CHARGED Electric Vehicles Magazine - Iss 9 AUG 2013

ELECTRIC VEHICLES MAGAZINE

ISSUE 9 | AUGUST 2013 | CHARGEDEVS.COM

FIRSTS THE LAUNCH OF MANY

BMW 3 P. 46

A CLOSER LOOK AT BACK EMF P. 16

MULTIPHASE COOLING TECHNOLOGY P. 28

PLUG-IN FLEETS OFFER HUGE SAVINGS P. 58

HIGHLY RESONANT WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER P. 74

THE VEHICLES contents

Quick Charger DCDC Quick Charger

46 BMW i3

• 208 three-phase • 208 VacVac three-phase 20–50 output 20–50 kW kW output • Access control, payment • Access control, payment networking options andand networking options

Launch of many firsts

• CHAdeMO • CHAdeMO andand SAESAE combined charging combined charging system—coming soon system—coming soon

Level ACAC Level 2 2 Commercial Commercial Charging Station Charging Station • 30, 48 and 70 amperes • 30, 48 and 70 amperes • Single, dual optional • Single, dual andand optional Level 1 outlet styles Level 1 outlet styles • Field-upgradable payment • Field-upgradable payment networking options andand networking options future-proofing for for future-proofing

46 58

Small challenges, huge savings

Level & Level ACAC Level 1 &1 Level 2 2 Residential Residential Charging Station Charging Station 16 and 30 amperes • 16• and 30 amperes • Ideal single• Ideal for for singleandand multi-family homes multi-family homes • Attractive stainless steel • Attractive stainless steel enclosure enclosure

Plug-in fleets

90

58

The quiet revolution Thanks to smart pricing, EVs gain momentum

current events

42

44

42

BYD to supply 35 e-buses to Amsterdam Airport Porsche expects strong sales for Panamera PHEV

43

Tesla joins Nasdaq 100 Index Formula E plans 2014 season, courts new teams

44

2014 Volt MSRP to drop five grand Electric Defender begins real-world trials

45

Ford data: PHEVs operate gas-free 60% of the time 2014 Malibu to include start-stop as standard

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82 Hubject

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Connecting Europe’s charging networks

current events 68

ClipperCreek introduces high-power truck charger ChargePoint launches new CT4000 series EVSE

69

Japan’s automakers work together on infrastructure

68

ABB to build fast charging network in the Netherlands

70

OnStar and TimberRock partner on solar charging Captain Sunshine buys assets of Better Place

73

US-European EV-Smart Grid Interoperability Center opens

69

THE TECH contents

16 A closer look at back EMF

16

Why motors generate and generators motor

22 Battery fuel gauging The challenges of SOC measurements

28 Multiphase cooling

CapTherm takes the heat off of EV batteries

28

36 Tesla Roadster pack longevity

Plug In America study: Roadster battery life will exceed early predictions

current events 10

36

BRUSA offers 750 V versions of drive products Ultracap manufacturer raises $15 million in funding

11

Peugeot evaluates NiZn batteries for start-stop

12

OpEneR system to optimize energy management Bosch’s new iBooster improves regen braking

12

13

Navigant report ranks automotive Li-ion vendors

15

Italian firm displays family of EV transmissions

Publisher’s Note Made in America The Wall Street Journal recently published an article on Kentucky’s Republican congressman Thomas Massie. The piece was about a few idealists in the GOP that are bucking the party leaders and blocking their agenda. The most interesting departure from Republican talking points is Massie’s Model S, which sports a license plate that reads, “Friends of Kentucky Coal.”

It was less than a year ago that a certain presidential candidate repeatedly called Tesla and other EV makers “losers” on primetime TV. The unfortunate political truth is that those attacks, and others like them, have almost nothing to do with the technology or even the government loans/tax credits/incentives that support it.

By and large, these attacks are merely fake outrage pointed at political opponents. “I’m a Republican. Electric cars seem like a left-wing thing and Obama supports them, so I don’t. Here’s why...” That’s the sad state of politics these days - any hint of a real debate quickly devolves into this sort of absurdity.

(If you want to see a truly bizarre example of this, Google “Neil Cavuto” and “Volt.”) I’ve always thought that, despite the fractured nature of politics, it is only a matter of time before common sense catches up to every politician. The clear advantages of EVs are hard to deny, and they fall in line with many core political principals from both sides of the aisle.

If you’re into renewable energy, EVs are for you. If you like coal, natural gas and nuclear energy, EVs are for you too. All types of American-made electrons will work in these things. Energy independence, national security, economic stability, and of course, new jobs. Tesla employs thousands in a California plant that would probably be shuttered otherwise. Tennesseans are churning out Li-ion batteries and LEAFs right outside of Nashville. LG Chem says that production is now underway for the Volt’s cells at its Holland, Michigan plant.

This industry is off to a good start, despite what the haters would have you believe. It’s time to double down on electric investments - particularly research into new energy storage materials, new manufacturing processes and lab-tofactory commercialization efforts. I think it’s hard to overstate the potential that EVs have to solve some of the biggest national problems we’ve been grappling with for decades. Any politician would be wise to embrace these Americanmade solutions, sooner rather than later.

EVs are here. Try to keep up.

Christian Ruoff Publisher

ETHICS STATEMENT AND COVERAGE POLICY AS THE LEADING EV INDUSTRY PUBLICATION, CHARGED ELECTRIC VEHICLES MAGAZINE OFTEN COVERS, AND ACCEPTS CONTRIBUTIONS FROM, COMPANIES THAT ADVERTISE IN OUR MEDIA PORTFOLIO. HOWEVER, THE CONTENT WE CHOOSE TO PUBLISH PASSES ONLY TWO TESTS: (1)TO THE BEST OF OUR KNOWLEDGE THE INFORMATION IS ACCURATE, AND (2) IT MEETS THE INTERESTS OF OUR READERSHIP. WE DO NOT ACCEPT PAYMENT FOR EDITORIAL CONTENT, AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED BY OUR EDITORS AND WRITERS ARE IN NO WAY AFFECTED BY A COMPANY’S PAST, CURRENT, OR POTENTIAL ADVERTISEMENTS. FURTHERMORE, WE OFTEN ACCEPT ARTICLES AUTHORED BY “INDUSTRY INSIDERS,” IN WHICH CASE THE AUTHOR’S CURRENT EMPLOYMENT, OR RELATIONSHIP TO THE EV INDUSTRY, IS CLEARLY CITED. IF YOU DISAGREE WITH ANY OPINION EXPRESSED IN THE CHARGED MEDIA PORTFOLIO AND/OR WISH TO WRITE ABOUT YOUR PARTICULAR VIEW OF THE INDUSTRY, PLEASE CONTACT US AT CONTENT@CHARGEDEVS.COM. CHARGED ELECTRIC VEHICLES MAGAZINE IS PUBLISHED BY ISENTROPIC MEDIA. COPYRIGHT © 2013 BY ISENTROPIC MEDIA. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. REPRINTING IN WHOLE OR PART IS FORBIDDEN EXPECT BY PERMISSION OF ISENTROPIC MEDIA. MAILING LIST: WE MAKE A PORTION OF OUR MAILING LIST AVAILABLE TO REPUTABLE FIRMS. IF YOU PREFER THAT WE DO NOT INCLUDE YOUR NAME, PLEASE WRITE US AT CHARGED - ELECTRIC VEHICLES MAGAZINE, ATTN: PRIVACY DEPARTMENT, PO BOX 13074, SAINT PETERSBURG, FL 33733. POSTMASTER: SEND ADDRESS CHANGES TO CHARGED - ELECTRIC VEHICLES MAGAZINE, ATTN: SUBSCRIPTION SERVICES, PO BOX 13074, SAINT PETERSBURG, FL 33733. SUBSCRIPTION RATES: $29.95 FOR 1 YEAR (6 ISSUES). PLEASE ADD $10.00 FOR CANADIAN ADDRESSES AND $36.00 FOR ALL OTHER INTERNATIONAL ADDRESSES. ADVERTISING: TO INQUIRE ABOUT ADVERTISING AND SPONSORSHIP OPPORTUNITIES PLEASE CONTACT US AT +1-727-258-7867. PRINTED IN THE USA.

Christian Ruoff Publisher Laurel Zimmer Associate Publisher Charles Morris Senior Editor Markkus Rovito Associate Editor Jeffrey Jenkins Technology Editor Joey Stetter Contributing Editor Nick Sirotich Illustrator & Designer Nate Greco Contributing Artist Contributing Writers Jeffrey Jenkins Michael Kent Charles Morris Jim Motavalli Murat Ozkan Markkus Rovito Tom Saxton Contributing Photographers Steven Duong Martin Griffiths Arnold de Leon Alex Nunez Ciprian Popescu Taran Rampersad Rudolf Simon Terrence Taylor Cover Images Courtesy of BMW Group Special Thanks to Kelly Ruoff Sebestien Bourgeois For Letters to the Editor, Article Submissions, & Advertising Inquiries Contact Info@ChargedEVs.com

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CURRENTevents

BRUSA offers 750 V versions of drive products

Photo courtesy of Brusa

The Swiss firm BRUSA is now offering its electricdrive components, including motors, controllers, power electronics, battery packs and chargers, in 750 V versions, which are designed for commercial vehicles and applications demanding high output.

Increasing the voltage allows the current to be reduced with no loss of performance. This means that cables can be thinner and bend radii smaller, leading to weight and material savings.

While doubling the voltage offers advantages, it is a challenge to control the increased electric fields.

BRUSA uses its resonant SoftSwing topology to minimize switching loss and achieve optimal electromagnetic compatibility.

BRUSA products now available in 750 V versions include ten-pole hybrid synchronous motors, universal inverters, high-voltage distributors, DC/DC converters, liquid-cooled 26.6 kWh batteries, 3.7 kW chargers and liquid-cooled 22 kW on-board fast chargers.

10

Ioxus, a manufacturer of ultracapacitor technology, has raised $15 million in Series C funding from investors. The Westly Group, a venture capital firm based in Menlo Park, California, led the financing. The company plans to use the funds to further research and development, expand manufacturing capabilities and increase sales and marketing operations.

