing a small amount of charge from the weak cells before you put a lot of energy back into them. You can think of it as taking charge Q out of 12 cells, and putting 12Q back into one of them (minus some efficiency losses that are less than 10 percent). I’m not saying that’s a negative on the part, which will be a reality in most any solution. What it means is that we want to have the secondary winding across as many cells as possible. In this example it’s across 12, but if you used a higher-voltage switch on the secondary, you could reach beyond that. It’s just limited by the breakdown voltage of the FETs that are used. Twelve is a convenient number because that works out to about 48 V on a 12-cell stack, and you can probably get away with 60 V FETs, which are common and fairly priced. Architecturally, there is nothing limiting you from having that charge come from a larger group than 12.

The solution is scalable to pretty much any balance current or battery capacity size, because you select the external components for the number of cells you’re going to have in the secondary. And you choose the sense resistors for the balance current that you want. Then the chip does all the controlling.

What is the cost of implementing your active system?

MV: In terms of cost per cell, we think our solution cost - which includes all of the external components required - is in the two to three dollars per cell range.

That’s independent of the cells’ capacity or the balance current that you want to run at. That would be the cost of all of the external components per cell, plus one-sixth the price of this particular chip (because you need one chip to interface with every six cells).

You can certainly use this for low-capacity cells, but we think the cost would not be ideally targeted for that.

This makes more sense with bigger cells, in the area of 40 amp-hours. That’s not a hard number, just an estimate.

26

Figure 1: Basic balancer architecture

The alternatives are either no balancing at all or passive balancing. In those cases, if you want to maintain the same driving range and battery life as a high-efficiency active system, you can either buy bigger cells with a higher amp-hour rating - a huge incremental cost - or you give up performance, which nobody wants to do.

What is the efficiency of the energy transfer?

MV: It is somewhere in the low 90 percent area at the power stage, and the efficiency doesn’t vary much with the number of cells you put in the stack. With the flyback architecture, we sized the transformer to not run at duty cycle extremes.

If you look at Figure 2, here we’re comparing another active balancing architecture with 80 percent efficiency.

Our solution, at around 90 percent, may sound like a

small improvement if you look only at efficiency. If you look at it in terms of loss - meaning how much heat is generated around the batteries in order to shuttle charge around - now comparing 80 and 90 is really comparing a 20 percent heat generation to 10 percent heat generation.

The architecture we chose essentially doubles the amount of current that you can balance cells with. So, the net result of this is that you get less heat and faster balancing.

Passive balancing is not even shown on this curve because essentially the efficiency is zero percent. You’re not moving any charge to a cell that could use it; you’re just burning it up as heat.

What’s also important is not just how efficiently you move the charge but how efficient the algorithm is. Because a portion of the charge that is being redistributed is coming from the low-SOC cell itself, a part of the overall efficiency is algorithm-dependent. We think this architecture is much friendlier in that regard as well, because we can reach across a lot of cells when we’re sharing charge.

Why did you choose a solution that balances locally instead of across the whole pack?

MV: Take for example a stack of 100 cells, which would have a 400 V common mode difference between the top cell and the bottom cell. Any architecture that would attempt to move charge from the bottom to the top would need components that could hold off 400 V. It’s just not practical. It makes far more sense to locally redistribute that charge to a subgroup of cells, like a module of 10 or 12 cells, for example. You can address the problem cells much more efficiently that way.

To take charge off just the highest cell and move it to the lowest cell would require a switch network that basically connects every cell to every other cell. If you had a stack that was 50 or 100 cells high, that would be very cost-prohibitive and basically an unworkable number of switches. It’s not practical or necessary to be able to move charge from one cell in a group of 100 to any other one cell. We need two switches per cell and can distribute charge over a large group, so we believe this architecture is very advantageous.

When does the cell balancing occur - during charging, discharging, and/or at rest?

MV: It can happen during load or during charging of the stack, it doesn’t matter. That being said, for the chip that is monitoring the voltage of the cells, and possibly the temperature, sometimes it may be beneficial during

Figure 2: Balancer efficiency

that measurement to pause activity of the stack and take a quieter voltage reading. That’s not required, but people tend to do it. When balancing at very high currents, pushing 5 amps back and forth between different cells, you might want to halt that for a brief period to take a voltage reading, recalculate the state of charge, and then resume balancing. When people are moving that much current around in a system they like to get constant updates on what the cells are doing, so that if anything is wrong it can be addressed quickly.

How soon can we expect to see the first systems on the road?

This chip was officially released on March 5, and there will be a learning curve for people to understand how this part works. I think people are starting to believe that they need active balancing, because they’re seeing how they’re limited with passive or no balancing at all. So, now they’re trying to understand the cost and what the actual benefits are.

If it’s an automotive application, the cycle to get something designed in is longer, usually years, not quarters.

Small applications I think will be sooner. We’ve been working with all the major players in terms of providing sample parts and demo boards. But all I can say really is that the part is now on the market and available for sale.

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MAR/APR 2013 27

E

, a small nation on the Baltic STONIA Sea, has seen something of an economic miracle since it broke free of the Soviet Union in 1991. Today, it’s a member in good standing of the Eurozone, and has the highest per-capita GDP of any of the former Soviet republics. It scores near the top in international rankings of political freedom, press freedom and education.

Estonia is known as one of the most Internet-savvy countries in Europe, and its government has often been praised in the international business press for its enterprise-friendly policies.

NA

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ATION

WIDE

BY CHARLIE MORRIS

the infrastructure Recently, the Baltic tiger inaugurated a new technological and economic showpiece: the world’s first nationwide network of DC fast chargers for electric vehicles. It is by far the largest fast-charging network in Europe, and the largest single project of its kind in the world. Its only rival is in much larger Japan.

Much of the credit for this goes to Jarmo Tuisk, head of the Electromobity Program (ELMO) in KredEx, a funding agency that the Estonian government has chosen to oversee the development of electric transportation. Tuisk began to focus on electromobility in 2008, when he was working in the country’s Ministry of Economic Affairs.

Estonia had earlier focused on Jarmo Tuisk e-services with great success, and the economic planners were looking for the next big thing.

Inspired by President Obama’s one-million EV challenge, Tuisk decided that his country might be able to find a lucrative niche in the EV field.

At that time, the Great Recession was in full swing, and budget cuts were the order of the day, so the project was put on hold. When Tuisk got the green light to proceed in late 2010, he assumed that Estonia would be a follower in the field, because everyone in Europe in those days was talking about building an EV ecosystem. As things turned out, Tuisk and company acted while others talked, and Estonia has become an EV pioneer.

“What we did differently from other European states was that we decided to focus on quick-charging technology, and do it nationwide, so that every future EV owner would feel the same safety and security as a regular car owner. They can drive anywhere in the country; that was the vision that we had.”

A fortunate combination of history and international diplomacy got the project off to an excellent start. Estonia happened to get a particularly good shake out of the

It is by far the largest fast-charging network in Europe, and the largest single project of its kind in the world.

30

Kyoto treaty, which limited carbon emissions - each participating country was given a quota, based on emissions in 1991. At that time, Estonia had a lot of Soviet-style heavy industry, and carbon emissions were high. During the economic restructuring of the 1990s, emissions were reduced significantly, and the country ended up with a lot of credits to trade.

Money earned from sale of the credits must be spent on CO2 reduction projects, and Tuisk’s team had one shovel-ready. The Estonians scored a further coup when

Photo courtesy of ABB

As things turned out, Tuisk and company acted while others talked, and Estonia has become an EV pioneer.

they convinced Mitsubishi to exchange some of the CO2 credits for a fleet of 500 i-MiEVs. In the end, Estonia’s EV initiative was fully financed by the CO2 credits, and didn’t cost taxpayers a single euro.

The Estonians opted to go for a turnkey solution, with a private consortium building, installing and operating the chargers, and put the project up for bids. There were several international bidders, including Ericsson and Hitachi, but the planners decided that ABB’s proposal was the most technologically advanced. Tuisk noted that

the company had been making bold moves to acquire the latest and greatest in fast-charging technology, often by acquiring innovative startups.

The project that ABB won was a very complex one, as the government decided not only to outsource the manufacturing and installation of the chargers, but also the operation of the network for five years. The government selected the locations, arranged the building permits, built concrete pedestals and ran electrical connections for the charging stations. ABB had to custom-design a char-

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MAR/APR 2013 31

the infrastructure

Sensors in each charger notify the command center if a user session fails, if a car crashes into a charger, or if vandals try to open a unit, and a local repair team is dispatched.

Photos courtesy of ABB

ger to the Estonians’ specifications, which called for a very advanced and robust system, as Rob de Vogel, Director of Special Projects for ABB’s EV Charging Infrastructure Group, told Charged.

The network consists of 165 identical chargers. They conform to the CHAdeMO standard, and each features a 50 kW DC and a 22 kW AC outlet. All are connected via a GSM network to a backend system that includes online payment, extensive monitoring, and a 24-hour help desk. In addition to the public network, ABB manufactured and

ABB’s fast charger with up to 50 kW DC and 22 kW AC power

installed 500 Level 2 chargers for the social workers who are using the i-MiEV fleet.

Estonia has an issue that charger operators in sunny climes such as California don’t have to deal with. No electronic equipment can stand the minus-30° temperatures that are common here in winter, so the chargers must be heated, and that imposes a significant cost. On the other hand, the region’s extreme weather conditions (summers can be as hot as 30° C, or 86° F) present a great opportunity to study how EVs perform in difficult conditions.

The network includes a sophisticated monitoring system to detect problems. Sensors in each charger notify the command center if a user session fails, if a car crashes

32

into a charger, or if vandals try to open a unit, and a local repair team is dispatched. If a charger isn’t working, and a user doesn’t have enough charge to drive to the next one, the network will even provide towing services. Software updates can also be managed remotely. ABB has its own customer service people in Estonia, and also works with two local partners to provide the help desk and online payment functions.

It seems that even business-friendly Estonia has its share of bureaucracy to deal with, for getting the building permits and complying with a maze of local regulations turned out to be quite a scene, and it took KredEx a few months longer than anticipated to get the pads poured.

Bo Henriksson, ABB Country Manager, Baltic States (left), Keit Pentus-Rosimannus, Minister of the Environment (center) and Andrus Treier, CEO, KredEx (right) 189-000031_ChargedEVs_ThirdPg_Ad.pdf

Also, the local weather is always a factor in this part of the world. When temperatures drop to 30 below, it simply isn’t possible to do the installation work, and a missed time slot can result in long delays. In fact, at the time of the formal opening ceremony, there were still about 12 chargers yet to be installed, according to Mr de Vogel.

Customers can pay for charging with RFID cards and also via mobile phones - pay-by-phone is part of the lifestyle in Estonia these days. Mr Tuisk told us that finding the right pricing solution was a challenge. Ninety percent of EV charging is done at home, so the fast-charging network serves as a sort of safety net for most users. The network charges per charging event, rather than by the kilowatt, and it has two pricing plans. Frequent users can pay a flat fee of 30 euros per month, which includes up to 150 kW C

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Photo courtesy of ABB

the infrastructure

(which should be good for 250-500 km of driving). Occasional users can opt to pay 5 euros per charge.

The system is flexible, so the operators will continue to experiment with different pricing options. New payment schemes - for example, a discounted rate for off-peak times - can easily be introduced on the fly.

As impressive as the new network is, the Estonians realize that it’s only part of a complete EV ecosystem, so they are taking a comprehensive approach. The government offers very generous incentives for buyers of new EVs - up to 18,000 euros, or 50 percent of the car price - and grants of up to 1,000 euros for the installation of home chargers.

“Our idea is that you have to bring the price of an EV down to a similar level as an ICE, because people are still afraid of the technology,” said Tuisk. “They are worried about how long the battery will last, what the residua value of the cars will be - very practical, pragmatic questions.”

The new charging network should eliminate the most common worry, known to Americans as range anxiety.

“People said, it’s a great car, but I need the same kind of freedom that I have with an ICE car. That’s the effect of building a nationwide infrastructure - you give people this freedom.”

It’s too early to tell if the new network will spur a buying spree. February’s EV sales were triple or quadruple

34

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A consortium in the Netherlands has a plan to deploy a network of comparable scale on Dutch highways - the first installations are scheduled for this year.

those of a year ago, but that doesn’t mean much. The car buying season in Estonia starts in spring, so what happens in April and May should give a clearer picture of future sales.

At the moment, only a few plugins are available in Estonia like the i-MiEV and the LEAF. Getting OEMs to make EVs available in this corner of Europe is a challenge, and the government has been using a little friendly persuasion. For an automaker, introducing a new model in a new market requires a certain amount of investment in dealerships, and for an EV that amount is even greater, as service personnel need to be trained, and new equipment needs to be installed.

These costs have to be balanced against the number of plug-in cars a company can expect to sell in a country of around 1.3 million people. Tuisk’s team took a year to

convince Nissan that there is a future for EVs in Estonia, and has also been working on GM. The Opel Ampera is expected to arrive this spring.

The government has a number of other electrification projects in the pipeline. In June 2013, it plans to launch a car-sharing service. It’s also focused on nurturing the next generation of engineers. EV exhibition centers in several cities give kids an opportunity to see what’s inside an EV and to learn how the technology works.