Ultracapacitors (aka ultracaps or supercapacitors), which have become commercially available only in the past decade or two, are energy-storage devices that feature high charge/discharge rates, high cycle life and great performance at low temperatures. These characteristics make them excellent complements to batteries, or to ICE engines, particularly in start-stop applications.

“Through our exhaustive research into the energystorage space, it was clear that Ioxus’ market-leading technology, proven business model and seasoned management were the right combination of factors for creating a successful business,” said Mike Dorsey, Managing Partner, The Westly Group.

“The Westly Group has a great track record of picking industry winners, and we intend to add to that list,” said Ioxus CEO Mark McGough. “Our proven technology sets us apart from competitors and puts us at the leading edge of the burgeoning energy storage industry.”

Ioxus has had a banner year so far. It launched three new modules for renewable energy and heavy transport applications: the iMOD 80V/12F, 16V/500F and 48V/165F series. Then it unveiled the 1200F iCAP cell, a high-powered building block for a new family of products enabling start-stop designs for combustion engine vehicles. The company recently announced 80 percent annual growth in Japan.

Photo courtesy of Ioxus

Ultracap manufacturer raises $15 million in funding

THE TECH PowerGenix, a developer of nickel-zinc (NiZn) batteries, announced that it has entered into an innovation contract with PSA Peugeot Citroën Automobiles.

Peugeot will conduct an evaluation of NiZn batteries as a replacement for lead-acid in start-stop vehicles.

Start-stop technology is one of the most cost-effective and efficient means of optimizing fuel economy. Current estimates put start-stop efficiency improvements at around 5-8 percent, while next generation systems may achieve savings as high as 12-15 percent.

In Europe, the technology has already been widely deployed, and 70 percent of all vehicles sold by 2017 are expected to carry stop-start as a standard feature.

Lead-acid batteries are the most common choice because they are low-cost, easily available and relatively safe. NiZn batteries offer higher energy density and higher charge acceptance and could be a good alternative choice in the future.

Photo courtesy of PowerGenix

Peugeot evaluates NiZn batteries for start-stop vehicles

“NiZn holds the potential to provide an ideal replacement for lead-acid by reducing the weight and CO2 emissions of our start-stop engine vehicles. This study marks PSA Peugeot Citroën Automobiles’s interest in working closely with PowerGenix to validate the promise of NiZn technology,” said Bernard Sahut, innovation team manager for PSA Peugeot Citroën.

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CURRENTevents

OpEneR system to optimize energy management Bosch and PSA Peugeot Citroën presented two prototype vehicles that use the Optimal Energy Consumption and Recovery (OpEneR) system at the International Environmentally Responsible Car Show (RIVE) in Alès, France. OpEneR is a European research project designed to increase the range of future hybrid and electric vehicles by optimizing energy management.

Launched in 2011, OpEneR uses data from onboard sensors and telematics to optimize cooperation between a vehicle’s electric drivetrain and its regenerative braking system. Software algorithms merge data from a wide range of sources to provide guidance through dashboard displays, allowing drivers to adapt their route and driving style to achieve the best energy efficiency.

The two prototypes, built on a Peugeot 3008 platform, use several new drivetrain technologies, including: • • • •

12

an electric powertrain based on two e-machines that deliver four-wheel drive a new-generation start-stop system that enables freewheeling Bosch’s ESP electronic stability program, which recovers energy when braking iBooster, which creates more vacuum-free brake pressure

Bosch has developed a new electromechanical brake booster called the iBooster, which is designed to make hybrid and electric vehicles more efficient by providing situation-dependent support when a driver initiates braking.

For maximum efficiency, a hybrid or EV must recover as much energy as possible when braking. Ideally, a vehicle would be slowed down purely by the electric motor, avoiding the loss of valuable energy through braking. The Bosch iBooster recovers almost all the energy lost in typical braking operations by ensuring deceleration rates of up to 0.3 g are achieved using the electric motor alone. If the brakes are applied harder, the iBooster generates the additional braking pressure needed in the traditional way, using the brake master cylinder.

The iBooster incorporates a motor to control the degree of brake boosting via a two-stage gear unit for situation-dependent support on demand, avoiding the costly process of generating a vacuum using either the ICE or a vacuum pump.

The iBooster allows developers to define characteristic braking curves in order to adapt the pedal feel to a customer’s wishes. For example, if a vehicle offers different driving modes such as sport, comfort, or economy, the brakes can be made to react more softly or more aggressively as appropriate.

The booster unit is purely electromechanical without brake fluid, which means it can be rotated flexibly about the longitudinal axis.

Production of the new iBooster will start in 2013.

Photo courtesy of Bosch

Bosch’s new iBooster improves regen braking

THE TECH Navigant report ranks automotive Li-ion vendors In a new report, Navigant Research profiles 11 Li-ion battery vendors that are active in the EV market, and rates them on 13 criteria, including systems integration, safety engineering, chemistry performance, geographic reach, manufacturing and product performance, pricing, and overall corporate financial health.

According to Navigant, “Li-ion batteries have won the race to be the chemistry of choice for electric vehicle traction power. They offer the best combination of safety, power, energy duration, durability, and cost. Although the majority of automobiles with traction batteries on the road have nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) cells, most new production vehicles will be shipped with Li-ion batteries in the coming years.”

Navigant expects the industry to produce 49 GWh of battery capacity for vehicles in 2020, a more than

tenfold increase over 2013.

Navigant’s Leaderboard ranks the various vendors according to their strategy and execution. Its three “Leaders,” which receive top marks in both categories, are LG Chem, JCI and AESC. The top ten vendors are: 1. LG Chem 2. JCI 3. AESC 4. Panasonic 5. Samsung SDI 6. SK Continental E-Motion 7. Hitachi 8. Toshiba 9. GS Yuasa 10. BYD

Module and pack level testing CAN, I2C SMBus capable Drive cycle simulation Import drive cycle from table of values Battery power is recycled to AC grid in discharge Utilizes Maccor’s standard battery test software suite No system power limit, up to 900KW

THE TECH

CURRENTevents

Italian firm displays family of EV transmissions

Photo courtesy of Oerlikon Graziano

Torino, Italy-based transmission specialist Oerlikon Graziano presented its family of hybrid and electric transmission systems at the VDI Wissenforum show in Friedrichshafen, Germany.

Oerlikon Graziano has been building electric and hybrid driveline assemblies for 20 years. Its products are used in vehicles ranging from golf carts to city cars to light commercial EVs to electric and hybrid sports cars.

The products displayed at VDI include: •

•

A four-speed seamless-shift transaxle that uses the principles of dual clutch transmissions (DCTs) to provide seamless shifting and up to a 15% improvement in vehicle efficiency.

A dual-speed seamless-shifting transaxle that can be coupled with a transversal electric motor, for front or rear fully electric axles. This transaxle has been developed together with VOCIS Drive-

First to achieve over 500 cycles in commercial Lithium Sulfur cells with no capacity fade

•

line Controls, which contributed its control software and electronic hardware design skills to the transmission design.

The OG-Eco, a hybrid transmission with torque infill, which combines the seamless shifting benefits of a DCT with the packaging and weight advantages of an AMT. The gearbox can be combined with a hybrid system that is fully integrated into the transmission package. The electric motor is linked to the main transmission through a twospeed gear set, providing torque to the drivetrain in between gear selection, enabling constant torque delivery.

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BACK

EMF Why Motors Generate and Generators Motor

By Jeffrey Jenkins - Charged Technical Editor, power electronics guru, and Chief Electron Herder for Evnetics

I

n a previous article I took a closer look at regenerative braking, and mentioned an old engineering saying that every motor is a generator and every generator is a motor (along with the caveat that some are more suited to the opposite purpose than others). This time around I’ll dig a little deeper into the effect called back (or counter) EMF, which is the key concept that makes this saying true, and also one that seems to be endlessly misunderstood and abused (particularly by the free energy/overunity crowd).

The first clue to demystifying back EMF is its alternate name, counter EMF. The second is to define and simplify EMF, which stands for “electromotive force” - which is basically the same as voltage1. So a back EMF (or BEMF for short) is a voltage that counters another voltage.

16

Photo courtesy of NissanEV (flickr)

THE TECH

More specifically, it is a voltage induced in a conductor that is experiencing a time-varying magnetic field and opposes an externally applied voltage to said conductor.

The only devices that can experience BEMF are inductors (including transformers) and motors, and only when an external voltage is applied to them.

At this point, your eyes might very well be glazing over...I mean, what the heck does BEMF have to do with

The only devices that can experience BEMF are inductors (including transformers) and motors, and only when an external voltage is applied to them.

the price of eggs in China? As it turns out, nothing at all, but it does explain why motors (and transformers) draw so little current when unloaded.

For example, consider a simple permanent magnet DC motor that has a resistance of 0.1 Ω at its terminals.

If we apply 10 V to this motor then we should expect it to draw an initial pulse of current of up to 100 A, but if the shaft is allowed to spin freely, then the current will quickly drop to a very low value (perhaps 1 A) because little mechanical work is being done (only that required to overcome friction and air resistance).

Recalling that electrical power is voltage times current and mechanical power is torque times RPM will explain why so little electrical power is required to spin an unloaded motor. It is also not surprising that the current demanded by this motor will increase in proportion to the amount of torque load on the shaft, reaching a limit of 100 A (i.e. 10 V / 0.1 Ω) when the shaft is stalled (assuming the power supply and wiring have zero resistance and can supply this current).

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Photo courtesy of TaranRampersad (flickr)

What is not clear from mere observation is why the motor only draws the electrical power necessary to deliver the mechanical power demanded of it (plus inevitable losses). It’s not because the resistance of the motor changes - though it will tend to increase as it gets hotter - rather, it’s because the conductors in the armature are moving past a stationary magnetic field provided by the permanent magnets, and therefore a voltage is induced in them that opposes the applied voltage, that is: BEMF. This induced voltage is proportional to the intensity of the magnetic field, its rate of change (as experienced by the wires as they move past the pole pieces), and the number of turns of the wire.