Another long-term goal is to build up applications for the reuse of EV batteries, such as integrating them into distribution grids as power storage. As Tuisk sees it, getting more value out of EV batteries should improve the resale value of EVs. “If you can guarantee future applications for batteries, then the TCO of an EV is much better for the owner.”

Are other countries close to following Estonia’s lead? Delegations from government agencies and large corporations are regularly visiting Estonia to see how its new network is working out. A consortium in the Netherlands has a plan to deploy a network of comparable scale on Dutch highways - the first installations are scheduled for this year.

There are also projects underway in several corridors in Germany.

ABB’s de Vogel notes that these are hampered by the fact that German OEMs have decided not to use CHAdeMO, but to implement their own new charging standard. ABB has introduced a combo charger that offers both plugs in one box, and has announced that it will be available this year. “We are involved in several pilots and demos in Germany, and we expect that to happen more or less as it has in Estonia.”

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the tech

YELLOW O Brick

Road Though it may have a stinky reputation, sulfur could set EVs on the path to total ICE replacement if energy-dense, low-weight lithium-sulfur batteries become the norm.

British-based OXIS Energy is banking its business on it.

By Markkus Rovito

36

Photo by faria! (flickr)

Sulfur - atomic number 16

I

f American clean energy industries are to take full advantage of the emerging lithiumsulfur (Li-S) battery chemistry, they just may have to welcome another British invasion. This February, Huw Hampson Jones, CEO of Oxfordshire, England’s OXIS Energy, landed in Washington, DC to meet with lithium suppliers, separator manufacturers, and US government agencies to explore new possibilities for its Li-S battery technology.

OXIS has begun commercialization of its Li-S batteries, which it claims have the longest cycle life of any known batteries of their kind, at 300-500 cycles. Meanwhile, Sion Power of Tuscon, Arizona, in an Electrochemical Society presentation, listed the cycle life of its Li-S batteries as one its biggest challenges, and estimated its cycle life at 60-80 cycles. Berkeley, California’s Polyplus, which Charged featured in its Aug/Sept 2012 issue, also has a promising Li-S technology, but has not announced anything greater than the 40+ recharge cycles that it described to us last year.

Regardless of the specific cycle life that a particular battery company has achieved, all Li-S cells share advantages over commonly used Li-ion battery chemistries, such as lower weight, the potential for lower cost and lower temperature performance, and a much higher theoretical energy density: a 2,500-2,750 Wh/kg theoretical limit, compared to 400-450 Wh/kg for Li-ion. In 2010, OXIS demonstrated 300 Wh/kg for its battery, with a target of 600 Wh/kg by 2016.

As for its proprietary achievements in Li-S technology, OXIS is hanging its bowler hat on two major breakthroughs: a sulfur passivation layer that prevents thermal runaway from taking place, and an organic electrolyte that increases the stable operating temperature of Li-S.

MAR/APR 2013 37

the tech Sulfuric Performance

OXIS Energy began as a tiny company in 2004 out of a collaboration with the Russian Academy of Science in Ufa, Russia, more than 1,000 miles southeast of Moscow (you’ll notice many Russian names on the 14 PDF white papers and other publications available on the Technology page at OXISEnergy.com). From a staff of just eight people in 2009, OXIS has grown to 45 employees and has begun to aggressively form partnerships for commercializing Li-S batteries that take advantage of its breakthroughs.

“Lithium metal on its own is quite a volatile substance,” said Jones, “but we have perfected a way whereby sulfur acts as a fire retardant on the lithium granule such that when a short circuit, overcharging, or nail penetration takes place, the sulfur acts as a passivation layer, and prevents thermal runaway.

Huw Hampson Jones That is how I have described OXIS CEO it in laymen’s terms to the financiers and my shareholders. The technique provides the necessary safety.”

The second key challenge that Li-S cells present, according to Sion Power’s aforementioned presentation, is stability at high temperatures, and that’s where OXIS’ second fundamental breakthrough comes in. “We have perfected an organic electrolyte that is capable of operating at up to 140° C [284° F]” Jones continued. “The electrolyte is possibly an Achilles heel of lithium-ion, and there is a tendency for it to be volatile when there is a significant fluctuation in temperature. Now, the OXIS electrolyte can operate at 60, 80, 85 degrees [Celsius] without any material malfunctioning. And it’s an organic electrolyte, which is important, because together, the polymer lithium-sulfur cell technology from OXIS is capable of - at the end of lifecycle - being biodegradable.”

Even though OXIS can currently claim supremacy in Li-S cycle life, their current status, 300-500 cycles (a consistent 500 is the target for July 2013), is still a far cry from the needs of electric cars.

“I can address certain markets with ease,” Jones said.

“Not the car industry yet, but markets such as defense, solar power, and light electric vehicles are quite happy with our getting up to 500 cycles today. The automotive

38

sector ultimately is looking for 5,000 cycles. That approximately equates with 13 years, which is the average lifespan of a car by the time it’s sold and resold, etc. Some car manufacturers use lithium-titanate, and Tesla of course uses lithium-cobalt; they would at least want somewhere

“

we have perfected a way whereby sulfur acts as a fire retardant on the lithium granule such that when a short circuit, overcharging, or nail penetration takes place, the sulfur acts as a passivation layer, and prevents thermal runaway.

”

in the region of 2,000-plus. We can’t achieve that yet, but there are techniques, one of which is being patented as we speak, whereby we think that within the next two years we can hit 1,000 cycles. And even if I begin discussions today with Volkswagen or BMW, it’s going to be another five years before my technology is in their car. That’s why I’m going after markets where I can make an immediate impact today/tomorrow/next year.”

That patent is one of 30 that are currently pending for David Ainsworth OXIS, on top of 37 granted OXIS CTO patents already in the company’s portfolio. Dr David A. Ainsworth, OXIS’s Chief Technical Officer, added that cycle life is one of the company’s greatest challenges.

“We want to stabilize the metallic lithium electrode so it’s less reactive over the cycle life of a cell,” Ainsworth said. “One of the biggest problems is that the lithium starts to react after many hundreds of cycles, which causes premature cell failure. We are looking at more stable electrolyte solutions - different solvents and additives that may offer us improvements. And we’re looking

at tailoring the structure of the cathode as well. We have our own proprietary electrolyte formulation that offers significant advantages: It is stable, should be cheap to produce, and has a high flashpoint to add extra safety to the cell.”

Another plus for OXIS is that its cells have a 100 percent available depth of discharge. “I’m not saying you’d want to do that all the time,” Jones said, “because by definition, it may have an effect. We’re still doing a lot of testing. It’s only in the last 18 months to 2 years that we’ve had sufficient capital to invest heavily in the test center.”

The Right Battery For Some of the Jobs

Despite a cycle life that falls well short of automotive Li-ion at this point, the OXIS Li-S batteries will begin to trickle into light electric vehicles as early as this year, as part of a clear long-term trajectory to penetrate the automotive industry. For 2013, OXIS is developing polymer Li-S batteries for Wisper electric bicycles in Europe, and

Lithium-sulfur Technology

“

We have our own proprietary electrolyte formulation that offers significant advantages: It is stable, should be cheap to produce, and has a high flashpoint to add extra safety to the cell.

”

for the Modulgo electric mini-car from French EV maker Induct. By 2014, OXIS also plans to power the Induct Cybergo, a driverless 8-passenger robotic shuttle, the QWIC Wesp electric scooter in Europe, and the control systems for Engbo’s electric marine propulsion system.

Engineering Notes

Lithium-sulfur vs lithium-ion Lithium-sulfur batteries utilize a metallic lithium anode and a cathode containing sulfur. What’s unique about Li-S technology is that all the electrochemistry happens in the solution state. Upon discharge of the cell, sulfur dissolves from the cathode into the electrolyte solution, forming polysulfides - longer chain polysulfides to begin with, which are then reduced further to shorter chain polysulfides, and eventually lithium sulfide (Li2S) itself. This differs from a lithium-ion system, in which the electrochemistry happens in the solid state - via intercalation reactions in the two electrode materials.

Energy density Lithium-sulfur batteries boast five times more theoretical capacity than lithium-ion, thanks in part to the sulfurcontaining cathode, with a capacity of 1,672 mAh/g.

The discharge process for a lithium-sulfur battery has a series of electrochemical reactions that occur: sulfur to Li2S8, Li2S4 to Li2S2, and so on. Each of these reactions yields electrons, giving sulfur a high theoretical capacity. With lithium-ion, there is only a single discharge reaction.

Safety Another highly touted benefit of lithium-sulfur is safety. One of the things that lead lithium-ion batteries to become unstable and susceptible to thermal runaway is the fact that as the cell ages, dendrites can form on the surfaces of the electrodes, which puncture the separator, causing the cell to short-circuit. Then thermal runaway occurs, because the electrolyte has quite a low flashpoint; it catches fire, and the cell explodes.

In a lithium-sulfur system, there are a few aspects that help to improve the safety. First, it uses a non-flammable electrolyte. If the cell does heat up, it’s not going to catch fire at as low a temperature.

The second aspect has more to do with the actual chemistry itself. Instead of the insertion of lithium ions in the graphite electrode, as is the case with lithium-ion, it forms lithium sulfide on the surface of the lithium electrode.

Upon subsequent charge and discharge cycles, it is removed and then replaced. In this process any dendritic lithium is re-dissolved. So, in addition to a safer electrolyte, there is less risk of dendrites forming on the negative electrode.

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MAR/APR 2013 39

Even more immediately relevant, OXIS batteries are receiving interest from certain other markets that are extremely sensitive to safety concerns and weight. Jones told us that the batteries weigh 50 percent less than Liion, and that 80 percent may be achievable, a characteristic that has attracted the British military to the batteries, for use in mobile radio systems.

“The lightness is of considerable benefit to the dismounted soldier, i.e. a soldier that’s outside of a tank or vehicle,” Jones explained. “If he’s carrying 3 or 4 kilos worth of battery packs, and you can reduce that by 50 percent or more, the lightening of the burden is quite considerable.”

Jones also thinks that the OXIS batteries compare very favorably to Li-ion in terms of safety. He pointed to a test where on behalf of the British Ministry of Defense, in which the battery survived a bullet penetration without explosion or thermal runaway.

In the area of solar power, OXIS is collaborating with a UK solar photovoltaic (PV) cell manufacturer to provide energy storage for its PV systems. In that arena, Jones said that the lower weight of the Li-S batteries could also be a positive factor.

“If you target residential homes or public sector bodies,” Jones said, “then weight does matter, because the ability to fit a solar battery system into an apartment or house makes it attractive, visually, as well as storage-wise.

But the key factor is safety again. If you were to put a lithium-ion battery into a garage or inside a house under the stairs, for example, the danger is the safety element as the temperature fluctuates. It could fluctuate quite violently. But if you have a system that can operate at up to 60-80° C [140-176° F], then the problem goes away.”

Perhaps sensing an opportunity stemming from Boeing’s recent 787 Dreamliner battery woes, Jones dipped his toes into the waters of the aviation sector while on his Washington trip in February. “The aviation sector has a real problem with safety and reduction of weight, in order to accommodate the newer airframes,” Jones said. “It’s going to take quite a number of years, but there is a real, genuine desire to find a resolution to that quite quickly, and it’s something that possibly we could tap into.” OXIS hasn’t yet made any announcement related to the aviation sector, but the company has been active lately in establishing partnerships for ramping up presence in the rechargeable battery market.

Sometime between these more immediate plans and automotive batteries on a more distant horizon, OXIS

40

Photos courtesy of OXIS

the tech

Applying a coating of OXIS cathode material

could tackle the consumer electronics space with smallform rechargeable Li-S batteries.

Tipping the Scale

As potentially biodegradable rechargeable batteries, the OXIS product definitely qualifies as green. But for battery start-ups like OXIS, to be green, takes green: cash, and plenty of it. In the fall of 2012, Sasol New Energy, a massive international integrated energy and petrochemicals company, infused OXIS’s coffers with a 15-million-pound (about US$23 million) investment. The Managing Director of Sasol New Energy, Henri Loubser, mentioned that the financing would include help from Sasol in commercializing and scaling up its chemical processes for its Li-S batteries.

With that chunk of change jingling in its pockets, OXIS seemed to get very busy establishing a blitz of new part-

will remain a technological “We team, granting the rights to use our technology for mass production purposes.

”

Analyzing a sample using a Scanning Electron Microscopy

“

It’s not an exclusive agreement with GP; we are seeking to collaborate with other battery manufacturers as well.

”

nerships with ramifications for its automotive EV aspirations. It announced three new business relationships in January alone. These include a Joint Development Agreement for several years with Arkema, a global chemicals producer, to give OXIS access to specialty materials like carbon nanotubes and advanced polymers, with the aim of optimizing the conductivity of the electrolyte, which could improve energy density, and reinforcing some components to extend the lifetime and safety of the battery.

A second Joint Development Agreement links OXIS with Germany-based Bayer Material Science AG for two

years, for developing new battery materials aimed at increasing the safety and mileage of electric vehicles.

Finally, and most significantly, in late January OXIS announced a joint manufacturing agreement with GP Batteries of Singapore for scaling up the OXIS Li-S battery systems.

“We will remain a technological team, granting the rights to use our technology for mass production purposes,” Jones said. “It’s not an exclusive agreement with GP; we are seeking to collaborate with other battery manufacturers as well.”

Jones also stated that through discussions with GP, they think that up to 70 percent of the current Li-ion manufacturing processes can be reused for the OXIS Li-S batteries. “That’s a fairly broad figure,” Jones said. “I’m fairly confident that within four to five months, we’ll have a more accurate figure based on having exercised the pro-

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MAR/APR 2013 41

the tech gram with a real, world-class battery manufacturer.”

Ainsworth added that “part of extension of the cycle life also relates to how we build the cells and the quality of the manufacturing processes.”

The GP partnership will no doubt speed up the commercializing of OXIS’s Li-S batteries, which will in time help to bring the price down. While Jones was not specific about the relative per-unit cost of Li-S compared to current Li-ion, the relative inexpensiveness of sulfur could give OXIS an advantage. At the time of this writing, cobalt cost $25,000-26,000 per ton; nickel cost $17,00018,000 per ton; and sulfur cost $200-300 per ton for a large bulk order.

That’s only one factor related to battery pricing, of course, but it bodes well for Li-S as the technology matures. As OXIS makes its steady climb toward automotive-grade Li-S battery packs, Jones thinks the price will be competitive, but that the other advantages to Li-S energy density and safety - will eventually sell themselves.

“We do the prototyping of the cells here before we hand over to GP for mass production,” Jones said. “We’ve been discussing with them the price point required for partic-

“

I don’t want to be the cheapest in the marketplace.

What I want to be is the best in terms of gravimetric energy, lightness of weight, reliability and safety

ular markets, and we are fairly confident that there are going to be significant gains.

The sheer volume that is expected over the next 5-10 years will be a factor in bringing the price down. But I don’t want to give the impression that I’m going to be the cheapest.

I don’t want to be the cheapest in the marketplace. What I want to be is the best in terms of gravimetric energy, lightness of weight, reliability and safety.”

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New With a longer range and a lower price, the 2013 Nissan LEAF screams upgrade, but it’s only one small aspect of the company’s aggressive EV strategy.

Proprietary, localized manufacturing and improved infrastructure also play key roles in Nissan’s plan for world domination electrification.

By Markkus Rovito

Photo courtesy of NISSANEV (flickr)

A

Leaf S

ometime back in the 60s, Mr or Mrs Ghosn must have put in the mind of a young Carlos the proverbial notion “if you want something done right, do it yourself.� Of course now, Carlos Ghosn is Chairman and CEO of Renault-Nissan, the most ambitious global automaker in the transition to electric vehicles. Not content to simply produce the bestselling EV yet, the Nissan LEAF, the automotive powerhouse insists on manufacturing its own batteries, localizing assembly of its cars, creating its own DC fast chargers, and helping to build the charging infrastructure on at least two continents: Europe and North America.

46

federal tax credit, the 2013 LEAF S can be had for just a hair more than $21,000. That attractive price, along with a new marketing strategy, will be the foundation for the LEAF’s 2013 sales. Will Nissan be raking in the profits from a bushel of LEAFs by the fall? If so, it may be because Nissan found a way to finally address the related EV concerns surrounding range, batteries, and charging.

Loose LEAF Sales The particulars of the 2013 LEAF include a selection of three model grades, all of them offered at a reduced price from the 2012 LEAF. The entry-level LEAF S grade

Photo courtesy of NISSANEV (flickr)

Nissan’s holistic approach to the EV transition sounds like Robert Rodriguez’s do-everything approach to making movies. But while manufacturing and infrastructure are important, that’s all behind-the-scenes stuff. The cars are the real stars of the show. They’re the ones that put butts in seats, so to speak.

Nissan opened 2013 with its new LEAF. Hoping to put the LEAF’s previously lackluster sales behind it, Nissan capitalized on energy efficiency and its new American assembly plants in Tennessee to offer a car with, among other details, a longer range for a lower price. With three model grades to choose from, and assuming a $7,500

the vehicles

*Starting MSRP Onboard Charger EPA MPGe **EPA Range

2012 LEAF $35,200 3.3 kW 106/92 73 miles

LEAF S $28,800 3.6 kW 130/102 75 miles

2013 Models LEAF SV $31,820 6.6 kW 130/102 75 miles

LEAF SL $34,840 6.6 kW 130/102 75 miles

*Not including a possible $7,500 tax credit per vehicle. **EPA range estimates, including that for the 2012 LEAF, were based on 100-percent charges. The EPA estimate for the 2013 LEAF blends the car’s two available charge modes: the 100-percent Long Distance Mode and 80-percent Long Life Mode. Nissan communications rep Travis Parman has been quoted saying that a straight 100-percent estimate for the 2013 LEAF would be 84 miles, and that an 80-percent estimate would be 66 miles.

While the LEAF exceeded 50,000 in worldwide sales in February, Nissan has been slammed in the press for not meeting its initial LEAF sales projections. shaved a substantial $6,400 off the cost to drivers. And despite including the same 24 kWh battery as the old model, the 2013 LEAF offers a significantly increased range. Nissan accomplished that feat through improved aerodynamics, increased energy recapture from regenerative braking, and better energy management.

One specific source of the new LEAF’s energy efficiency comes from a new hybrid heating system. Previous LEAFs used a legacy heating coil system left over from ICE cars. But, as Brendan Jones, Nissan’s director of EV marketing and infrastructure development, put it, because the old LEAF’s heat coil was not drawing heat

from the engine block, the car was using the coil more like an inefficient space heater in a house. The new LEAF uses a new heat pump system instead, which Jones said is about 33 percent more efficient.

New model options with different trims, new colors, and more importantly, a longer range for a lower price, are all factors that Nissan would like to see contribute to an uptick in LEAF sales. As spring began and this issue went to press, Nissan announced its best month since launch with 2,236 LEAF sales in March.

While the LEAF exceeded 50,000 in worldwide sales in February, Nissan has been slammed in the press for not meeting its initial LEAF sales projections. For example, 9,819 LEAFs sold in the United States in 2012 - a far cry from Nissan’s goal of 20,000.

This year, Nissan might nip the backlash in the bud by not releasing sales goals for the 2013 LEAF. It hasn’t so far, but the company obviously would like higher sales. That journey to increased numbers will require more complicated directions than just a better car at a better price. It also involves strategic marketing, dealer education, and a continued commitment to building charging infrastructure.

“We knew we were going to have a ramp-up period,” said Jones. “We knew our sales from the beginning as we came out of the Oppama plant in Japan were going to be limited to some degree, although we did have high expectations. The transition plan was always to fulfill our commitment to reduce as much cost as we could. I think our repositioning on price is our first statement towards better sales on Nissan LEAF. We have solid plans for the vehicle and will not in any way back off our leadership position in sales and infrastructure support. We’re very bullish.”

However, it’s not yet a mainstream enough vehicle to be

MAR/APR 2013 47

the vehicles marketed the same way as say, a Nissan Altima.

“LEAF is different, because you don’t go on a national media campaign,” Jones said. “Right now, our media campaign is very targeted and specific to markets in which electric vehicles are selling, the ‘opportunity markets’ in which we believe the vehicle will sell, and then as we’re fond of saying, ‘the rest.’ Most of the rest is from a few interesting customers, but not in a robust EV market.”

At a small meeting in January between LEAF customers in Phoenix and a few Nissan executives, Andy Palmer, Executive Vice President and frequent LEAF spokesman, addressed some things that Nissan has changed according to customer feedback, including some marketing tips. “We’ve changed the marketing from something that’s ‘good for you,’ to something that’s fun,” Palmer said.

In other words, Nissan is beginning to address a long-standing problem that Dean Devlin, producer of Who Killed the Electric Car? famously pointed out, that marketing EVs as “medicine” simply doesn’t work.

At that same Phoenix meeting with Palmer was Billy Hayes, VP of Global Sales for the LEAF, a position he only gained last October. A big part of his new job requires working with dealers on EV education and creative ways to compensate dealers for the extra time and effort often needed to sell electric cars. Certain online surveys and first-hand reports have raised suspicion in the EV industry that some car dealers don’t know much about the EVs and PHEVs on their lots, and may even be steering customers away from plug-in vehicles. Last year, Al Castignetti, VP of Sales for Nissan, admitted that the company didn’t prepare dealers properly for the LEAF. “We’re in the process of offering updated training for the dealers,” Hayes told his Phoenix audience. “We’re putting in things to control the customer experience as best we can at the dealer level. As we get more volume out there, the dealers become better and better at handling the sales experience. If I’m a salesperson, it’s easier for me to sell three Altimas than one LEAF. It’s a complicated sale. But it’s not a disincentive for a dealer to sell a LEAF. A lot of them believe it’s the future.”

Palmer also hit upon another reason why LEAF sales have been slow in the US, which is a lack of charging infrastructure. “I know I can drive across the whole of Japan and know that I’ll always be within 20 km of a fast charger,” he said.

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The Charging and the Charged Recent data from the DOE shows that government agencies and private owners are adding about 180 public chargers a month to the country’s growing infrastructure.

At the time of the March 15 report, the US had 5,548 public chargers, and if the current pace continues, the country will have in the range of 7,400 by the end of 2013.

No one knows for sure how many chargers it will take before the range-anxious exhale a collective sigh of relief and begin buying more EVs, but you can’t fault Nissan for standing on the sidelines. The automaker plans to accelerate the adoption of DC fast charging stations worldwide with its own quick charger that it began rolling out more than a year ago. Nissan’s 480 V DC fast charger is about half the size of some of its competitors, and starts at about half the price - less than $10,000. It can take a LEAF from zero to 80 percent charge in about a half an hour.

At the Washington Auto Show in January, Nissan announced plans to bring 500 of the charging stations to the US in a year and a half, which could as much as triple the total number of such stations in the country today. Forty of those stations will be installed in the DC area, in collaboration with eVgo. With its customers’ driving patterns coming straight from the LEAF data, Nissan could play a key role in determining the placement of the chargers.

“We work with our partners on that,” Jones said. “Our role is advisory. We don’t mandate; we consult. Thus far, we’re 182 chargers in, and they’re in very good locations.

Of course, it benefits the network providers to put them where the customers are.”

These quick chargers use the CHAdeMO standard, which works with autos such as the LEAF and Mitsubishi i-MiEV, but not the Chevrolet Volt, which sold more than 23,000 last year.

Palmer has said that Nissan obviously wants to encourage CHAdeMO use, and that the company strategy is to make it the de facto standard by putting enough

“

I know I can drive across the whole of Japan and know that I’ll always be within 20 km of a fast charger.

”

no-compromise vehicle that has 2.5 times-plus the range of what a normal American driver does on a daily basis.

It’s a very suitable vehicle. But we know from a lot of research and analysis and direct customer interviews that Americans think they drive more than they do, and they equate time in the vehicle to miles driven. Well, as we know, with EVs, if you’re just in the vehicle for five hours, you might have as much charge five hours later. Unlike an ICE, where you’re going to be burning gas the whole time. If you’re not engaging the gas pedal, you’re really not depleting the charge. There you go, even I said ‘gas pedal’ [laughs].”

There is a LEAF range-estimating tool under the LEAF section at Nissanusa.com that uses Google Maps to help you calculate the mileage for your daily commute, adding as many stops as you need. Nissan is also helping to develop a smartphone app for people currently driving ICEs to determine their daily driving range and then see if an EV is right for them. This app was not yet available at press time - it’s a separate app from the already available iOS and Android Nissan LEAF app, which lets the owner control certain aspects of the car’s charging, climate control, and other systems.

Another ongoing concern for potential EV buyers is certainly the battery life and its performance over time.

Hopefully, no one ever walks away from an EV sale believing the battery will perform like new for the life of the car. But neither do EVs have warnings emblazoned on the driver-side door, like the Surgeon General’s warning on a pack of cigarettes: “Expect 80 percent of battery capacity after five years. Battery degradation begins soon after the first use and then plateaus for a while.” Yet that’s the gist of Andy Palmer’s message to customers.

Nissan found itself in a little bit of hot water over the hot air in Arizona, and how it has degraded the lithiumion battery performance for some otherwise satisfied LEAF customers even faster than expected. Many

Photo courtesy of NISSANEV (flickr)

With its customers’ driving patterns coming straight from the LEAF data, Nissan could play a key role in determining the placement of the chargers.

chargers out there that everyone else has no choice but to support it. Nissan hopes to sell 2,000 of its DC fast chargers worldwide by 2014.

Yet even if we were to make DC fast chargers the new phone booth - besides being economically unviable that wouldn’t address the entire EV range conundrum.

The large majority of plug-in drivers will charge up at home overnight, so there also needs to be better public understanding and confidence in an EV’s batteries and range.

“Fact number one is that the average American drives 20-29 miles a day,” Jones said. “The average Nissan LEAF driver drives 31 miles a day. So it is a five-passenger,

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MAR/APR 2013 49

Photos courtesy of NISSANEV (flickr)

the vehicles

The 2013 LEAF battery module (left) compared to the 2012 battery module (right).

customers complained of being down to two thirds or less of their original range after less than two years of use; that their dealer did not inform them of any increased battery degradation from the extreme desert heat; and that liquid-cooled batteries in other EVs may do a better job of preserving the battery in the desert than the aircooled LEAF battery.

Palmer defended the air-cooling method, but also conceded that “we’re learning as we go along. Not everything we do can be validated in the laboratory.

That’s why we’re here.” Also, customers whose batteries have verifiably less than a certain threshold of capacity within the warranty period can have the battery replaced (at great cost to Nissan).