The polarity of the induced voltage (BEMF) is the opposite of the applied voltage, so it reduces the “actual” voltage experienced by the armature turns, which reduces the amount of current flowing through the motor. This explains why an unloaded motor draws little current, and why a stalled motor draws maximum current, but why does a moderately loaded motor draw a moderate

18

The conductors in the armature are moving past a stationary magnetic field provided by the permanent magnets, and therefore a voltage is induced in them that opposes the applied voltage, that is: BEMF current? In a nutshell, it is because whenever a current flows through a wire it creates a magnetic field2. Thus, as our example motor is more heavily loaded, it slows down just a bit, which reduces the BEMF and lets more current flow. This current then opposes the static field of the per-

THE TECH This explains why an unloaded motor draws little current, and why a stalled motor draws maximum current, but why does a moderately loaded motor draw a moderate current? manent magnets more strongly until a new equilibrium is reached (note that this is why you must be very careful about overloading motors with permanent magnet fields - too much current through them and you will demagnetize the magnets).

While it is easy to imagine the creation of BEMF in motors that use permanent magnets for the field (such as

the aforementioned permanent magnet DC motor, or the AC variants that are popular in OEM electric vehicles), all motors exhibit this phenomenon. The only difference is that the BEMF waveform will mimic that of the motor type. That is to say, a permanent magnet DC motor will produce DC BEMF, an AC induction motor will produce sinusoidal BEMF, and PM AC motor types will produce either sinusoidal or trapezoidal BEMF, depending on the distribution of windings in the armature3.

This is true even with modern drives that use pulse width modulation, or PWM, to control the speed and/ or torque of a motor. A PWM drive chops a DC supply voltage into discrete pulses whose average value must be less than or equal to the supply (minus a volt or two in on-state drop in the switches). Thus, in a DC drive the average voltage supplied to the motor can vary from 0 V up to just under the supply voltage. How does this affect the BEMF waveform in, say, an induction motor? As long as the PWM frequency is high enough (and/or the inertia of the load is high enough) the average voltage will cause an average current to flow. This average current will result in

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THE TECH an average torque, which, working against the resistance of the load, will result in an average speed. I keep repeating the word “average” to drive home the point that the shaft of the motor is turning continuously, not “stepping” a discrete angular amount each time the PWMed output is on, and pausing each time the output is off (like a stepper motor). As long as the shaft turns smoothly (either because of high inertia, high PWM frequency or both), the BEMF waveform will look the same as if the motor were supplied by a battery with the same voltage as the averaged output of the drive.

The same happens in an AC motor, except, of course, the ratio of on time to off time is varied to create a sinusoidal average voltage, and therefore a sinusoidal average current. The BEMF waveform will also be sinusoidal, subject to the same requirement that the PWM frequency and/or load inertia be high enough that the torque is essentially ripple-free. So BEMF is what limits the current through a motor whenever the shaft is not stalled, and it explains why the current drawn by a motor is proportion-

al to load and not just the applied voltage divided by the resistance. BEMF can also be used for “sensorless” speed control, with the caveat that some types of motors - e.g. brushed DC and trapezoidal PMAC - are more amenable to this than others. BEMF cannot do useful work in and of itself, however, so no free lunches here, and no need for any tinfoil hats!

Footnotes

For the sticklers for detail, an EMF is more properly defined as a generated potential difference generated voltage, i.e., that produced by a battery, photovoltaic cell, generator, etc. - as compared to a voltage drop across a resistance.

1

2

Lenz’s Law

Yes, AC motors have “armatures” - this is just the part of the motor that experiences a time-varying magnetic field, rather than the part that supplies the fixed field (which is, rather unimaginatively, called the field).

3

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BMS’s

FUEL GAUGE is lying to you

Here’s why that’s not a big deal

B

By Murat Ozkan - Senior Design Engineer for Nuvation, Charged technical contributor, and professional coulomb counter

attery management systems (BMSs), and the fuel gauges in them, are a part of daily life for almost everyone. You’ll find them in vehicles, laptops, cell phones, grid-attached energy storage - basically, anything that does work and needs to be plugged in, recharged, or refilled at some point. Leave it unconnected long enough and it stops working.

The instantaneous readouts on these devices have conditioned us to think about fuel gauging as a quick measurement taken spontaneously. “I’ll just check my laptop battery real quick!” you might say, followed by, “I have 78.7% remaining, I’m good for hours!” Well, it’s a lie! OK not a complete lie, but more of a guess. A highly educated guess. Behind that comforting three-digit façade lies a complex process that is a product of careful analysis, design, testing, and tuning.

You see, batteries are tricky beasts. No task makes this statement ring truer than trying to determine the state of charge of a single cell. So what do you (pretending to be a BMS for a minute) measure to determine remaining energy? Since it is a function of electrons in minus electrons out, you can measure the net charge into the battery since

22

the last known state of charge (SOC) state by integrating current into/out of the battery. Easy, right? Just measure current, tell your laptop it’s been living a lie, and then go to lunch! I hear there’s a new sandwich shop that just opened up down the street…

Just kidding. Here are some more of the many factors that affect usable energy within a battery1, 2: • Instantaneous temperature • Instantaneous discharge rate • Age • Cycle count history • Depth of discharge history • Time since last charge (self-discharge effects) • Temperature fluctuations since last charge (selfdischarge effects) Because there are so many factors affecting the electrochemical behavior of a battery, a “measurement” of state of charge cannot be performed by reading a sensor.

What is implied by reading the state of charge of a cell or pack is that an estimate is made based on other directly

THE TECH

Figure 1

Voltage vs. Capacity (LiFePO4)

voltage, V

3.5

3.0

0.5 C 2C 5C 10 C

2.5

2.0

0

0.4

0.8

1.2

1.6

2.0

2.4

2.8

3.0

capacity, Ah Based on internal data from Nuvation

Because there are so many factors affecting the electrochemical behavior of a battery, a “measurement” of state of charge cannot be performed by reading a sensor. measurable inputs. Outside of the 0% and 100% SOC bounds (usually measured with voltage), determining SOC is a process of creating an estimate.

“Oh sure,” you might say, “I’ll just measure all the inputs! Then go to lunch! You have enticed me with talk of this new sandwich shop.” Sorry about that. The sandwich shop is going to have to wait. The reality is that not all inputs are equally measurable, and not all measurements affect SOC equally.

Chemistries like lead-acid make fuel gauging relatively straightforward, since there is a fairly consistent correla-

tion between voltage and SOC; voltage being more easily measurable due to a larger and more consistent change in voltage across the SOC range, making the inverse mapping of voltage to SOC more accurate.

Chemistries like lithium-ion are more difficult to estimate this way since the change in voltage within the nominal range (10% to 90% SOC for a typical lithiumion chemistry) is very small, often in the tens of millivolts, and changes progressively less with increasing discharge rates. This is one of the many reasons it doesn’t make sense to have a “one size fits all” BMS - customengineered solutions are usually more appropriate.

Under certain conditions, the voltage-versus-SOC curve is not even monotonic, due to secondary effects like self-heating 3.

Figure 1 shows the discharge curve of a well-used LiFePO4 cell from a battery pack from one of Nuvation’s combat robots. In this test, it has been taken out of an 8-series/1-parallel pack and cycled at four different discharge rates at an ambient temperature of 20° C (sometimes our office is kind of cold). Results were measured with a battery analyzer.

AUG 2013 23

THE TECH Figure 2

Simulation of The Cumulative Effects of 1% Current Measurement Offset Error 2500

Charge @ 200 mA

Charge @ 200 mA

Capacity (Real) Capacity (Measured) Charge @ 200 mA

capacity, mAh

2000

Charge @ 200 mA

1500

Accumulated Error: 185 mAh (7.4%)

Discharge @ 100 mA

1000

Discharge @ 100 mA Discharge @ 150 mA 500

Discharge @ 250 mA

Discharge @ 75 mA

0

time

The curves in Figure 1 show two important results from the discussion above: SOC dependence on instantaneous current; and the effect of the discharge rate on measured voltage.

Voltage tends to sag, and usable capacity decreases under load. Both of these effects relax back to their open-circuit values when the load is removed, though not instantaneously. Batteries tend to have a load/charge-dependent hysteresis this way, making voltage seem elastic or “springy.” What’s important in this observation is that not only are the various inputs measurable to different degrees of accuracy, and not only do they affect SOC differently, but these parameters also affect each other.

Voltage is coupled to temperature, which is coupled to discharge rate which is coupled to…you get the idea. Lots of variables, lots of unknowns, lots of ways error can get

24

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introduced.

OK now you’re probably thinking, “Geez, my laptop can’t possibly keep track of all that information! Now I’ll never get lunch and die starving in a ditch somewhere with no charge left in my laptop, clutching a multimeter riddled with teeth marks!”

Well, the good news is that it’s not quite so grim. Your laptop can

What’s important in this observation is that... these parameters also affect each other.

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THE TECH application, because it tends to offset the weaknesses of one kind of measurement with the strengths of another, fusing the data to create an estimate that is essentially greater than the sum of its parts.

In summary, your laptop/BMS is doing just fine. No need to fix it. Its only real issue is that it is bad at setting expectations. In reality, the fuel gauge indicator on a laptop is pretty conservatively derated to account for some of the uncertainty in the estimate so that users aren’t able to do any real damage near the actual 0% SOC mark.

OK, now we can all go to lunch! Boy, I feel like I’m running on empty after all of that talk of fuel gauging. Get it?

Anybody? No? I’ll show myself out.

Disassembled lithium-ion cell

For a more in-depth analysis of the measurement of SOC, consult our sources: [1] P. Ramadass, B. Haran, R. White and B.N. Popov,

“Capacity fade of Sony 18650 cells cycled at elevated Most sophisticated SOC temperatures,” Journal of Power Sources, no. 112, pp. estimation algorithms work 606-613, 2002. off of a battery model.

[2] R.P. Ramasamy, R.E. White and B.N. Popov, “Calendar

kind of keep track of these things. Kind of.