Automaker, Batterymaker The silver lining to this is that any lessons Nissan learns from such battery difficulties it can employ immediately, since it makes its own LEAF battery packs in its Smyrna,

50

“

Every time we look at an iteration of the battery, we try to improve it.

Tennessee plant that launched last December.

“Every time we look at an iteration of the battery, we try to improve it,” Palmer said. “It will be a continuous development.

There’s no magic bullet to the chemistry.”

The Smyrna plant will have to move a lot of widgets to begin paying off a DOE loan of up to $1.4 billion, which Congress authorized as part of the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007. The facility includes not just a battery plant, but also a LEAF assembly plant, where the 2013 models are currently rolling off the lines. This venture has created at least 300 manufacturing jobs so far. If it gets going up to full capacity, which is estimated at 200,000 battery packs and what Palmer quoted as 150,000 LEAFs per year, at

”

“

The battery plant has a lot of capacity; we’re not utilizing it all yet, but it is there as we continue to increase sales over time.

”

least 1,000 more jobs would be Cutaway model of 2013 LEAF battery pack in order. This all fits into Nissan’s overall strategy of producing 85 percent of all Nissan and Infiniti products that are sold in the US in North America by 2015.

That localized production can also play an important part in keeping its EV prices falling to a level that’s comparable with ICEs, because as Hayes pointed out in a Nissan video in February, beyond early adopters, car buyers don’t want to pay much extra for green technology.

Last year, Palmer spoke about how there were some initial challenges for the Smyrna facility to master the mass production of batteries, train the work force Cutaway model of 2013 LEAF motor and ramp up to full volume. Now that the lines are humming along, Jones sees it as a success.

“It was just the assurance of quality,” Jones told us. “We were taking it slow, because Nissan has been known for over the years. We’re ramping of that. It was a new facility; it still is. It was the first time up. The battery plant has a lot of capacity; we’re not they ran battery packs down through the line in the utilizing it all yet, but it is there as we continue to increase brand new facility, and they went through the normal sales over time.” quality checks that we do with any vehicle or any new All of that unused capacity might suggest an commodities that come out of a brand new assembly opportunity for Nissan to take orders for battery plant. None of it was unusual, unplanned, or anything production from other businesses, but the company is like that; it’s all very typical to the quality methodologies not currently commenting on that possibility. There’s

MAR/APR 2013 51

the vehicles

“

I launch 51 cars in the next five years, and that car’s my favorite.

Photos courtesy of Infiniti Global (flickr)

”

also the possibility that Nissan could produce different types of batteries in the same plant, should the company evolve the battery systems for future EV models. As Palmer told his customers in Phoenix, “please don’t get religious about the type of battery. There are hundreds of technologies that are available.”

Jones added that the state-of-the-art Smyrna facility should be able to handle whatever new technologies or chemistries are required. “Fortunately or unfortunately, depending on your perspective, lithium-ion batteries are as different as cars are different, in terms of the way they’re made. We’re going to continue to improve on the battery technology and the performance of batteries.

There are processes in place to do that. We do have that flexibility, and our teams are actively working on that. It behooves us to make them more efficient and get more energy out of a battery. You can achieve that in a variety of ways: making the inter-related systems in the vehicle work more efficiently (which we’re doing in the 2013 LEAF), making the battery yield more energy per cell, and from the chemistry of the battery.”

Infiniti LE and Beyond Assessing the state of the LEAF or of the entire field of

52

EVs comes down to individual perspective. One can see the Nissan’s missed sales projections as a sign of failure, or one can see the LEAF as far and away the most successful pure electric vehicle in history, which it is, with well over than 50,000 worldwide sales.

You could also see EVs as a whole as failing to capture the attention of the public at large, due to slower-thanhoped-for-sales, or you could see an industry still in its infancy, but a healthy baby that’s getting bigger and stronger with every year.

For Nissan, it’s still full steam ahead. The electric Infiniti LE was previously slated for a launch sometime around April 2014. While Nissan would not give Charged any update related to the launch, Jones confirmed that they’re moving forward with it, and Palmer exclaimed last year than the Infiniti LE is “gorgeous. You’re taking LEAF underpinnings - a hatchback - and reengineering that for a sedan has been very challenging. I launch 51 cars in the next five years, and that car’s my favorite.”

Jones also believes that the Infiniti LE will be in a different class than the Tesla Model S. “Tesla’s really going high-end,” he said. “They’re right now between the $90,000 and $110,000 price point. We’ll compete below that.” Specifically, Jones called the Infiniti LE a $60,000+

“

The most efficient solution is simply competition.

More cars out there, more manufacturers pushing the technology. We spent $4 billion developing the LEAF, so I guess we’re ‘all in.’

”

vehicle, which he thought would appeal both to LEAF owners who want to move up to a more luxurious car, and to current ICE drivers who don’t want to sacrifice their standards. “We see a lot of synergy both with our own vehicle lineup, and with the general public on looking at an affordable four-door, no-compromise, EV sedan,” he said.

Jones, Palmer, and Hayes have all recently talked about how the increase in competition in the EV field will eventually, if not immediately, help Nissan and the general transition to electricity.

In the February video, Hayes mentioned that Ford’s

recent decision to expand its electric offerings from 200 dealers to 900 could be a “threat,” but that overall, more OEMs entering the EV market will help Nissan stay competitive, relevant and current. “The more EVs we can get out there, the more infrastructure will get built, and the more acceptance there will be in general,” he said.

“This is a fun topic,” Jones said. “Whether you’re negative or positive about EVs, writers love to write about it either way. It certainly has a lot of emotion around it.

But we have to love the amount of OEMs that are coming into the space.” Jones mentioned the Fiat 500e coming in the second quarter of 2013 with a 108 MPGe highway rating, and the Volkswagen e-up!, with a range of 90 miles. “There’s no question that the market is growing.

Now from Nissan’s perspective, we’re the clear-cut leader.

We build our own batteries; we have our own assembly plant; we have a decided investment for volume, more so than anyone else.”

Palmer echoed similar sentiments, both regarding the growing amount of healthy competition, and Nissan’s commitment to EVs. “The most efficient solution is simply competition,” he said. “More cars out there, more manufacturers pushing the technology. We spent $4 billion developing the LEAF, so I guess we’re ‘all in.’”

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MAR/APR 2013 53

the tech

It’s A

Details

in the

By Michael Kent

Digatron Firing Circuits’ new stop-start testing rig examines the limitations of lead-acid batteries and the inadequacy of traditional static tests.

s the battery in a stop-start system ages, the fuel efficiency advantages are curtailed. It’s a real problem found in some first-generation systems, and has led many to question the methodology used in urbanefficiency tests. Ralf Hecke, of Digatron Firing Circuits, says it highlights issues with stop-start battery testing practices. Hecke develops test and load simulation systems at Digatron, and has been working on stop-start technology for a few years. Talking to Charged, he recalled his early work at a major automaker where a computer simulation was used to predict the charging needs of a stop-start battery. “The real world looked totally different,” he told us.

Ralf Hecke At Digatron, Hecke set out to develop a proper test system to simulate all the loads and charges seen in real-world stop-start applications.

There have been tests developed by some organizations - like the Japanese automotive and battery industry, for example - but Hecke believes their models are too simple and have been adapted to existing test equipment rather than focused on the actual cycles seen in the field. “We wanted to have the exact behavior that we saw on the

54

road in the laboratory environment,” he said.

In stop-start applications, the battery sees many different charging and discharging scenarios that a battery in a conventional vehicle would not. To properly test a battery, battery monitoring system (BMS), and energy management algorithm, Hecke insists it is critical to simulate all of the real-world phases. While the operation of each stop-start system differs depending on its design, some of the basic charging and discharging phases include:

The Cranking Phase

In a stop-start system the cranking phase is generally the same as in conventional vehicles, although it obviously happens more often - somewhere around 10 times more often, depending on driving habits. Here the battery experiences high-power discharge for a brief period, and the actual amount of energy you take out is minimal.

Zero Current Phase

The basic idea is that the less energy shuttled through the battery the better, because it will always involve some losses from the electrochemical processes and unnecessary cycling of the battery. Every automaker employs different specific strategies, but in general the system tries to maintain the battery at an 80 percent state of charge (SOC), with 20 percent reserved for recuperation.

Instead of using a fixed voltage set point regulator, the

s

“

We wanted to have the exact behavior that we saw on the road in the laboratory environment.

voltage can be varied.

So, while driving with an 80 percent SOC, the management system will adjust the voltage set point of the alternator in such a way that there is no energy removed from or put into the battery. If all of the electronic loads in the vehicle - the radio, headlights, etc. - require 40 A, then the alternator set point is adjusted to produce that current.

”

Recuperation Phase

Energy recuperation occurs during deceleration. In one common system, for example, the kinetic energy of the vehicle will continue to turn the engine with the clutch still engaged, and torque the alternator, although no fuel is consumed. During this phase the voltage set point of the alternator is increased as high as the PowerNet will allow, typically around 15 V, and current flows into the battery.

In the best-case scenario the battery would accept as much energy as the alternator could deliver. If the alternator output is 150 A, and 40 A is the actual load of the vehicle, the battery would be charged at 110 A. But the rate that batteries can accept charge varies greatly depending on a number of factors, including chemistry, temperature, and age. So, the amount of recuperated energy is limited either by the alternator’s output or the battery’s charge acceptance.

This phase can also be scheduled for points at which the combustion engine sees the worst operating conditions - high fuel consumption but low power output. The best time to release the captured energy can be pinpointed based on the vehicle’s fuel maps.

Fuel-Consuming Charging Phase

Like the cranking phase, this phase is relatively self-explanatory, and generally the same as in conventional vehicles. When the battery is below the desired 80 percent SOC, the alternator will charge the battery via the torque created while the engine is consuming fuel.

Engine Off Phase

When the vehicle comes to a stop - at a traffic light, for example - the combustion engine turns off, and the battery now carries all the vehicle’s electrical load (headlights, seat heaters, radio, control modules, etc.). This is the major discharge phase of the battery, and it is critical that the energy management system preserves enough energy for a safe restart.

Photo by Alan_D (flickr)

Unloaded Alternator Phase

After a recuperation phase, when the battery is above 80 percent SOC during normal driving conditions, the alternator voltage set point can be lowered below the voltage of the battery (or the alternator can be mechanically decoupled altogether). In this case the battery supplies all of the energy for the vehicle’s load, and the alternator is fully unloaded, relieving drag from the drivetrain, which allows faster acceleration and better fuel efficiency.

In stop-start applications, the battery sees many different charging and discharging scenarios that a battery in a conventional vehicle would not MAR/APR 2013 55

the tech HIL Setup Concept

Engineering Notes Data based on Digatron Firing Circuits’ internal research.

xPC Target

Digatron Controller

Host PC

Energy Management Algorithm

Digatron BM4 BM xPC TTar arg get Host Hos

LIN/CAN Master Gateway IXXAT

Digatron Power Circuit

Digatron Power Circuit

Alternator Emulator

Load Emulator

Battery Current (A)

DIGATRON FIRING CIRCUITS’ “HARDWARE IN THE LOOP” (HIL) LABORATORY TEST SETUP FOR STOP-START APPLICATIONS

ZERO CURRENT PHASE RECUPERATION PHASE

ENGINE OFF PHASE

Time (H)

BATTERY CURRENT DURING OPERATION

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If the vehicle comes to a stop and the battery has a SOC below a minimum desired value, the energy management system will skip this step and continue to operate in the fuel-consuming charging phase.

After Run Phase

This phase is the period of time after the vehicle is parked and keyed off before it enters the sleep phase - generally around 10 to 20 minutes, depending on the vehicle. Here the ECUs and the internal bus traffic of the electronics are still active, with a fair amount of current flowing.

The Sleep Phase

In this phase the vehicle could be considered dormant, with most of the systems powered down. The current flow in sleep mode is usually around 10 to 20 mA.

The Wake Up Phase

Typically, when a vehicle is unlocked, it will exit sleep mode and enter the wake up phase. This is similar to the after run phase, in which the ECUs power up and the electronics begin internal communications.

To accurately simulate all of the possible phases of a stop-start system, Hecke developed a “hardware in the loop” (HIL) system. The laboratory test setup included two power circuits: one to simulate the sink, with a high current capacity to mimic the cranking phase, and another to simulate the alternator. This enabled testing of the zero current phase with both circuits operating at the same time. To test different real-world scenarios, eight drive cycles were simulated with various combinations of probable operating phases and recuperation events.

Hecke’s laboratory work detailed the importance of simulating the sleep phase of the vehicle, which many other testing methods have ignored. Within Digatron’s simulated drive cycles are daily 12-hour periods of a parked vehicle, as well as a two-week parked period every sixth week.

Hecke found situations in which, after a two-week parked period, the relatively small load of the sleep phase would drain a 12 V lead-acid battery’s SOC below the minimum that’s required to enable the stop-start functionality. In this case, the vehicle would operate like a conventional car, burning fuel while idling to charge the battery. The period of time it takes for the system to return to full stop-start functionality is directly related to

“

Some combine the use of lithium-ion batteries or ultracapacitors with lead-acid, so that during the recuperation phase they can always take a lot of charge.

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the charge acceptance of the battery. And the charge acceptance is a key variable that’s clearly affected by the battery’s age, again highlighting the importance of accurate life predictions.

The test was originally developed to examine the limitations of using 12 V lead-acid batteries in stop-start applications - and the inadequacy of traditional static tests - but the same setup is suitable to test other battery chemistries, energy storage devices, or combinations of them. Digatron plans to use its new testing system to more accurately compare and contrast the different energy storage options available to stop-start system designers. Through a precise simulation of the interactions between the battery, BMS, and energy management system, Hecke believes the advantages of using advanced batteries and capacitors will be made clearer. “People are trying to find an energy storage device that always accepts a lot of energy. Ultracapacitors can do it, and so can lithium-ion batteries. There have also been many developments in advanced AGM and improved flooded batteries for stop-start applications. Some combine the use of lithium-ion batteries or ultracapacitors with lead-acid, so that during the recuperation phase they can always take a lot of charge,” Hecke explains. “The charge acceptance of a traditional lead-acid battery is good for only about three months in the field, then it gets to a level where you don’t have a lot of recuperation benefits. These advanced storage devices are very well suited, because they have a very predictable high charge acceptance over time.”

The life expectancy of a stop-start battery depends on the region, but ideally, it is designed to match the life expectancy of a typical vehicle’s battery. “Here in Germany, we average 4-5 years for a battery,” says Hecke.

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MAR/APR 2013 57

the tech

Ultra

Capable

BY JOEY STETTER

P

Maxwell looks to leverage its early ultracapacitor experience into a ubiquitous, low-cost, high-volume complement to batteries

ower sources like internal combustion engines and advanced battery packs work great as continuous suppliers of energy. But during the highest peak loads, both sacrifice efficiency attempting to meet the power delivery demands. And pushing these devices to their power limits inevitably affects their lifespan. That’s where ultracapacitors (ultracaps) can earn their keep.

Compared to lithium-ion batteries, there are three characteristics that best describe the advantages of ultracaps: extremely high charge/discharge rates (power density), extremely high cycle life (approaching one million cycles), and great performance at low temperatures.

The one feature they lack is the inability to store large amounts of energy (energy density). In other words, they are really great at repeatedly absorbing and delivering huge bursts of power, over long lifetimes and wide tem-

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perature ranges, while leaving the large energy requirements to batteries.

Ultra or Super, Either Way It’s Impressive Ultracaps are relatively new devices that have really become commercially available only in the past decade or two. Also known as supercapacitors, their incredible power density is due to the fact that their internal resistance is very low. So low that when an ultracap is fully discharged, it looks like a short circuit to a charging device (for example, a 3,000 farad cell has about 0.2 milliohms of resistance). The power density - while not as high as standard electrolytic capacitors - is much higher than the typical battery energy storage devices, and many other electrical energy storage technologies.

The long lifetime of the device is due to the “non-

e

faradaic” nature of the charging process, in which (ideally) no electrons are transferred between materials. Instead, during charging, ultracaps store energy as an electric field built up in the electric double layer. In contrast, batteries (aka electrochemical storage cells) undergo chemical Michael Everett reactions to store energy, some of which are irreversible and lead to inherent continuous lifetime degradation mechanisms.

Imperfections in the real world - in the form of material impurities and in the processes used to build ultracaps - are what ultimately limit the devices to finite lifetimes, because the impurities will eventually react electrochemically. Improving the material purity for the active electrode, separator, and electrolytes could lead to even longer lifetimes. In current applications, hundreds of thousands of cycles are expected, and beyond one million cycles is not unheard of.

The other key advantage is the ability of ultracaps to function at low temperatures, all the way down to minus 40º C, with an almost imperceptible change. With batteries that are relying on a mass transfer processes, low temperatures can severely affect their performance.

future of the ultracaps market and where they fit into the automotive industry. “I joined Maxwell in 2002. At that time, ultracaps started to become known in the automotive and heavy transportation world, like trucks and buses. There were some hybrid buses already out on the road with ultracaps in 2002,” explained Everett. “But really the market hadn’t developed, and the products were very expensive to produce, although still very capable.”

Maxwell’s main focus remains the same over 10 years later: to drive out costs. So far it’s been successful.

“Through a lot of technology advancements, both in the fundamental technology of the devices as well as manufacturing methods and processes, we have been able to reduce the cost dramatically - call it an order of magnitude in a decade,” said Everett. “From a place where people couldn’t afford to

“

we have been able to reduce the cost dramatically call it an order of magnitude in a decade

”

Max Potential Founded in 1965, Maxwell Technology has become a clear leader in the new ultracap market.

The company only began working with ultracaps in the mid-1990s, but through a combination of technology and market development it has grown that segment of its business from $17 million in 2007 to $97 million in 2011.

Charged caught up with Michael Everett, Maxwell’s Chief Technology Officer, to get his thoughts on the

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the tech even consider using ultracaps in anything but an experimental mode, to where we have high-volume production going into transportation applications around the world.”

Scaling up the operation in recent years has certainly helped to bring down the price, but engineering ingenuity has played a major role as well. Back in 2002, Maxwell purchased Montena Components, which at the time had a film electrode-based ultracap on the market. But Maxwell had developed a packaging technology that was more advanced. By combining and improving on the two designs, Maxwell was able to reduce the number of parts in the new device from about 20 to about seven. Maxwell went on to continually push for simplification in search of high-volume, lower-cost manufacturing processes.

Another major breakthrough was in the electrode.

“Maxwell’s ultracap electrode, we believe, is one of a kind, in the sense that our manufacturing process is completely dry,” Everett explained. “We make carbon film electrodes without any liquid additives, and I think that’s very unique in this industry. Everybody else is using the techniques that are employed in the lithium-ion battery industry - wet coated electrodes, mixing with solvents, then coating it onto a current collector foil and allowing it to dry. Not putting that solvent in there, not having to work with dryers, not having to reclaim solvents, all adds up to a huge advantage for costs. Throw in a little bit of volume, and you’ve got an affordable device.”

Automotive Inroads - Stop-Start With an affordable, highly-capable power storage device come customers. In 2010, Maxwell announced that it would supply ultracaps to Continental AG, one of the world’s largest automotive suppliers, for its voltage stabilization system. The Continental device made its way into PSA Peugeot-Citroën’s second generation stop-start system that’s found in diesel models including the Citroën C4 and C5. Now, there are more than half a million cars on the road with Maxwell ultracaps in them, and by Everett’s estimation they’re off to a great start.

“To my knowledge there hasn’t been one single ultracap return from that system. It’s functioning extremely well. There have been comparisons of stop-start systems in Europe from all the major automakers, and that system came out number one for driving comfort and performance. It’s obviously not all due to ultracaps, but the ultracaps are so capable at cranking the engine after a stop - it happens so fast and so efficiently and so many times in all kinds of weather - that now it is viewed as a

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“

the ultracaps are so capable at cranking the engine after a stop - it happens so fast and so efficiently and so many times in all kinds of weather - that now it is viewed as a very dependable and useful system.

”

Photo by anh quan (flickr)

Now, there are more than half a million cars on the road with Maxwell ultracaps in them

very dependable and useful system.”

Continental uses two of Maxwell’s ultracaps designed into a small module, basically 5 V in series with the battery that is used to stabilize the power net and provide cranking power when the engine starts. “When the cranking event occurs, the power comes from the ultracaps and the voltage of the system stays well above 10 V,” explained Everett. “Whereas with a battery-only system, the boardnet voltage will generally dip to 8 V. So, with ultracaps you don’t get the processors resetting, all the lights dimming, and other disruption when the start function occurs.”

Hybrid Buses Ultracaps seem well-suited for stop-start vehicles, where explosive market growth looks to be inevitable by most accounts. Currently, however, Maxwell’s highest-volume application is hybrid buses, with more than 10,000 ultracap-outfitted units now deployed in China alone.

The bus systems typically house somewhere between 400 V and 700 V of ultracaps in series. When a bus grinds to a halt, the tremendous amount of kinetic energy is captured by a regenerative braking system and stored in the ultracaps. Then the energy is used to propel the buses to about 10 to 15 mph, at which point the combus-

MAR/APR 2013 61

the tech tion engine takes over. This system manages to avoid the big puff of black smoke that everyone, China particularly, is interested in reducing.

“Because you’re driving electrically to get up to speed, you’ve managed to boost your fuel economy by double-digit percentages,” said Everett. “We’ve heard pretty amazing numbers for some systems, although we don’t always see raw data to verify it, but certainly a 15 to 20 percent fuel economy increase in a bus is a reasonable target when you think about electrically propelling this huge mass from start.

And it’s almost for free, because all the energy to charge the ultracap comes from the braking event. When batteries are

“

The battery will take as much as it can; in contrast, the ultracap will take everything that you can give it.

”

used for braking energy recovery in hybrid buses, their charge acceptance isn’t great enough, so they have to mix between dumping the energy out as heat and storing it in a battery. The braking event only lasts a few seconds of very high power creation, and the battery at the low charge acceptance rates is incapable of absorbing all the energy available. The battery will take as much as it can; in contrast, the ultracap will take everything that you can give it.”

For the most part, hybrid bus deployments occur where government subsidies exist, because of the premium that comes with the advanced technology. A standard

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Engineering Notes Roundtrip efficiency Ultracaps are extremely efficient at returning the energy put into them - 98 to 99 percent, thanks to their low internal resistance. The roundtrip efficiency of lithium-ion batteries is generally quoted in the range of 90 to 93 percent. At the system level, the efficiency of regenerative braking energy recovery is going to depend on the architecture - the electric drive, control circuits, etc.

“

They’re really trying to determine what’s the best technology, and ultracaps are getting their fair share, without a doubt.

”

Photo by oinonio (flickr)

Maxwell’s highest volume application is hybrid buses, with more than 10,000 ultracapoutfitted units now deployed in China alone.

40-foot passenger bus costs somewhere in the neighborhood of $125,000 to $175,000, while a hybrid version costs around $350,000 to $500,000. This makes China a very attractive market for hybrid bus builders, because the People’s Republic has been spending a lot of money in recent years to clean up the air quality in urban areas.

“What cities are doing is spreading the subsidies across different technology platforms. So, in the same city you’ll see buses that contain ultracaps and buses that contain batteries,” explained Everett. “They’re really trying to determine what’s the best technology, and ultracaps are getting their fair share, without a doubt.”

Typically, the hybrid systems in buses use either batteries or ultracaps. The battery systems contain more energy, so they do more “hybrid” operations, such as running the fans in the bus to keep people cool and all the other energy-related things that ultracaps can’t do. But battery hybrid systems are also much heavier, they’re negatively affected by cold weather; and (as Everett pointed out) they’re less efficient at capturing regenerative energy.

So, there is a cost-versus-benefit discussion that will likely rage on for years to come as both ultracaps and advanced batteries fight to become cheaper solutions.

But there is also very strong data to show that combining batteries and capacitors together will enable the batteries to live longer by a substantial amount.

A Battery-Ultracap Hybrid In recent years many research organizations, including Argonne National Laboratory and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, have been discussing and demonstrating the potential benefits of combining the best of both energy storage devices. The basic idea is to build a high-energy battery pack containing ultracaps to take the edge off of peak charging/discharging events. Some have suggested that these extreme rates can be as detrimental

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MAR/APR 2013 63

the tech

“

to lithium-ion lifespan as deep discharges and repeated cycling.

So, a “hybrid” pack might be the way that ultracaps eventually find their way into EVs. The concept has yet to be proven commercially however, so the jury is out on the real benefits of a combined system.

Everett told us that, in time, he thinks batteries and ultracaps will “ultimately be together.”

“Ultracaps are not designed to be energy devices, and that’s an inefficient use of their strength. They are really power devices. A 10-second burst of power - 1000 A, 10 kW or 15 kW - that’s where the real benefits come in. And every application in a vehicle requires some heavy bursts of power. Maxwell’s philosophy is let the ultracaps shine where they shine, let the batteries shine where they shine, and put the two of

Maxwell’s philosophy is let the ultracaps shine where they shine, let the batteries shine where they shine, and put the two of them together to make the best system possible.

”

them together to make the best system possible. When a battery is sized for a power application, the ultracapacitors can enable a reduction in the size, weight, and cost of the battery by picking up all the power requirements and, again, allowing the battery to behave as a superior energy device.”

However, Everett explains that there is still a problem with the price point. “[Batteries and ultracaps both] need to drive the economics down. We don’t think ultracaps are inexpensive enough yet. We are constantly driving the price down, working with our suppliers and others to bring every cost advantage we can.”

Every Last Drop Maxwell and other ultracap and battery makers have done a very good job at incremental cost reduction. They take Part A and make it for 30 percent less than they used to make it for. Then they take Part B and replace it with a different material, paying 80 percent of what it used to cost. But this approach is quickly reaching a point of diminishing returns, where there is really not much more to wring out.

So the new approach has to be one of rethinking the problem and looking for solutions that haven’t cropped

Engineering Notes Ultracap FAQs

Safety?

In the automotive world, safety is a big deal. Compared to batteries, ultracaps are easier to manage in terms of voltage stability and measuring their state of charge. It’s actually very simple with ultracaps and very complex with lithium-ion batteries.

The worst-case scenario is overcharging an ultracap. The device will build pressure until it eventually vents, leaking gas and some electrolyte. In the event of overcharging, it is dependent on the system to stop supplying current, because under continued current supply after venting, the ultracap quickly turns into a big resistor, generating more and more heat. However, unlike lithium-ion batteries, there is no threat of a thermal runaway, or self-propagating reaction that occurs from chemical interactions inside the device.