Most sophisticated SOC estimation algorithms work off of a battery model. This can be an electro-chemical model, a purely electrical model, a lookup table of past history, or anything that will generate a prediction of things to come.

A lot of times these algorithms implement “state estimators” - or “observers” in controls-speak - that predict SOC based on a battery model and then correct it using measured inputs. An example of this is known as the Kalman filtering approach4, 5, though there are others 6.

A good approach would assign a confidence or weight to an input based on an understanding of the battery model, and update this weighting as the system changes.

In practice “coulomb counting,” the act of integrating current to get a measure of charge, is weighted heavily. There are drawbacks to relying too heavily on this, however, mostly due to measurement errors also being integrated and accumulated with the parameter of interest. To illustrate this point, Figure 2 shows a simulateduse case in which a 2500 mAh battery pack is cycled multiple times within its 10% to 90% SOC range, and SOC is calculated using only integrated current (coulomb counting).

An algorithm like a Kalman filter is a good fit for this

life performance of pouch lithium-ion cells,” Journal of Power Sources, no. 141, pp. 298-306, 2004.

[3] A123 Systems, “ANR26650M1-B Datasheet,” A123

Systems, 2012.

[4] K.A. Smith, C.D. Rahn and C.Y. Wang, “Model-Based

Electrochemical Estimation of Lithium-Ion Batteries,” in IEEE International Conference on Control Applications, University Park, 2008.

[5] D. Di Domenico, G. Fiengo and A. Stefanopoulou,

“Lithium-Ion Battery State of Charge Estimation with a Kalman Filter Based on a Electrochemical Model,” in IEEE International Conference on Control Applications, San Antonio, 2008.

[6] L. Liu, L.Y. Wang, Z. Chen, C. Wang, F. Line and H.

Wang, “Integrated System Identification and State-ofCharge Estimation of Battery Systems,” IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. 28, no. 1, pp. 12-23, 2013.

[7] S. Santhanagopalan and R.E. White, “State of charge

estimation using an unscented filter for high power lithium ion cells,” International Journal of Energy Research, vol. 34, pp. 152-163, 2009.

AUG 2013 27

Even COOLER Making EVs

Canada’s CapTherm Systems’ multiphase cooling technology could take the heat off of EV batteries and charging stations more efficiently, taking up less space using fewer materials while improving longevity and performance. Charged takes an early peek at this innovation before it goes commercial next year.

By Markkus Rovito

28

THE TECH

Photo courtesy of CapTherm Systems

I

f you’ve never dropped your smartphone 10 feet onto pavement, left it in a cab, or witnessed it being accidentally knocked into a hotel room toilet bowl, you may still have the utmost faith in the genius of those ubiquitous uber-gadgets. But if you have seen the world grind down to slow motion as your expensive holder of relevant personal information is about to be submerged in water without anything you can do to stop it, you may have developed a semi-healthy case of phone paranoia.

Such was not the case when Philipp Fuhrmann, CoFounder and COO of the early-stage Canadian company CapTherm Systems, willfully dunked his iPhone into the proprietary coolant fluid the company developed for its multiphase electronics cooling system.

“Our machinist then called him while the iPhone was submerged, and it was still fine,” said Timo Minx, Co-Founder and CEO of CapTherm. Minx is also the inventor of the company’s multiphase, liquid-to-vapor cooling technology. “In case of a leak,” he said, “our fluid doesn’t harm electronics equipment, because it’s nonconductive.”

Great! So what is this liquid, and can we use it in the aquarium that sits next to all the remote controls?

“I’m very hesitant to tell,” Minx said. “It’s a customized formulation - it’s nothing off the shelf.”

AUG 2013 29

Photo courtesy of Ciprian Popescu (flickr)

What CapTherm more than happily tells us involves its debut of a commercialized multiphase cooling system planned for a launch at either CES in Las Vegas in January 2014, or at CeBit in Hanover, Germany next March. CapTherm will initially launch its systems in the IT space, followed by solutions for electric vehicles, EV charging stations and many other industries once the technology gains traction.

Vapor trails Water and liquid cooling of electronics have been gaining in popularity over the tried and true heat sinks-and-fans method of air cooling. “Even in the IT world and the data center world, the unthinkable is happening right now,” Minx said. “People are actually pumping water into their server racks and into their servers - extracting the heat from the electronics components with water, simply because it is so vastly superior to air cooling. However, water cooling is not necessarily well-suited for electronics

30

“

People are actually pumping water into their server racks and into their servers extracting the heat from the electronics components with water...

”

equipment because of the inherent problem: What happens in case of a leak? Also, water cooling requires the addition of a pump, a mechanical component that can fail over time.”

CapTherm’s multiphase cooling of electronic components (or batteries) as it relates to EVs, alleviates

THE TECH the danger of leakage by using its nonconductive fluid, but there are other advantages to multiphase cooling over water cooling.

“The primary difference is that we actually change the phase, so we boil the liquid off,” Minx said. “We go from a liquid phase to a vapor phase and condense it back in a condenser/radiator-like heat exchanger, where it changes back from vapor to gas. It’s very similar to your air conditioner or fridge. However, we do not utilize a compressor, so we’re not able to drop below ambient temperature. We can move heat without using any electricity. The energy required to initiate the process actually comes from the electronic component that gets hot in the first place. We’re really using waste energy to drive the system. Another big advantage is multiphase shows vastly better performance.”

Minx also cites greater volumetric efficiency: multiphase cooling is about 30 percent more space-effective than existing systems with the same performance. “We can make it smaller, lighter, and utilize less air flow,” he said. “It gives you all the advantages and more that liquid cooling gives you over air cooling with none of the drawbacks that liquid cooling currently has.

For example, our systems that we designed and built in-house are all metallurgically sound, metal to metal connections.”

This multiphase cooling approach differs somewhat from heat pipe technology, which was invented in 1962 and is used in computers, HVAC, and other systems.

“A heat pipe effectively utilizes the vapor phase change process on the inside,” Minx said, “but it is a very crude approach. Heat-pipe cooling doesn’t utilize the concept in a fashion that is efficient enough to really offer a competitor to liquid cooling. Actually, water cooling is more efficient than heat-pipe cooling. On the other hand, the way we’re putting the system together, we beat liquid cooling by a considerable margin.”

To help quantify that margin, CapTherm tests its units with a mass spectrometer that goes to 1x10-11 cc/sec/

“

atm. “To put that in perspective,” Minx said, “we can detect leaks that equal one sugar cube of helium gas over 3,000 years. That’s something that no water cooling system could compete with or even come close to.”

Of course, the fundamental function of a cooling system is to remove heat, and CapTherm claims big advantages over liquid cooling there. “Traditional water cooling removes approximately 200 W per square centimeter of surface area,” Minx said. “We’re at about 575 W per square centimeter, so we can handle about three times as much heat density.”

The system also should operate at a wide range of temperature and pressure conditions. Minx gave -80 to 250 degrees Fahrenheit as the temperature range. As for pressure, Minx said, “As long as there’s fluid in the system, the pressure is dictated by temperature. As it gets hotter, pressure increases. If it gets colder, pressure decreases.

Traditionally we can run these systems anywhere from vacuum conditions to 100-600 psi, depending on what fluid we use.”

Traditional water cooling removes approximately 200 W per a square centimeter of surface area. We’re at about 575 W per square centimeter...

”

Entry strategy For Minx, CapTherm represents a revisiting of his past in more ways than one. His multiphase cooling innovations are a fulfillment of a previous mission that was cut short when he worked at Calgary, Alberta’s Cool IT Systems, where products under his direct management won three CES Innovation and Design awards for liquid cooling products. But it’s also a reunion with childhood friend Fuhrmann. Born in the same German hospital, Minx and Fuhrmann attended the same schools through the high-school level, and then met up again by coincidence in Canada after a disillusioned Minx quit his job at Cool IT. Minx had been assigned a multiphase cooling project that was pulled because the company didn’t want to take on the risk of developing a new technology. The two old friends decided to start a company outside of Vancouver, where Minx could bring his multiphase cooling ideas to commercialization. It was there that CapTherm was launched in February 2011 and soon after raised a

AUG 2013 31

Photo © CHARGED Electric Vehicles Magazine

$600,000 early investment from Greenscape Capital.

With Minx’s experience and reputation in IT cooling, it seemed practical to enter that market, and CapTherm has been iterating prototypes for a year and a half ahead of its commercialization early next year.

“We see the IT market as a low-hanging fruit,” Minx said. “We have all the contacts necessary in the IT world to launch a retail product. In essence, the IT opportunity creates brand awareness, technology awareness, educates consumers about our technology, and is a nice opportunity for us to ramp production, validate the manufacturing process, and prove that we’re able to manufacture these units and this technology at a competitive price with great quality. However, the medium- and long-term approach at CapTherm is definitely to take these technologies and apply them to a multitude of other markets, including advanced materials like graphene with the help of our development partners Focus Graphite and Grafoid, wind and solar power applications, high-quality electronics, generators, electric vehicles and EV charging stations.”

Minx pointed out that

Its multiphase cooling CapTherm already has some prototypes for batteryalso can apply to...the cooling products that could them into the EV and high-power switching lead EV charging station fields. the start-up needs to transistors that switch But focus its resources on the large amounts of power IT market for now and out once it’s at or from the battery pack to branch near the break-even point.

It also helps that in the IT the motor. world, where there is little

32

protection if current liquid cooling systems leak, the CapTherm product offers “a huge value add over the current technology,” according to Minx.

There will also likely be an early-adopter period for CapTherm’s systems, which will cost a premium until economies of scale help them compare in price to current liquid cooling systems. “Primarily we’re more expensive on the material side, because we use all metal-to-metal connections,” Minx said. “At the same time, we save on components. We don’t utilize a pump.”

Assuming the CapTherm multiphase cooling system eventually becomes more of a volume product, the company will look at opening it up to all sorts of industries, but there is still at least one limitation to it.

THE TECH “The version we’re releasing is gravitationallydependent, meaning if you were to flip your car upside down, it would no longer work,” Minx said. “Initially, we were going to commercialize an even more sophisticated multiphase technology, but with the technology that we’re now launching in Q1 next year, there is still gravitational dependence. So the technology is now more affordable, but if there is any drawback so to speak, this would be the one. It’s interesting - with the less sophisticated technology, you can cover about 90 percent of all market opportunities, because they don’t look for orientational independence.”