Other names?

Ultracaps are also known as: electric double-layer capacitors; electrochemical double-layer capacitors (EDLC); supercapacitors; and supercondensers.

Capacitance?

Ultracaps’ capacitance is a million times that of a conventional electrolytic device. This is primarily due to the much higher surface area made possible by an activated-carbon manufacturing process. Physical properties of the electrolyte also boost capacitance.

Emerging markets?

Ultracaps are finding their way into power and energy management solutions of all kinds, including stationary power storage, UPS systems, flash memory, portable hand tools, electric utility meters, telecom backup, and energy harvesting applications like wind and solar.

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up in the incremental method. Everett points to activated carbon as a good example.

“It is the active material in most ultracaps out there, and it’s pretty expensive, between $20 and $50 per kilogram. There are activated carbons you can buy for $3 per kilogram, but they have a lot of impurities. They’re not exactly right, so you mitigate the performance of the device in some really major ways if you use these inexpensive carbons. But knowing that $3 per kilogram carbon exists, to me is an opportunity to figure out what can be done to it. Can we take a $3 per kilogram carbon, and turn it into a $5 per kilogram activated carbon that works well?”

“It’s the same problem battery makers have. We have to push everything from the technology, to the architecture, to the construction and packaging of the device.”

Power Potential Like companies in the battery industry, Maxwell sees enormous potential for low-cost advanced power storage. It has only been a few years since ultracaps have been the biggest part of its business. The company also has

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“

It’s the same problem battery makers have.

We have to push everything from the technology, to the architecture, to the construction and packaging of the device.

respectable market shares in the highvoltage capacitor and microelectronics spaces. While both are strong markets, they are more mature and ultimately limited in growth potential, whereas the ultracap market is largely unconstrained, and really only a function of economics at this point.

“I think that the performance of the devices has gotten to where people have started to accept them. Yeah, there are a few things that people would like us to do to improve the performance, and sure enough we’re working towards them. But really, if we can manage to continually reduce the cost, or the price to the consumers, we will sell a lot more of them just as they are.”

”

the tech

Q&A BATTERY ABUSE TESTING, Erik Spek, Chief Engineer at TÜV SÜD Canada, on

Erik Spek

IMPROVING SAFETY, & DEVELOPING STANDARDS

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W

hen analyzing the current state of lithiumion technology, it helps to look back at the development of the nickel metal hydride battery (NiMH). Some argued that hybrid automotive applications would require too much power from the small packs, but they’ve performed very well. It turned out that the chemistry is extremely robust. It has a great warranty record with very few exceptions, and all told, it was a lucky choice to start off the whole industry.

In contrast, lithium-ion has seen much less time in development - about 25 years versus 100 years for the nickel electrode (albeit with primitive tools). Lithium-ion technology is far more sensitive than nickel ever was, even at early stages of its development. So, it’s not surprising that while the general public has seen the proliferation of hybrids as a non-event, lithium-ion technology in plug-in vehicles seems more problematic.

Charged caught up with Erik Spek, TÜV SÜD Canada’s Chief Engineer, to discuss the safety challenges of lithium-ion battery packs. Spek is an energy storage technology specialist with broad applications experience, primarily with batteries in vehicles and stationary systems.

Charged: How do the inherent challenges of designing lithium-ion battery packs compare to NiMH? Erik Spek: With lithium-ion, there is a built-in fire triangle that we’re trying to overcome, and NiMH doesn’t have all three legs - fuel, heat, and oxygen. Lithium-ion has the fuel from the electrolyte (typically ethylene or propylene carbonate fluids that can be quite flammable), heat can be generated by a short circuit or other thermal event, and oxygen can be generated inside the cell, and is obviously present outside as well. You don’t have the fuel component in NiMH until much higher temperatures are achieved (the electrolyte is water based and does not act as a fuel). That’s the basic difference.

Charged: Does the increased energy density of lithiumion add to its volatility?

ES: The biggest difference in energy density between lithium-ion and NiMH is probably 2-to-1 or 3-to-1 at best at the pack level. So, that doesn’t explain why we have so many more reactions with lithium as opposed to NiMH. Charged: Does the size of lithium-ion packs in vehicles make design more challenging?

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It’s not only the chemistry of the cells, and the cooling of the pack, but also the management of all the cells working in conjunction with each other is a major challenge.

Yes, a large lithium-ion pack is like a kindergarten class where the teacher is trying to keep the children under control. When one cell goes out of bounds the whole pack eventually gets out of control. That’s the problem with the big pack that you don’t have in consumer electronics. It’s not only the chemistry of the cells, and the cooling of the pack, but also the management of all the cells working in conjunction with each other is a major challenge.

”

Charged: What sort of tests do you perform to evaluate the safety of a battery system?

The operator of the car typically wants four things from the battery: power for acceleration, energy for range, low price, and safety. We do a lot of testing to abuse batteries in the way our customers think they’ll be abused in real life, and the way that several standards describe. The tests are generally classed as mechanical, electrical, and thermal, and lithium-ion batteries are typically more volatile than other chemistries like NiMH in all three areas.

Within each class there are different kinds of abuse that

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the tech

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All of these tests are to simulate the worst known conditions that can be found in real-life operations.

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you might expect to happen to a battery or individual cell, such as crushing, penetration, vibration while operating at the highest temperature, shock (like driving over a pothole), short circuits, over-charging, over-discharging, subjecting cells to extreme high temperature then extreme low temperature, and operating at low pressure such as in the cargo hold of a jetliner.

North America is full of pickup trucks, sooner or later electric vehicles are going to be backing up into salt water to launch boats, and the battery has to withstand that immersion. We’re exposing them to salt fog that occurs on coastal areas, and even burning them to simulate what happens when driving over a gasoline fire. All of these tests are to simulate the worst known conditions that can be found in real-life operations.

At the most basic level, we look for reactions that come from either the individual cell becoming too hot due to this abuse, or a cell undergoing an internal short circuit.

The short circuit can be caused by latent manufacturing defects within a small cell or breakdown of the insulating material between the electrodes. These conditions can happen when it’s brand new, or much later after it slowly and steadily degrades, and we typically do tests on new product, or slightly used.

There is still a missing link for some of these tests: How real is it? That’s a big challenge for everyone - the OEM, the test house, the cell manufacturers. Writing test standards is a challenge since we already have standards for gasoline vehicles, and the natural inclination is to use these for battery operated vehicles. But are they ‘application relevant’?

Charged: What is the current state of battery abuse testing standards?

ES: Around 1995, some of the people who had been involved in exercises like the Ford Ecostar, with sodium sulfur batteries, and the GM EV1 started to think “What’s the next step? EVs may not be the logical next step because of the weakness in the batteries. So, lets consider hybrids as well.” They got together as the US Advanced Battery Consortium and started developing standards.

The standards, at that point, talked about how to measure performance, how to measure life, and how to set up test programs. They also talked about what kind of abuse tests you’d have to do. But they considered it from the level they knew at the time, which wasn’t nearly as much as we know now and we still don’t know enough. Not much had

gone wrong yet, simply because there were not a whole lot of vehicles on the road - a couple of fleets totaling a few hundred vehicles.

Those standards survived and they’re being used now after a few updates, but we can see the gaps that are there.

We don’t know how relevant they are to real applications until we start digging deeper into them. They all do tests like I described, but those tests may not be so relevant for all cars.

Some of the cars may have the batteries really well protected, and you can’t get at them with a forklift truck or a hammer or screwdriver to poke a hole in them. So that’s on the good side.

On the bad side, for example, we tend to test these products for vibration and pothole shocks the same way we would test a transmission or an engine, which are very robust devices that don’t twist and turn due to the twisting and turning of the car. So, we need to learn how to do that for a battery pack, which in some cases is very long, up to 1.7 meters for example. A pack that long is going to react somewhat to the movement of a car under shock conditions, vibration and body twisting.

That kind of conversation is going on right now. We’re pushing what we know a little farther through efforts like the cooperative research being done by NHTSA and SAE. They are looking to find out what the standards should be, rather than saying “let’s take them where they are, and hope that they’re right.” There is also another cooperative project being conducted by NHTSA and Ford. Both of these are working on trying to establish the science behind what we should be doing for standards.

We are currently doing some testing for SAE that’s looking at how we measure the results of a certain abuse test, and how to make it become more relevant on a scientific level rather than just a straight standard.

“

Writing test standards is a challenge since we already have standards for gasoline vehicles, and the natural inclination is to use these for battery operated vehicles.

But are they ‘application relevant’?

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”

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the tech Charged: Do you have a sense of how lithium-ion’s resilience to abuse is progressing?

ES: The commercial reality for lithium-ion began in the early 1990s with Sony, but those small cells weren’t destined for EVs at the time. It’s only in the last decade, or maybe decade and a half, that you’ve seen serious use of the technology in automotive applications with somewhat larger cells, and in the last half a decade with significantly larger cells.

In the last three years since we’ve been seriously testing abuse, we’ve seen a pretty dramatic improvement in some particular products that we’ve tested. We don’t see all of the products out there, but we deal with a good number of customers around the world. We’re getting a strong trend in our analysis that says things are definitely getting better. We can see trends in certain tests that show this industry is grappling with the issue of abuse. Cells are getting better at tests like penetration and over-charge.

In fact, one manufacturer has shown evidence that it can couple over-charge with a penetration test and show very benign response - this was unheard-of for large cells three years ago.

I suspect that from what we’ve seen, improvements can be attributed to better chemistry and better materials.

Both of these combined together have brought it to the point where we can say that it’s definitely improved.

Charged: Based on your previous work with other battery chemistries, and the trends you’re currently observing, could you predict the future development time needed to bring lithium-ion technology up to the level of safety now expected from other automotive batteries like NiMH? I’ll preface the answer by saying that I don’t know what the word “safe” means. Everybody uses it, but as a testing company, we don’t use it. All we know is that there are certain standards that we test products to and that they either meet or don’t meet. I think the right people to ask what safety means are probably the automotive OEMs. They are closest to knowing what the end user thinks safety means.

At the speed that we’re seeing now, it will probably take at least half a decade before we have a new family of standards that is a workable document and has confidence to be used by people who specify batteries in new electric vehicles. A minimum of five years, considering that it

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the tech

“

In the last three years since we’ve been seriously testing abuse, we’ve seen a pretty dramatic improvement in some particular products that we’ve tested.

takes at least two years to bring a document to fruitful use.

Is it going fast enough? Is it going too slow? It depends on which camp you stand in. And I’d say that the speed at which this develops is directly related to the number of people who are qualified to work on it. And in turn, it’s a bit limited to whether or not they’re working on the right road map, at least on the abuse side of things.

Charged: Are there a limited number of qualified engineers who can work on the problem?

There is a limitation on the talent pool for two reasons, I think. Number one is the investment community’s appetite for supporting it. When you talk about a talent pool to develop abuse standards, you would like to have a revenue-generating industry to support those people. At this point, you have to look really hard to see if anybody in the electric car industry is making money. So the number of people who are working on it is limited by that constraint. It’s a transition industry - it’s coming from

”

zero. And in that short time, the speed of developing robust standards is going to be determined by that pace of development.

The second reason is a sequence issue: Who works on what? Specifically, scientists perform the upfront work setting the stage for basic developments, and engineers take it from those discoveries and develop real-world solutions. The universities are just starting to offer scientific and engineering disciplines to feed this sequence.

Charged: When you say “robust standard,” do you mean a testing protocol that each pack will have to go through?

Yes, that’s exactly it. It also means testing that replicates all of the real-world scenarios. In other words, a battery in an electric vehicle that works all of the time, anywhere, with any driver who unknowingly or knowingly abuses the vehicle, under any weather conditions, in any geographic region, in any terrain and from new to old condition. Most of it covered by warranty.

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MAR/APR 2013 73

the tech

Don’t forget about the

process Quality control and battery manufacturing

By Michael Kent

n the past year, bad press for the advanced battery business has been all too common. The young industry must learn quickly from its mistakes and lessen the anxiety of the general public.

While some highly-publicized issues have revealed the design challenges of working with an unstable lithiumion pack (without a robust and properly-functioning battery management system, the consequences are enormous), other costly recalls show the need to focus on manufacturing processes as well.

Most battery manufacturers have not been building large-format cells for more than a few years - a short period of time when compared to other advanced manufacturing industries like pharmaceuticals, oil and gas, and other automotive sectors.

Charged talked to James Jackson of Siemens Industry to get his take on quality control.

Jackson’s main focus is battery manufacturing, and his close work with the big manufacturers and the machine builders who supply manufacturing equipment gives him unique insight into James Jackson some of the industry’s problems.

“There is a lot of focus on the chemical side, which is important,” Jackson told us, “but how do we build it? From a process maturity perspective, batteries today are similar to where solar was 20 years

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The battery manufacturing From a process

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process maturity perspective, batteries today are similar to where solar was 20 years ago.

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ago. It is a very immature industry as far as automation is concerned. They’re still trying to perfect the process. We are trying to take some steps to help hurdle these manufacturing obstacles and educate people on what some of the common pitfalls are, so they can plan against them.”

Defects All Down the Line Everywhere from the electrode to the cells to the pack, there are a lot of steps that have very tight tolerances in battery manufacturing, down to the micron level, and Jackson reports quality issues up and down the line.