Minx figures the only applications gravitational dependence excludes them from are aerospace, some military applications, zero-gravity environments, and smartphones. Yet that leaves them with plenty of possibilities for servers, work-stations/desktops, EVs, LED lights, high-beam lighting and floodlighting, and telecommunications.

“We’re shying away from completely commodity processes and products for the time being,” Minx said, “because it’s very difficult for a start-up company to

compete against China. So we’re not interested in cooling LED light bulbs that you can buy for $5 at Home Depot, but there are floodlighting applications where the cooling system for the LED alone costs $10,000 or even $30,000 as a matter of fact. It’s those specialty applications we’re interested in working on for the next few years.”

Multiphase EV plan CapTherm cites battery cooling as an area that has been woefully underaddressed in the EV industry, and points to problems that can arise when there is poor thermal management of batteries: safety hazards from uncontrolled battery temperatures, batteries wearing out faster, reduced performance from unbalanced modules, and impacted charge acceptance. Once its multiphase cooling system hits EV manufacturing, CapTherm believes it will offer such benefits as virtually maintenance-free operation, which reduces costs; better temperature control with minimal variations, which can lead to better battery capacity; improved charging times, range, reliability, life cycles, and life expectancy; and a lighter, more compact cooling apparatus.

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34

Photo courtesy of CapTherm Systems

“There really is no drawback to the customer experience,” Minx said. “Whoever adopts our technology is going to have a considerable competitive advantage simply by using what our technology is going to enable the battery to do.”

Batteries aren’t the only area in which CapTherm could impact the EV industry. Its multiphase cooling also can apply to insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), the high-power switching transistors that switch large amounts of power from the battery pack to the motor to accelerate quickly.

The growing number of EV charging stations could also get a boost from CapTherm’s technology. “Energy conversion efficiency is higher if you utilize a better cooling technology,” Minx said, “so it doesn’t just apply to the EV market - it also applies to the charging stations. If you reduce temperature, you increase energy efficiency. If you spin the fan at a slower speed, it consumes less power, and the underlying equipment becomes more reliable.”

CapTherm’s system could integrate with EVs in a variety of ways, such as drop-in replacements for existing batteries or an add-on battery that would work with the existing infrastructure. There are also prototypes of systems that would actually fit inside the cells of a battery pack such as the Chevy Volt’s. “I can’t really speak too

“

Graphene simply possesses excellent thermal properties.

”

THE TECH much about it, but that is a unique project we’re working on,” Minx said. “We’d love to find somebody to partner up with us on that as well.”

When cooling heats up There are at least a couple of other companies with related technology, that also claim to offer the first multiphase cooling system. These include Thermal Form & Function in Massachusetts, and the larger Communications & Power Industries (CPI), headquartered in Palo Alto, California. The competition should make watching this new sector more interesting, and hopefully help bring the advantages of multiphase cooling to the EV world even sooner. For CapTherm, developing strategic partnerships could help establish it as the front-runner in multiphase cooling. The company struck its first joint venture with Focus Graphite in April. The agreement will see Focus Graphite’s Grafoid subsidiary supply CapTherm with high-energy graphene materials and its science for incorporating that graphene into CapTherm’s multiphase cooling systems for EV batteries and LEDs.

Graphene is a superconductor with great lateral and vertical heat-spreading properties. “Graphene simply possesses excellent thermal properties,” Minx said. “Our multiphase technology could employ graphene and make it perform even better. We’re really happy about the partnership.” If it goes as planned, the Focus Graphite joint venture will only be the first of many partnerships CapTherm enters for EVs and other markets, and the company’s initial foray into IT multiphase cooling systems next year will serve as a jumping-off point for what’s to come.

“The IT launch is kind of a marketing exercise,” Minx said. “We want to create brand awareness. We want people to recognize what CapTherm is and have a showcase project where we can say we have 10,00020,000 units in the field; we manufacture them in North America at high quality for a good price; and we believe that will build trust with the larger companies to embark on R&D project with us. We’re very open to that. If the right opportunity were to walk across our table today, we would certainly allocate resources to it.”

hydrogen

helium

H

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1

2

Frustrated with the pace of battery development?

1.0079

4.0026

lithium

beryllium

boron

carbon

nitrogen

oxygen

Li

Be 9.0122

B

10.811

C

N

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sodium

magnesium

Na Mg

3

6.941

11

4

22.990

24.305

calcium

K

39.098

20

21

Ca Sc

titanium

22

Ti

vanadium

23

V

silicon

phosphorus

sulfur

chlorine

argon

Si

P

S

Cl

Ar

bromine

krypton

Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br

Kr

chromium

24

manganese

iron

25

26

cobalt

27

nickel

28

copper

29

zinc

30

28.086

30.974

32.065

arsenic

selenium

zirconium

niobium

Rb Sr

Y

Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In

85.468

87.62

caesium

barium

55

88.906

56

132.91

137.33

francium

radium

87

88

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58.933

58.693

63.546

65.38

69.723

molybdenum

technetium

ruthenium

rhodium

palladium

silver

cadmium

indium

44

45

46

47

48

49

33

34

35.453

35

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tin

antimony

tellurium

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50

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platinum

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thallium

Hf Ta W Re Os

Ir

Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

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rutherfordium

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seaborgium

bohrium

hassium

meitnerium

105

106

107

108

109

78

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79

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80

81

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polonium

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82

83

84

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58

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praseodymium neodymium

59

60

110

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europium

gadolinium

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62

63

dysprosium

holmium

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thulium

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lutetium

64

65

66

67

68

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70

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140.12

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150.36

151.96

157.25

158.93

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164.93

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168.93

173.05

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protactinium

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neptunium

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94

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Visit our new website!

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86

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36

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41

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50.942

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47.867

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Wildcat uses proprietary high throughput technology to accelerate battery R&D. This massively parallel technique enables our scientists to investigate hundreds of materials in the time standard laboratories look at a handful. Wildcat’s customers reduce R&D costs and get products to market faster; new cathodes, anodes, electrolytes, synthetic methods and formulations are all possible. Wildcat is ready to help get your new cell technology to market…F-A-S-T!

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Photo courtesy of Arnold de Leon (flickr)

Plug In America Research Shows

TESLA ROADSTER BATTERY LONGEVITY

Exceeds Early Projections

M

By Tom Saxton, Chief Science Officer, Plug In America

any current and prospective electric vehicle owners are curious to better understand battery pack longevity. There’s plenty of technical data on how batteries lose capacity with use, but a lot of that testing subjects the batteries to extreme and rapid charge/discharge cycles, very unlike the much gentler use that most electric vehicles experience over years in service.

While hundreds of Toyota RAV4-EVs have been on the road for over a decade, many accumulating over 100,000 miles on the original battery pack, they use a battery chemistry - nickel-metal hydride - that’s completely different from the various flavors of lithium-ion batteries in use in today’s production vehicles.

To measure and document the real-world performance of current production electric vehicles, Plug In America is conducting a series of battery longevity studies. Our results from a Nissan LEAF study were released in December 2012, and now the results from a study of Tesla Roadsters have been revealed.

In 2006, Tesla Motors published a blog written by Martin Eberhard and J.B. Straubel explaining how they intended to manage the car’s batteries to balance range, acceleration, and battery life. In that paper, they suggested that after driving 10,000 miles per year for five years, Roadster owners should expect to have about 70% of their original battery pack capacity remaining.

The results from the Plug In America research show considerably better capacity retention.

For the study, survey data was collected from 122 Roadster owners, and anonymous data was collected from 106 Roadster owners using the Open Vehicle Monitoring System (OVMS). Because the OVMS data is anonymous, the identity of the vehicles in both sets in not known, and some overlap is expected.

Analyzing the two data sets, the study projects that the average Roadster battery pack will retain 80% to 85% of its original capacity after 100,000 miles of driving, although individual experience can vary significantly from that average.

The Roadster pack The Tesla Roadster battery pack consists of 6,831 lithiumion batteries of the type typically used in laptop computers. These are cylindrical cells a bit larger than AA batteries (nominal size 18 mm in diameter by 65 mm long).

The total pack stores about 55 kWh of usable energy.

An active thermal management system circulates fluid through the battery pack to keep all of the cells close to the same temperature, which Tesla says maximizes range by keeping performance even across the entire pack. The fluid can also be heated or cooled to protect the batteries from extreme temperatures.

AUG 2013 37

THE TECH FIGURE 1 250

Ideal Miles or Ah

Battery Capacity vs Miles Driven on Original Battery Pack

y = -0.3385x + 236.12 R2 = 0.28729 200

y = -0.2871x + 185.89 R2 = 0.43175 150

y = -0.257x + 156.62 R2 = 0.59812

100

Range Mode Standard Mode CAC

50

0 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

90

80

100

110

Odometer (1000s of Miles)

FIGURE 2 OVMS Data, Ideal Miles vs Odometer

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Photo courtesy of raneko (flickr)

There are three common ways to read the capacity of the Roadster pack, two that involve reading the estimated range after a charge and a third that uses the Roadster’s internal estimate of pack capacity.

developed by the Roadster owner community; or it can be read by the OVMS device. Tesla service technicians have told owners that CAC is the best measure of a pack’s capacity.

Standard mode ideal miles Standard mode yields about 80% of a full charge and is the default for daily driving. After doing a full Standard mode charge, the driver can read the estimated range.

Estimated range is given in ideal miles, which are an absolute range estimate not related to recent driving, so we can compare ideal mile reading across cars, drivers, and driving conditions. An ideal mile is the amount of energy required to drive a Roadster one mile on level freeway at 55 to 60 mph in moderate weather.

Battery capacity by miles driven Figure 1 shows the Roadster data from the surveyed participants, excluding those that have had a full or partial battery pack replacement. It shows three measures of battery pack capacity: ideal miles in Range mode (full charge), ideal miles in Standard mode (default 80% charge), and the calculated amp-hour capacity (CAC) of the pack.