At the cell level, many argue that one of the biggest

quality hurdles that battery makers face today is the electrode coating line. Here, it is imperative to have even, homogeneous coats. “You’re really punished if your coat is not homogeneous - if it’s a little bit too thick or if there is a ramp-up/ramp-down difference in the coating thickness,” explains Jackson. Many machine builders for a coating line have a history in industries like thin film and pulp and paper, with tolerances not nearly as tight as in the battery business, so there has been a real learning curve for them.

At the pack level, common issues include tab welding and the final wiring. If one tab isn’t welded correctly, or if there is a defect in one of the cells that was not noticed before it got to the final module, the entire battery pack is compromised. With hundreds of cells inside some packs, pulling the pack off to try to locate a defect is a big problem.

The Fix If a manufacturer is having a lot of defects or quality issues, Jackson says, first look at the process transparency, the plant’s track and trace. “Are they able to identify where the defects are occurring? We use the term Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) to enable manufacturers to have real-time insights on their process.

It’s used in many other industries, but I haven’t seen it exploited yet in battery manufacturing.”

Before attempting to resolve issues, battery builders

Many machine builders for a coating line have a history in industries like thin film and pulp and paper, with tolerances not nearly as tight as in the battery business

need the diagnostic leverage to see where a problem originates.

“Is it the punchersplitter that’s causing an issue at the cell level, or is the defect occurring further down the line at the assembly stage?” A lot of manufacturers don’t have that visual transparency, so Jackson recommends they take a step back and look at it holistically by taking a more integrated automation approach, or from a retrofit perspective for an existing facility.

Process transparency comes through measurement, communication, and data storage systems. When planning a new line from scratch, Jackson urges the use of an open industrial protocol, like PROFIBUS or PROFINET, for communication across all machines. Utilizing open-source, globally accepted protocols from the outset makes track and trace much simpler than retrofitting existing machines. “If you could imagine machines as being stitched together, forced together piecemeal, you never achieve true integration. In my opinion, that’s been a huge hurdle in the industry.”

Proper data storage is also imperative. If there is a recall or defect, manufacturers need to look back and track where it originated. This means that process information must be stored for eight to ten years. For the ability to track and trace each cell, that adds up to significant data requirements.

“My fear is that a lot of battery manufacturers today don’t really have that level of precision in their process.”

Making the Most of Measurements It is also critically important for battery manufacturers to talk to each other, share experiences, and learn from other industries. Unfortunately, at this early stage of the game there are a lot of competitive aspects to develop-

MAR/APR 2013 75

ing the manufacturing capabilities for advanced battery building. So, information is not as openly shared as it might be in other more developed markets.

One remedy is to look outside the battery industry to find solutions for tight-tolerance manufacturing techniques. For example, the leak detection methods that New York-based PTI Inspection Systems deploys in food, pharmaceutical, and medical device packaging. Oliver Stauffer, the company’s COO, believes its vacuum decay leak test is ideally suited for the new battery manufacturers, although the test has yet to be widely adopted by the industry.

“Vacuum decay is a leak test method that has been a standard in other industries for years.

It was developed in the early 1990s,” explained Stauffer. “In the last 10 years, there’s been a heavy focus on pharmaceutical package leak detection, or package integrity testing. When you’re testing something that’s Oliver Stauffer injected into the human body, you need to detect very small leaks, on the order of one or two microns. And vacuum decay testing has developed in that time in terms of sensitivity and reliability.”

PTI suggests this leak testing technique is a great fit for lithium-ion pouch cells. Compared to cylindrical cell packaging, pouch cells have been an early favorite among OEMs’ battery pack designers for their higher peak power capabilities and efficient use of space. However, they are trickier to manufacture than rigid cylindrical cells.

“It’s a lot more straightforward to create a can package,” says Stauffer. “With a can, you can crimp the edges down to create a uniform hermetic seal.” With pouches it’s

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inherently more difficult because of the materials and the variations involved when working with a flexible surface.

“In every packaging and manufacturing process there is systematic error associated with the processes, and random error. An example of systematic error would be, say, the crimping pressure is too low. It can be identified and corrected. Random errors just occur - out of so many parts, something will happen.”

“Regardless of the package format, you’re always going to have error within the production line. However, when you’re dealing with a flexible surface like pouches, both the random and systematic error increases, so by default the manufacturing process is more difficult, and 100 percent inline integrity inspection is sometimes the only way to detect defects.”

On top of the manufacturing obstacles, Stauffer explains that leak testing pouch cells is also more difficult using traditional methods, because the cells don’t have as much air in the package to draw out and measure.

PTI thinks they have a clear-cut solution. “At the point of manufacturing, we can leak test the battery pouches.

The application is quite unique because the pouches are under vacuum, and you would think that there’s not much air to draw out. But our test system operates at a much higher vacuum level, and our transducer systems are very sensitive, so we’re able to detect leaks down to 5 microns in pouch cells.”

At this point PTI has only started discussions with a few pouch cell manufacturers, and in early tests have found noticeable leaks in sample cells. “We know some of them are more prone to defects. However, this is a new application for the test method, and the market is developing quickly. We’re going to know a lot more about where vacuum decay testing fits into battery manufacturing in the next couple of months.”

Photo courtesy of Siemens Industry

the tech

Engineering Notes Vacuum decay testing The basic method for vacuum decay testing is to place a package in a closed test chamber, pull vacuum to a set level, and then observe that vacuum for any changes.

If there is a leak in the package, transducers will detect decay in the vacuum level.

It does take time, ranging anywhere from five seconds to one minute, depending on the application requirements. “We have done 100 percent inline testing of medical device implants, using a rotary continuous motion test system, with test times of around seven to 10 seconds. So no part leaves the site without a confirmed pass on the leak test,” Stauffer explains. “For the most sensitive leak tests you do need more time, so doing it inline is not always a practical approach.”

Stauffer claims there are problems with some of the leak detection methods used in battery manufacturing.

“At the moment there are some trace gas methods used for cans and pouches. Helium leak testing is known for being able to detect micro leaks, but it has its challeng-

es. If you look at Fick’s Law (a theoretical law of physics that looks at the molecules and how they can pass through a certain hole size) it basically determines how likely it is that a helium molecule will be pulled through a defect. And the typical helium leak test pulls vacuum on a container to draw the helium out, and then measures the helium around the container. For small channel leaks, the helium will get drawn through that leak and when the vacuum level is released back to atmospheric pressure, the helium will draft back through the leak. It’s also a sticky molecule, potentially causing false rejects. And because it’s a light molecule, unless the concentration of helium is high, the molecules can float and defects at the base of a sealed container can go undetected. So, helium can be practical for some defect modes, but problematic when detecting others.”

PTI is hopeful that this is where vacuum decay can be a more reliable leak test for battery manufacturers, because it detects pure flow.

Photo courtesy of PTI Inspection Systems

“

When you’re dealing with a flexible surface like pouches, both the random and systematic error increases, so by default the manufacturing process is more difficult

”

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MAR/APR 2013 77

Working Together B

Intertek’s Rich Byczek on avoiding EVSE-to-vehicle interoperability issues By Michael Kent

disable charging. The issue occurred repeatedly on six out of the seven charging stations that were available to him at work.

An Ecotality representative indicated that there was a communications issue between the vehicle and the charging station, while Honda engineers reported that the car’s sensors were clearly seeing a rise in temperature.

Photo by of Melissa Hincha-Ownby (flickr)

ack in January, Plugincars.com published an article by Colby Trudeau - a Honda Fit EV owner, Plug In America volunteer, and electrical engineer at Qualcomm Technologies - that detailed his charging troubles using Ecotality’s Blink charging stations at work.

Trudeau found that after about 20 minutes of charging, the Fit EV would sense a connector overheating issue and

2013 Honda Fit EV

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“

I would say at the EVSEto-vehicle point you’ve got three areas where stacked tolerances can hurt you.

”

Photo courtesy of HollywoodHotel (flickr)

In the end, Honda released new control software that limits charging current as the sensors notice an increase in temperature.

Along with advising other EV owners on how to “work around” any potential issues, Trudeau’s article highlighted the importance of recurring EVSE testing and intelligent product design.

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Charged talked to EVSE standards guru Rich Byczek, who offered some key interoperability advice to engineers designing charging equipment and new vehicles. Byczek is the global technical lead for electric vehicle and energy storage at Intertek, and has been testing EVSE for a few years.

“I would say at the EVSE-to-vehicle point you’ve got three areas where stacked tolerances can hurt you,” he explained.

Physical The first area where you could encounter a problem is the most obvious - the physical fit of the EVSE connector to the car. SAE J1772 is the most common North American standard, and it outlines tolerances with an envelope of acceptable critical dimensions.

Seems like a no-brainer, right? Well, Byczek says, “not quite.”

“There are so many different dimensions. There’s terminal length, width, thickness, and angles. If you design the connector at the max of all of those, and the vehicle was at the max of all of those, a stack-up of tolerances in all of them could potentially not allow you to physically connect to the car. We’ve seen this in some cases, but it has gotten better. In the early days, we saw some people trying to design things to the car instead of the standard. We’ve flushed out a lot of it, but with new, smaller manufacturers trying to get into the mix it could still be a potential issue.”

Advice It ultimately falls on the EVSE maker to design to the consensus standard rather than the vehicle. If they design to the spec, they’ll have minimal problems. Also, Byczek says to stick to the middle of the tolerance range.

“If they’re designing anywhere near the extremes, there is a greater possibility that dimensions will fall out, because you run into the variability of manufacturing. That really comes down to core tooling and manufacturing know-how. And make sure your manufacturing site has done a statistical manufacturing repeatability check, so they have a high confidence in maintaining those tolerances throughout production.”

MAR/APR 2013 79

the infrastructure Protocol The next area for potential interoperability issues is the general protocol compatibility. “There are some blocking diodes that are used that are just - call it ‘generically defined’ - within SAE J1772,” explains Byczek. “We have seen, through some of our certification work, that varying some of the additional parameters of the diode parameters that are not clearly defined - can cause voltage shifts, leading to communication problems. Then either the EVSE or the vehicle will not recognize the state of the other, whether it’s ready for charge, not ready for charge, or charge complete.”

The good thing is that the electrical tolerance stack-ups that Byczek has seen, like voltage tolerances or resistance tolerances, have failed safely. “You wouldn’t see an overcharge. Instead, the vehicle won’t accept any charge, or the EVSE will not provide any current.”

”

Photo courtesy of DDOT DC (flickr)

“

Then either the EVSE or the vehicle will not recognize the state of the other, whether it’s ready for charge, not ready for charge, or charge complete.

smart fortwo EV

Optimal Charging The third problematic area is a little harder to define. Basically, are the EVSE and the car always transferring the maximum available power? Meaning that the EVSE properly decodes the ability of the vehicle, and the onboard charger in the vehicle properly decodes the available

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Photo by Ryan Ozawa (flickr)

Advice Typically, you’re dealing with parts that are already certified for use in an application. From there, it’s going to take some engineering insight.

“Using high-quality parts would be the simplest way to say it,” explained Byczek. “Again, make sure you’re as close to the middle of the tolerance ranges as possible. Do a tolerance stack-up analysis - the tolerance of the components, the potential shift over temperature range, and any other manufacturing variability that you may add to that circuit design.”

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“

OK, my EVSE fits and it does work with the car.

Now can I reliably expect that it will be fully charged in the morning?

power from the EVSE. Ideally, the operator wants to have the minimum charging time, and/or the correct delay in charging time for those who are timing their charging events according to utility pricing.

“That’s going to be more difficult to quantify in an interoperability standard without doing some actual field studies to see what the true charging times are and making sure that maximum available power is being transferred,” said Byczek. “OK, my EVSE fits and it does work with the car. Now can I reliably expect that it will be fully charged in the morning?”

For one thing, there is a general software bugging concern which can manifest itself in many different

Photo by Sam Posten III (flickr)

”

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MAR/APR 2013 81

the infrastructure

Toyota Prius Plug-in

ways. “During the different charging stages, there is a PWM signal that’s varying so that the vehicle knows, for example, if the charging station is providing power at 1.5 kW, or 7 kW, or whatever it may be. A problem with that signal, or interpreting the signal, will change the amount of time it will take to charge the vehicle.”

“You also have a lot of development in place for making multiplex charging stations that will charge multiple vehicles. How does the onboard charger react when the charging station suddenly has less available power? How does that timing take place? Are they always handshaking correctly, so that the onboard charger knows how much power is available at a given time?”

Like all possible interoperability issues, when systems are designed perfectly to the standard, we shouldn’t see problems. However, there are going to be different implementations of new systems like multiplexing and variable power availability on the utility side. How will the actual software timing be implemented in the field?

For example, if a vehicle connects to a charging station at 8 pm and sees that there is 6 kW of available power, but at some point in the night the utility rates change

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2012 Nissan LEAF charge ports

the CODA sedan

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How does the onboard charger react when the charging station suddenly has less available power?

”

and the charging station drops its available power to 3 kW, does the vehicle automatically recalculate the time needed to fully charge?

Also, in cold or hot weather the vehicle’s forced cooling system may be running while the vehicle is charging, requiring additional power over and above what is needed to charge the battery. The vehicle could also be set to automatically turn on the heater in the morning to utilize the power hungry circuits while it’s plugged in. But will the vehicle really calculate how much time is needed to fully charge when those features are coupled with the timing of charging events based on power availability or utility rates?