As you can see, there is a gradual downward trend, but also considerable variation in battery capacity among Roadsters with similar odometer readings, so owners may experience a capacity profile above or below the average trend lines shown.

A recent update to the data set included the highestmileage Roadster to date, with more than 100,000 miles.

This data point was not available when Plug In America released the initial study results, yet it follows the projected trend line.

Figure 2 includes the data collected anonymously from 106 Roadsters whose owners have added the OVMS device to their cars. This data set is less self-selected than the survey data, and also allows determining a potentially more accurate measure of the ideal range shortly after a Range mode charge (which generally finishes in the middle of the night) but before energy use by the car can drain away any miles.

The OVMS data set shows results similar to the survey data. The best-fit capacity loss rates are not too different from the survey values. At the time the data was collected, OVMS did not support reading and recording the CAC value.

Range mode ideal miles In Range mode, the Roadster will charge the battery to its maximum charge. Roadster owners typically use Range mode only when the full range of the pack is needed for an extended trip. Reading the ideal miles after a Range mode charge will give an estimate of the pack’s full capacity. It takes some effort to get a good Range mode reading, because the Roadster will continue running the thermal management system after the charge completes, which consumes energy from the pack. So, to get a good reading, it must be read shortly after the charge completes, at a time not known in advance.

Calculated amp-hour capacity (CAC) The Roadster maintains an internal estimate of the pack’s capacity in amp-hours. This number can be read any time - it doesn’t have to be read immediately after a charge completes, however, it’s not directly visible to the driver. A Tesla service technician can read the value for the owner; it can be read from the car’s logs using tools

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AUG 2013 39

THE TECH Deviation From Projected Standard Mode Ideal Miles

FIGURE 3 Deviation From Projected Standard Mode Ideal Miles vs Vehicle Age

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Photo © CHARGED Electric Vehicles Magazine

Battery capacity by vehicle age We expect lithium-ion batteries to lose capacity over time, even if not used, so we examined age as a factor in battery capacity loss. Roadsters were built and delivered to customers beginning in mid-2008 and production ended in January of 2012. About 2,500 Roadsters were produced in that 3.5-year period.

To separate the effect of age from the effect of miles driven, we took each survey vehicle’s Standard mode capacity and calculated its variance from the trend line. To the extent that age affects capacity loss, we would expect newer battery packs to be above the trend line (positive values) and older batteries to be below the trend line (negative values).

Figure 3 reveals no apparent downward trend in capacity variance over vehicle age. There may be an effect of battery age on battery capacity, but it’s not apparent in this data set. Since the reported vehicle ages start at just over a year, any age effect in the first year would not be visible. Likewise, it’s possible there will be an effect as the cars get older, beyond the 4.5-year top end in the available data.

Battery capacity by climate Research has shown that battery cell temperature affects battery life. The Roadster’s thermal management system is intended to protect the battery pack from extreme temperatures, but how well does it work in hot climates?

To examine the car’s ability to protect the battery pack from temperatures due to climate, we grouped the survey vehicles according to the average high annual temperature for their location.

Figure 4 shows the Standard mode range vs. odometer, grouped by climate. Only the Roadsters that are still using their original battery packs are included. Cars from different climates are mixed together with no real trend emerging.

Vehicles in areas with average high temperatures in the 90s and 100s are mixed in with those in cooler climates,

not separated as one would expect if climate had a significant effect on battery longevity.

Conclusions The survey and OVMS data sets project that the average Roadster will have between 80% and 85% of the car’s original battery pack capacity after 100,000 miles, although individual experience can vary widely from the average. This is considerably better than Tesla’s 2006 guidance which suggested 70% remaining capacity after just 50,000 miles.

For the timeframe considered, 1-4.5 years, calendar life hasn’t had a noticeable effect on capacity. This may change as the vehicles get older.

While it’s clear from laboratory testing that operating the cells at high temperatures has a negative impact on battery life, the study found no significant difference among Roadsters in different climates. From this, it appears that Tesla’s active thermal management system, along with other features such as limiting power when the battery pack is hot, protects the cells from variations in climate. As we have relatively few vehicles above 40,000 miles with climate data, climate-related capacity effects may emerge as more data is collected.

Plug In America is the preeminent nonprofit organization for the promotion and support of plug-in electric vehicles for the many economic, national security, and environmental benefits they bring. We are focused on increasing the number of electric miles, displacing fossil fuel miles through advocacy with industry and government and outreach to consumers. Plug In America has over a million electric miles of experience on its board of directors and uses that to advocate for the interests of current and future plug-in vehicle owners.

If you find the information in this study helpful, please consider donating, so that we can continue our critical work of supporting plug-in vehicles and the consumers who drive them. www.Pluginamerica.com/donate

AUG 2013 41

CURRENTevents

Porsche expects strong sales for Panamera PHEV Porsche’s new Panamera S E-Hybrid PHEV incorporates dramatic improvements over the hybrid model that it’s replacing, and the company expects that to drive dramatically better sales.

Chinese automaker BYD has been selected to supply 35 electric buses to Amsterdam’s Schiphol Airport.

The new buses, which will be used to transfer passengers between airplanes and terminals, will enter service in July of 2014, replacing a legacy fleet of diesel buses.

Aims of the Sustainable Bus System of Schiphol include reducing maintenance costs and improving the airport’s air quality.

Four other established suppliers competed with BYD for the lucrative contract. “Winning this contract was a vital step in our strategy to deliver emissions-free public-transport vehicles,” said Isbrand Ho, BYD Europe’s Managing Director. “We won this contract on the strength of our proven technology and ability to support their 10-year operating contract.”

BYD’s 40-foot electric bus was built as an EV from the start. It features an all-aluminum frame and several technologies that were developed in-house, including the in-wheel hub motors, the regenerative braking system, and BYD’s iron-phosphate battery, which contains no caustic materials, toxic electrolytes or heavy metals, and is fully recyclable. The bus has a range of 155 miles and can be fully charged in five hours.

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Porsche is forecasting about 10,000 sales over the E-Hybrid’s life cycle, which represents double the figure for the company’s first-generation hybrid, and about 10 percent of all Panamera sales.

The new Porsche plug-in features a 9.4 kWh lithium-ion battery - a huge upgrade over the old model’s 1.7 kWh nickel-metal hydride battery - and has an electric range of around 22 miles. The electric powertrain produces 95 hp, and joins a supercharged 333 hp V6 gas engine to crank out a combined 416 hp. This is green tech at its finest, with a top speed of 167 mph and fuel economy of 76 mpg (on the European cycle).

“It is a big step from the first-generation hybrid to the plug-in hybrid. The car provides more than five times more energy for the customer,” Panamera chief Gernot Doellner told Automotive News Europe.

The Panamera S E-Hybrid is scheduled to launch in Europe in August and in the US in October. The starting price in Germany is 110,409 euros.

Photo courtesy of Porsche

BYD to supply 35 e-buses to Amsterdam Airport

THE VEHICLES

Tesla (TSLA) has been chosen as a member of the Nasdaq 100 Index, replacing Oracle (ORCL), which is moving to the NYSE. TSLA crept to an all-time high of over $123 on the news in July, which represents a gain of about 264 percent for the year.

As Bloomberg explained, becoming a member of the benchmark index is a great boon for a public company, because it provides a guaranteed shareholder base. “It’s a coming of age, recognition that a company has market cap and liquidity,” said Sandy Mehta of Value Investment Principals Ltd. “Once the stock joins the index, you will have some buying.”

Meanwhile, Tesla won a symbolic victory in its ongoing war with the large auto dealers’ associations. A White House petition to allow Tesla Motors to sell directly to consumers in all 50 states got 114,232 signatures, far more than the 100,000 threshold for the administration to review it.

Earning 100,000 fans only guarantees that the Obama administration will “review” the petition, not that they will do anything about it. Indeed, it’s not clear that the federal government has the authority to overrule the state legislatures in this matter. However, we predict that it’s only a matter of time before you’ll be able to pick out a new Model S as a wedding present for a couple of any persuasion, in any state in the Union.

Formula E, the electric open-wheel racing series, has announced the calendar for its inaugural season in 2014. There will be 10 races on four continents, starting with Rome and followed by London, Berlin, Los Angeles, Miami, Rio de Janeiro, Beijing, Bangkok and Putrajaya, Malaysia.

Recently, legendary IndyCar team Andretti Autosport joined Drayson Racing and China Racing as a Formula E competitor.

“It’s an honor for Andretti Autosport to have been selected as one of the 10 founding Formula E teams for the inaugural season,” said Michael Andretti. “I look forward to further exploring the series and helping build the future of open-wheel racing across the world.”

Series organizer Alejandro Agag said, “It’s fantastic for such a highly-established outfit to show its commitment to sustainable motoring and with two US races on the inaugural calendar - Los Angeles and Miami - I’m sure American motorsport fans will have a lot to cheer come race day. As well as being the first team from the US, today’s announcement now means we have three teams from three different continents, and we’re looking forward to announcing many more over the coming months.”

Earlier, Agag told Autoweek that Formula E is already in talks with McLaren, and went on to say, “I’m sure teams like Ferrari and Red Bull will be in Formula E one day.”

For the inaugural season, Andretti and other teams will use the new Spark-Renault SRT_01E car, built by the French firm Spark Racing Technology.

The lithium-ion batteries will be supplied by UKbased Williams, the electric motors and transmission by McLaren, the tires by Michelin, and the chassis by the venerable Italian company Dallara.

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AUG 2013 43

Photo courtesy of Formula E

Tesla joins Nasdaq 100 Index

Formula E plans 2014 season, courts new teams

CURRENTevents

2014 Volt MSRP to drop five grand

Photo courtesy of GM

The eagerly awaited 2014 Volt will have no changes from the 2013 model, except for a couple of new colors - and a $5,000 price cut. The new sticker price will be $34,995, including an $810 destination charge. The 2014s have begun shipping from GM’s Detroit-Hamtramck assembly plant, and will arrive in showrooms soon.