“Perhaps this issue is less a true interoperability problem and more a future-proofing problem, but from a user standpoint there’s really not much difference,” said

Byczek. “Either the vehicle is fully charged or not when I get up in the morning. I don’t really know or care why.”

Advice Byczek says that to best avoid these charge-timing issues, both the EVSE and vehicle makers need to consider what the other side is trying to do.

“Unfortunately, it’s also going to involve a bit of wait and see. With regard to any type of additional features that are over and above what is defined in these consensus standards - either for the EVSE or vehicle - I would recommend that it be implemented in a way that can be easily changed in the field, re-flashing the software or disabling the feature if needed.”

The SAE Hybrid Committee is currently working on a draft standard, SAE J2953, that is essentially a recommended procedure for validating interoperability or compatibility of charging stations and vehicles according to J1772. Similar standards are also underway in the CHAdeMO camp to guide third parties on how to evaluate charging stations’ compatibility with other vehicles.

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MAR/APR 2013 83

the vehicles

LEANER, LIGHTER, LONGER e-Motorsports and the race to bring green automotive solutions into mainstream, global markets

I

n April, 1936, Modern Mechanix proposed development of a racing car’s “mechanical-electrical brain,” using electrical eyes and a light beam concentrated on steel mirrors impregnated in a track bed to steer careening race cars as speeds approached “the point where human reflexes are too slow to insure safe control of the car.” In a seemingly parallel universe, both Toyota (“Intelligent Transport Systems Technology”) and Audi have unveiled “self-driver” test mules that mirror the pronouncements of 1936.

Fortunately, as the FIA prepares to launch Formula E in 2014, such Orwellian racing measures have not been

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contemplated. The whirr of competition will replace the ear-splitting cacophony of engines and fossil-fueled adrenaline. Yet, the FIA, in its quest for a “green” future for both the environment and a cost-controlled sanction, is underplaying the potential for leap-frogging, disruptive technologies that drive innovation in your new e-daily driver.

The inherent FIA goals should be “leaner, lighter, longer.” In short, a leaner engineering platform embracing fewer and less-costly components, a lighter car using space age composites, and longer racing stints, driven by safe, super-fast-charging reminiscent of the time necessary to fossil-fuel “Old Economy” racers. As the new e-Formula prepares its launch in Rio and Rome, with 10 teams outfitted with sleek-footed flyers capable of jackrabbit starts (0-100 km/h in under three seconds) and top speeds of 220 km/h, claims of an open technol-

Photo courtesy of Drayson Racing Technologies

By William F. Vartorella, Ph.D., C.B.C.

ogy rule book may be premature. To its credit, the FIA is enabling Spark Technology to supply cars equipped with McLaren power trains. Mirroring F1, the goal will ultimately be bespoke team race car designs with futuristic drive-trains. We have seen unusual creations in the past, with a “sucker car” with a fan, six-wheelers, and rear wings perched like sky-hooks. It’s encouraging that Lord Drayson has stepped up with a team deal, particularly as his designers have extensive experience with electric drivetrains and the travails of developing the 200 mph electric LeMans prototype.

But while the evolving rule book seems to be “open,” limiting batteries to a weight of 300 kg and road circuit cars powered exclusively by electrical energy, the racing enigma of relay cars in the pit lane, rather than battery changes (perfected by university teams such as e-Bobcat), or safe, innovative supercharging of batteries, seems to underscore what Bernie Ecclestone called disparagingly “ballet dancers in sneakers.” Racing, maybe, but without the sound and the fury? (Lest anyone believe that all e-racers are silent, well, in an unrelated context, the 2011 Nissan LEAF Nismo RC concept was characterized as shrieking like a jet engine.) Non-stop racing, yes, but hardly the technology transfer needed for super-fast and safe charging stations.

What is really needed is a streamlined rule book that exploits innovation in three key areas: Rare Earth Components - Allow considerable latitude in choice of both off-the-shelf solutions and the potential for disruptive technologies similar to the challenges faced by the tire industry in creating synthetic rubber. The up-cycling of plastic bags into carbon nanotubes, for example, has implications for making next-gen lithium batteries. And before we spiral into the quest for “conflict lithium” (Afghanistan may have the world’s largest deposits, as noted in the scientific literature and a Royal Geographical Society geology map of the war-torn country), automotive manufacturers and OEMs need to explore futuristic alternatives. The truly rare commodity for plug-ins is not lithium, but lanthanides. These are rare earth metals that are a key ingredient in nickel metal hydride batteries, with China presently controlling an estimated 95 percent. Some hybrids use about 25 pounds of these materials in each vehicle. Hence, China is poised to become the world’s largest EV/hybrid producing country. Moreover, China is the major player in rare

earth magnets, which many of today’s EV motors use to provide torque to the wheels. Alternatives need to be developed through racing research. QM Power, for example, is working with iron-based magnetics, essentially changing the need to low-or-no rare-earth content. Goal: create a cost-efficient EV motor with a rough equivalent of just under 300 horsepower. As battery mass decreases, the weight-to-power ratio gets racy in a hurry. In short, the new racing series should encourage innovation that leads to access to raw materials and a democratization across the technology/digital divide that would jump-start production of low-cost EVs globally. New materials mean new markets.

Underbelly of the Beast - The devil is in the details, which, in F1, has always been closely-guarded team secrets of specially-designed barge boards, keels, purpose-built front A-arms, and the naughty bits of carbon fiber that exploit any advantage of blurred rules. A rarefied skateboard chassis concept could limit some costs, but engineers should be afforded the freedom to innovate beneath the e-racer and with transmissions. (Quimera, separately, has implemented what some have called the “Holy Grail of e-Motorsports” - a luscious six-speed transmission.)

In an idealized scenario, aerodynamicists would be left to their own devices, which would likely lead to breakthroughs for better aero packages in the EV in your garage, equating to less distance anxiety. Wind tunnel studies, 24/7, that include revisiting the aeroevolution of insects, could pay real-time dividends in lean manufacturing of next-gen EVs. The Internet of Things (IoT) - A brave new world of networked smart devices with spectrum/radio frequency ID, a near-baffling array of sensors, connected to Web-generation x, all without cogent human intervention. Sir Jackie Stewart characterized the auto as the closest machine to human; racers and fans alike could have controlled access to biometrics, ideal apex for each driver’s style and speed. It’s a short leap from current automotive monitoring and, for example, insulin levels in a race car driver to embedded human technologies linked to flocks of specialpurpose satellites. The newly-proposed KickSats, for example, are about the size of the contact patch of the average racing tire and roughly as thin. The definition

MAR/APR 2013 85

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Photos courtesy of Drayson Racing Technologies (top and bottom right) and FIA (bottom left)

the vehicles

of ecosystem will be writ large, as cars react to track and human conditions with a plethora of prognostics, prototype electronics, and robotic prosthetics.

“Bandwidth,” the bane of today’s standard car design, might be solved in the array of approaches to exploiting electrons as fuel.

Even the e-racer will potentially be a part of a smart grid, sharing and exchanging much needed or excess electrons on the Street Circuit of Tomorrow. The emerging youthful and techno-savvy fans will likely drive early adoption, and, therefore, present a fertile consumer base for the electric/hydrogen hybrid of the near future - perhaps as early as 2020, if estimates of 50 million machines in IoT concert come to fruition.

Google is future-focused, with its computer-camera laden self-driver already logging 300,000 crashless miles.

The possibilities for innovation are endless. e-Motorsports teams could share open-source software innovation stored in a secure but common “cloud;” experiment with selective laser melting, futuristic materials, and nanotube technologies; and offer new insights into tire development - often 50 percent of the R&D costs in motorsports.

Finally, back to the future: “Smart tracks” foreshadowed in 1936 could monitor human factors such as the ultimate racing line under varying g-forces and aeroloading, particularly for multiple apexes, and exploit the human-vehicle interface with wearable technologies, heads-up displays, and electron-sharing with a smart grid. Moreover, the litmus test of lithium and rare earth magnets could change, as e-Motorsports follows the pathway of cellular phones, both in technology leap-frogging and battery recharging cycles.

Bill Vartorella writes on the business of motorsports and next-gen automobiles. He is a past presenter at the IEEE first international EV conference and Grand Prix Business’s global sponsorship symposium. He belongs to IEEE Electric Vehicular Technology Society, has had stints doing “pace notes” for an amateur rally driver and as corporate associate sponsor of an electric, open-wheel race car. He is the co-author of Funding Exploration, the standard text for non-governmental financial support for science and engineering projects. Recent publications include funding strategies for next-gen satellites and commercial space ventures and what we can expect in EV, hydrogen, and hybrid cars in Hollywood film.

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Intertek ....................................... 35 intertek.com

Qualcomm Halo .......................... 65 qualcommhalo.com

Eaton ......................................... 4, 5 eaton.com/plugin

Mathewson Electric .................... 88 mathewsonelectric.com

Rebirth Auto ......................... 86, 88 rebirthauto.com

EDTA ............................................ 18 electricdrive.org

MeitCharge ................................. 19 meritcharge.com

REVOLT Electric Vehicles ............. 89 revoltev.com/charged

Electric & Hybrid Tech Expo ....... 10 evtechexpo.com

Metro Plug-In ............................. 89 metroplugin.com

SAE .............................................. 72 sae.org/congress

Electric Mobility Canada ............. 42 emc-mec.ca

Midtronics ................................... 33 midtronics.com

VIA Motors .................................. 91 viamotors.com

Evnetics ................................ 70, 88 evnetics.com

Nissan North America ................... 2 nissanqc.com

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CHARGING FORWARD

Supercars, hybrids and EVs

GENEVA

take the stage in

At Geneva’s enormous Palexpo convention center, it’s obvious we’re not in Detroit - there’s hardly a pickup truck in sight, and the wine and coffee are flowing freely. Reflecting Europe’s colorful collage of cultures, a vast variety of vehicles from hybrids to EVs to sevenfigure super-sports cars are spinning on the turntables.

Europe is just beginning to discover hybrids - the roads teem with small cars and diesels, but Prii are still a fairly rare sight, at least here in Switzerland. From the looks of the lineup here at the Auto Salon, that’s about to change. Almost every maker has hybrids on offer, and Lexus, for one, is exhibiting only hybrids.

Curiosities include Honda’s hydrogen fuel cell hybrid and Peugeot’s “hybrid air,” which combines an electric motor with a compressed-air propulsion system.

Plug-ins and pure EVs are not hard to find, and several automakers are giving them star billing. Of course, auto shows always emphasize the new and the exotic, and ironically, the green-garlanded electrified models are sharing the spotlight with a huge selection of gasguzzling super-sports cars.

Some models combine both trendy concepts, such as the McLaren P1. The electric motor does help to keep CO2 emissions under 200 g/km, but its real raison d’etre is instantaneous throttle response throughout the rev range. Together with a 3.8 liter twin-turbo V8, it offers a combined output of 903 bhp, maximum torque of 900 Nm, and a top speed of 217 mph. At $1.2 million - cheap compared to some of the super vehicles on display here - the production run of 375 units is predicted to sell out quickly.

Audi is showing off its first PHEV, the A3 Sportback e-tron, which is scheduled to go on sale in Europe and the US in 2014.

She’s a front-wheel drive parallel hybrid with a 1.4 liter modified TFSI engine, a 75 kW electric motor, an 8.8 kWh liquid-cooled battery and a 6-speed transmission.

She can do 0-60 in 7.6 seconds, gets 157 MPGe, and boasts a top speed of 138 mph and an electric range of about 31 miles. Audi’s classic four rings slide aside to

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By Charlie Morris

reveal the charging connection. The e-tron’s poorlythought-out name illustrates the wide gulfs that still exist between European countries. Audi’s Germanspeaking marketing personnel apparently didn’t realize that etron has an unsavory meaning in French.

VW’s upcoming e-Golf could really shake up the European EV market, as the Golf, which comes in a dozen versions, has been Europe’s best selling car for years now. Alas, the electric model isn’t ready for prime time, and we were told that it will probably debut at the Frankfurt show in September. While we wait for the main dish, VW has served up an electric full-size van concept, and… …the flashy XL1. This 12-foot-long two-seat spaceship draws stares for its hidden rear wheels and lack of wing mirrors, but those who examine the specs will find that this is perhaps the most fuel-efficient highway vehicle ever built.

It has a tiny 0.8 liter two-cylinder turbodiesel engine (47 bhp), a 20 kW electric motor, a 7-speed dual-clutch transmission, and a fuel tank about the size of a Big Gulp (2.6 gallons, actually). VW says the mileage is 261 MPGe, and electric range is 31 miles. And no, this isn’t just a concept. The company has confirmed that it will produce a limited run of 250 units starting at the end of 2013.

Smart is heavily pushing the electric angle, which is no surprise. The smart was originally conceived (by the same Swiss minds that brought us the Swatch) as an electrified car. Like the pop-art plastic watch that inspired it, the smart electric drive comes in a wide array of colors and trims. The basic version, starting around 25,000 euros, is the cheapest serious EV on the road, but some of the cherried-out models are anything but - one Brabus custom-tuned baby is going for over 50,000 euros.

Those are the big electric stories, but there are plenty of other plug-ins here in Geneva. Subaru, GM, Nissan, Fisker, Tesla, Volvo, Valmet, BMW, Renault, and Mitsubishi all have electrics on display (to name a few).

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