GM told Automotive News that it made the move in response to price competition from other EVs. Nissan cut prices for the LEAF, and introduced a cheaper base model, in January, and has seen its sales triple. The LEAF edged out the Volt as the country’s best-selling plug-in in July. Ford recently dropped the price of its Focus Electric by $4,000, to $35,995. Honda and Fiat have seen demand for their EVs surge since they started offering attractive $199-a-month lease deals.

Chevy sales chief Don Johnson also said that GM has made “great strides” in reducing the Volt’s production cost. GM execs have said that they expect to reduce costs by $5,000 to $10,000 by the time the second-generation Volt arrives around 2015.

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The first Electric Defender has started real-world trials at the Eden Project, a sort of environmental theme park near St Austell in Cornwall, UK. Land Rover calls the Electric Defender “a rolling laboratory to develop new ideas and investigate electrification in a real-world environment.” A fleet of six vehicles will be placed with various organizations to assess their performance.

The Defender 110 “effortlessly” tows the four-carriage, 12-ton road train carrying up to 60 passengers on a 6% incline to and from the Eden Project’s famous hexagonal-paneled domes. It has all-terrain capability, permanent 4WD, a top speed of 70 mph, and a 50-mile range with a reserve of a further 12.5 miles, according to Land Rover. It can operate for up to eight hours in low-speed off-road use, and charges its lithium-ion batteries overnight at a cost of about £2.

The vehicle’s Hill Descent Control is linked to a regenerative braking function, which can recover up to 80% of the car’s kinetic energy.

Jeremy Greenwood, the vehicle’s principal engineer, said that the repetitive nature of the work will provide excellent data for future electric vehicles.

“The car has been modified so it now includes a second battery,” he said. “That will allow it to work a full day at the Eden Project, but also improves weight distribution and stability. In addition, we’ve linked the land-train’s air brakes to the foot pedal of the Land Rover, enhancing safety.”

The Eden Project’s Gus Grand said, “[This project] proves that electric vehicles can be every bit as tough and rugged as their fossil fuel counterparts, while being much quieter, cheaper to run and with zero emissions at the point of use.”

Photo courtesy of Jaguar Land Rover

Electric Defender begins real-world trials

THE VEHICLES 2014 Malibu to include start-stop as standard

Ford data: PHEVs operate gas-free 60% of the time

The 2014 Chevrolet Malibu will be the automaker’s first vehicle to include start-stop technology in the standard model.

Photo courtesy of Ford

Photo courtesy of GM

Ford has found that owners of its plug-in hybrids Fusion Energi and C-MAX Energi - are making the most of the vehicles’ 21 miles of gas-free all-electric range, using them for mostly short trips or commutes, and operating in electric mode nearly 60 percent of the time.

The early aggregate data, collected through the vehicles tied to the MyFord Mobile app, shows that there is an improvement in this figure over the first 30 days of vehicle ownership.

“The daily percent driven in electric mode continues to inch upward, suggesting drivers are using the information provided by MyFord Mobile to change how they drive and really get the most out of their vehicles,” says Joe Rork, MyFord Mobile product manager.

MyFord Mobile allows drivers to link up with their cars via an embedded AT&T wireless module that provides remote communication with the car - a multi-year wireless service subscription is included with every Ford electrified vehicle. Among the various features, drivers can log in at any time to check the current state of charge of the lithium-ion battery pack.

MyFord Mobile has evolved since launch, and now features a charging station finder powered by PlugShare.com. In addition to the more than 12,500 public charge stations in the US, PlugShare provides data about private stations, too.

The station finding feature is one of the most frequently used functions of MyFord Mobile.

Johnson Controls is providing its advanced Absorbent Glass Mat (AGM) battery technology to power the start-stop system.

Start-stop technology enables a car’s engine to shut off when the driver comes to a stop or idles.

The AGM battery will power devices during the stop mode and quickly restart the engine when the driver’s foot releases the brake pedal. The technology will increase the 2014 Malibu’s fuel economy by an estimated 5 percent.

“AGM technology is better equipped than traditional batteries to power the deep cycling needed for frequent starts and stops,” said Ray Shemanski, vice president and general manager of the Original Equipment Group for Johnson Controls Power Solutions. “With 5 percent fuel savings, drivers will see immediate economic benefits with start-stop at a competitive price when compared to hybrid and electric vehicles.”

Johnson Controls has sold more than 21 million AGM batteries in Europe since 2001 and now produces more than 4.5 million annually.

The company estimates that more than 80 percent of the new cars built in Europe will include start-stop technology by 2018. Start-stop vehicles are estimated to grow to 40 percent globally and 35 percent in the US. “We offer start-stop technology in some of our European products, but the new Malibu’s start-stop system is the first standard in an automatic car for GM overall,” said Chevrolet spokesman Chad Lyons.

AUG 2013 45

Photos courtesy of BMW Group

THE

FIRSTS LAUNCH OF MANY

By Charles Morris

Dr. Norbert Reithofer, Chairman of the Board of Management of BMW AG (left) and Peter Schwarzenbauer, Member of the Board of Management of BMW AG (right)

hen you’re writing about the dawn of a new industry, “firsts” and “milestones” come along so often that they may start to lose their novelty. However, the BMW i3, which was officially “launched” in July, and is scheduled to go on sale next year, boasts an impressive number of innovations that has the EV press humming like an overloaded transformer.

The i3 is the first EV to offer a range-extending gas engine as an option, and it’s the first vehicle of any kind to make such extensive use of carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP). In addition to its technological innovations, the i3 represents a milestone for the market. It’s the first production EV from any of the upscale German brands, and only the second European EV to go on sale in the US (the first was the smart electric drive).

While Europe would seem to be a perfect market for EVs, in fact American and Japanese automakers have been leading the way. Renault, which has a partnership with Nissan, is doing relatively well with its four electric models, but it’s the German automakers who set the tone in the European market, and the i3 gives that tone an electric edge. If BMW starts moving some electrons, VW and the other Continental carmakers are bound to turn up the voltage too.

That brings us to what we in the plug-in press think of as The Big Question: will the i3 be just another public relations project, or is BMW serious about selling it in substantial volume? At this point, the tea leaves look positive. BMW has created a separate sub-brand, i, just for electric vehicles, and it has said that the i3 will be available at about 300 of its 338 US dealers.

At the i3’s launch party in New York, Charged spoke with Jose Guerrero, the i3’s Product Manager, and Jacob Harb, BMW’s North American Head of EV Operations.

They declined to make any specific sales projections, but said that production capacity will be “in the thousands.”

BMW will start taking reservations at the end of the year, and plans to start deliveries in spring 2014.

The company has a reputation for introducing new models slowly and deliberately, and this certainly seems to be the case with its electrification efforts, which have proceeded in three phases. In 2009, BMW began field tests of the Mini E, a conversion of the Mini Cooper. In January 2012, it launched a trial of the ActiveE, which was based on the BMW 1 Series sedan, leasing 1,100 vehicles to “electronauts” for a three-year period.

The company has applied what it has learned in both of these programs to the i3, which Jacob Harb describes

“

”

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Photos courtesy of BMW Group

We crawled with the Mini E, we walked with the ActiveE and we’ll run with the i.

THE VEHICLES as the company’s breakthrough EV. “We crawled with the Mini E, we walked with the ActiveE and we’ll run with the i,” he said. “We learn every day. The electronauts have now driven over 12.5 million miles worldwide, and they are incredibly vocal.”

Because the i3 was designed as an EV from the beginning, BMW’s engineers were able to make it extremely light - 2,700 lbs, versus 4,000 for the ActiveE. This allowed them to drop the battery size to 22 kWh (compared to the ActiveE’s 32 kWh battery) while offering the same range (around 80-100 miles). This not only saves on weight and cost, but also charging time. The i3 has the same onboard charger as the ActiveE, but can charge in three hours, as opposed to four or five.

In a previous iteration, the i3 was called the Megacity, which gives a clue to its intended habitat. It’s compact, with a shape that allows it to squeeze into urban parking spots but maximizes interior space. It also features a 32-foot turning radius, which “sounds like a number until you try it,” as Jose Guerrero relates. “When you do a

Image courtesy of BMW Group

Every part has been designed to save energy and weight, in order to maximize range.

The Numbers

U-turn, you see how it’s really supposed to be used in a city environment. We were able to do that because of the rear-wheel drive. You don’t have all these components in the front, so the steering is aggressive, and you can whip this car around quickly.”

BMW designed the i3 “from the ground up” to be an EV, and developed most of the components, including the motor, power electronics and battery, either in-house or in cooperation with joint venture partners. Every part has been designed to save energy and weight, in order to maximize range. Energy-saving LED lights are used throughout. An optional heat pump uses up to 30% less energy than conventional electric heating.

2014 BMW i3 Key Stats

Engine 125 kW electric motor

0-62 mph 7.2 second

Power 170 hp / 184 lb-ft torque

Top speed 93 mph (electronically limited)

Drivetrain Rear-wheel drive Transmission Single-speed Battery 22 kWh, liquid-cooled/ heated Li-ion battery EPA combined/city/hwy Not yet rated Range 80-100 miles

Curb weight 2,634 lbs Base price $42,275 (before $7,500 federal and various state tax credits) Warranty 8 yr/100k on battery, 4 yr/50k on everything else

AUG 2013 49

The i3’s lithium-ion battery consists of eight modules, each with 12 individual cells, and produces 360 V and 22 kWh of energy. It’s possible to replace individual modules in the event of a fault. The battery pack sits at the bottom of the chassis, which improves handling and frees up interior space. The AC coolant also cools the battery, and can be warmed using a heat exchanger, keeping the battery at its optimum operating temperature of around 20° C. Both the battery and passenger compartment can be preconditioned before a journey begins, while still connected to the grid.

REx The optional range extender is a 650 cc two-cylinder gas engine that is mounted next to the electric motor above the rear axle. The 25 kW/34 hp engine increases the car’s maximum range to around 180 miles. This is an interesting turnabout - while Toyota and Ford offer

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The 25 kW/34 hp engine increases the car’s maximum range to around 180 miles.

hybrid models with the option to plug in, BMW offers a pure EV with the option to add a bottle of dinosaur juice as a sort of security blanket, or what Jacob Harb calls “training wheels for the consumer that’s on the fence.”

How many consumers will feel they need the training wheels is unknown, but BMW’s production line is flexible enough to build i3s with or without the range extender, according to demand.

The range extender has no effect on luggage capacity (the nine-liter fuel tank is located in the front section of the car) and BMW spokesmen assured us that it doesn’t

Images courtesy of BMW Group

THE VEHICLES

hurt the car’s The range performance.

Apparently that extender and motor a full gas tank little can produce energy to add a mere 450 enough maintain the same lbs and $3,850 acceleration and speed while to the equation. top in range-extended

mode. However, the addition of the extra weight does reduce the specs a bit, adding another seven tenths to the i3’s 0-62 mph time, and dropping electric range by 10%.

Jose Guerrero explained why BMW chose to offer the range extender instead of a larger battery. “Ninety percent of Americans drive less than 30-35 miles a day. We know that from our Mini E studies. Why do people want bigger batteries? Because of range anxiety. What happens when

we add more batteries? More weight, more cost.” The range extender and a full gas tank add a mere 450 lbs and $3,850 to the equation. DC fast charging, which can deliver an 80% charge in 20 minutes, is another treatment for range anxiety, and Guerrero expects it to be a more popular option than the range extender. A majority of the electronauts that tested the ActiveE said they would rather have DC fast charging.

LifeDrive The i3 uses a new architecture called LifeDrive, which is similar in principle to a body-on-frame design. The car consists of two horizontally separate modules: the aluminum Drive module (aka the chassis) incorporates the battery and drive system, while the Life module (aka the passenger compartment) is made of carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP). This high-tech material is a big part of the i’s lightweight design strategy.

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AUG 2013 51

Engineering Notes Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic TIME IS MONEY The carbon fiber raw material for the BMW i3 is produced at a plant in Moses Lake in Washington state, which is operated by the BMW Group and its joint venture partner, the SGL Group. In a complex multi-stage process, the constituent elements of the fiber are removed by gasification, leaving a virtually pure carbon fiber just seven microns thick. About 50,000 of these individual filaments are bundled into so-called rovings or heavy tows, and wound on reels, which are sent to the plant in Wackersdorf, Germany, for processing into lightweight carbon fiber laminates.

At the CFRP press shops in Landshut and Leipzig - where BMW is already producing other CFRP parts, such as the roofs for the M3 and M6 - the carbon fiber laminates are processed into body parts. At the initial “preforming” stage, the pre-cut carbon fiber laminate begins to acquire a shape. During this process a heat source is used to give a fabric stack a stable, three-dimensional form. Several of these preformed stacks can then be joined to form a larger component. In this way, CFRP can be used to produce components with a large surface area that would be difficult to manufacture from aluminum or sheet steel.

Preforming and preform joining are followed by a high-pressure resin injection process called resin transfer molding. As the fibers and the resin bond, the material acquires the rigidity that is the key to its special qualities.

Until now, CFRP body compartments have been manufactured only for special vehicles such as racers and extravagant individual sports cars. Production costs are of minor importance for these small quantities. The curing time for the adhesive bonds can be more than one day. To minimize this time for mass production of the i3, BMW has greatly accelerated this curing process.

A newly developed adhesive can now be processed for only 90 seconds before developing adhesion following application to a component. Half an hour later it is hard, a tenfold acceleration of the traditional bonding process. In order to further reduce the curing time to a few minutes, BMW has developed an additional thermal process that involves additional heating of specific adhesion points to further accelerate the curing process by a factor of 32.

The new CFRP press shop has little in common with a conventional sheet-steel press facility - it boasts a leaner production structure which is reflected in lower costs. For example, costs are significantly reduced by the fact that a conventional paint shop and cataphoretic immersion priming are not required. The new production process brings enormous time savings, and makes it feasible to mass-produce large CFRP components, with newly formed parts leaving the press in less than 10 minutes.

Even complex assemblies like the entire side frame for the i3’s Life module leave the facility with many structural elements already integrated.

BMW is already using some CFRP parts in select models, and representatives indicated that it’s possible the leaner processes could lead to wider use in many more vehicles. However, the use of CFRP in electric vehicles is particularly cost-effective, because the reduction in weight can be offset by a reduction in the size of the battery pack, which is also expensive.

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THE VEHICLES CFRP components are around 50% lighter than steel components with comparable properties. According to BMW, CFRP is the lightest material that can be used in the construction of car bodies without compromising on safety. The low weight and high rigidity of CFRP allowed the i3’s designers to dispense with B-pillars, so they used opposing “coach” doors in order to give easier access to the two rows of seats. The i requires no central tunnel, which opens up even more interior space.

CFRP has other benefits. It saves time and costs on the production line, and it can be repaired more quickly than metal. As Jacob Harb explains, “you don’t rebend anything; you just replace a module.”

Of course, the main point of CFRP is to save weight.

Designing any EV involves tradeoffs among battery capacity, weight and range. Range can be extended by increasing battery size, but that adds weight and harms performance. Similarly, a more powerful motor and power electronics require more energy, which again means heavier batteries or restricted range. A lightweight body, on the other hand, enhances performance, and the weight savings can be “invested” in larger batteries which, in turn, boost the car’s range.

Thanks to the aggressive weight-saving measures, the i3 is no heavier than a comparable ICE vehicle with a full fuel tank. The motor weighs just 50 kg, and the battery 230 kg. The lightweighting imperative extends to such components as the door trim panels (10% lighter than conventional equivalents), aluminum screws and bolts, and even the windshield wiper blades, which use a honeycomb structure to save weight.

Regeneration The i3 features what BMW calls a single-pedal control concept. The moment the driver eases off on the accelerator, the electric motor switches from drive to generator mode, and produces a precisely controllable braking effect. The regeneration is speed-sensitive, which means the car “coasts” with maximum efficiency at high speeds and generates a strong braking effect at low speeds. According to BMW, this creates a very direct interaction between driver and car, and an attentive driver can carry out 75 percent of braking maneuvers without touching the brake pedal. “Once you spend an hour in the car, it becomes a game,” says Jacob Harb.

“Can I get away without using the brake at all?” The friction brakes are activated only when the driver really

AUG 2013 53

Photo courtesy of BMW Group

stomps on the pedal. The system is even smart enough to illuminate the brake lights when the amount of regeneration crosses a certain threshold.

Connectivity Naturally, the i3 includes the latest and greatest connectivity and driving assistance features. An integrated SIM card and extensive smartphone integration via USB and Bluetooth allow drivers to share information with their car at any time. The i3 is in constant wireless contact with BMW’s servers, transmitting data about the battery and other electrical systems, and receiving up-to-the-moment navigation data.

The navigation system has a dynamic range display that considers several factors and gives drivers a continually updated range estimate. If the destination programmed into the navigation system is beyond the car’s range, the Range Assistant will suggest switching to the energysaving Eco Pro or Eco Pro+ mode, and calculate a more efficient route. The AC and heating, which also condition the battery pack, can be activated remotely. The Driving Assistant Plus option includes Active Cruise Control and Collision Warning with braking function. The Parking Assistant option enables fully automatic parallel parking.

Sustainability BMW has gone to great lengths to insure that the i3’s materials, production process, supply chain and recycling all adhere to sustainable principles. The production of the BMW i3 consumes around 50 percent less energy and 70 percent less water compared to other BMW models.

The carbon fiber plant in Moses Lake is run entirely on hydroelectric power, and the Leipzig assembly plant is powered by on-site wind turbines. Taking all this into consideration, BMW says the i3’s carbon footprint is around a third smaller than that of the BMW 118d, which was named World Green Car of the Year in 2008.

Charging BMW will offer “white glove” installation of its Wallbox home charger, and installation costs can be rolled into the financing. In public, the ChargeNow card enables universal access to charging poles and provides a cashless means of payment. It allows customers to use charging stations operated by different providers with a single card and receive a single standardized invoice from BMW i.

BMW is one of the partners in the Hubject joint venture, which is working to create a true roaming capability for EVs throughout Europe (see our article on Hubject on page 82).

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Photo courtesy of BMW Group

Ride and Drive To date, only a handful of journalists have driven the i3, on an airfield outside of Munich.

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The BMW has some mighty clever tricks to extend its range. Most of them revolve around lightness and reduced resistance to the air, and so you feel them the moment you drive. It’s ruddy sprightly too. With a high-torque 170 bhp motor and a power flow uninterrupted by gear changes, it’s at 62 mph in 7.2 seconds. The addictive thing is the instant and proportional answer you get whenever you twitch your right foot. It has an astoundingly tight turning circle, another feather in the cap of a car that’ll be driven a lot in cities.

Speaking of which, the high driving position and great visibility are also feelgood assets for threading yourself among tight traffic. And for parking, you’ll be glad it’s supermini-short. But there’s decent room for four people inside.

Paul Horrell, topgear.com

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If you try to make the i3 live up to the well-honed definition of “Ultimate Driving Machine,” you are categorically missing the entire point of the i3. We can expect that character of the i8 and other future sportier products from BMW i, but items such as the i3 are all about heading down the road in premiumbuilt style and comfort while minimizing your carbon footprint more than anyone else around you. And doing so with the latest high tech.

Still, by stressing this age-old tagline of promised dynamism for the i3, albeit with an intended newer meaning, BMW is doing the i3 a disservice...The i3 is good at so many other things, the things you would expect from a green-thinking EV or e-hybrid from a German engineering-focused company’s fresh little brand. The i3 fits better with the tagline “Pure Driving Pleasure,” or with the new generic umbrella, “Designed for Driving Pleasure.”

Matt Davis, autoblog.com

THE VEHICLES Shaking up the market A couple of pundits have pontificated that competition from the i3 spells trouble for established EV sellers Nissan, GM and Tesla. BMW’s new offering is definitely going to stir things up, and give each of those three a kick in the pants, but it feels more like a model that fills a gap in the market, rather than one that directly competes with existing models.

Tesla’s Model S is a luxury sedan with a price tag way north of the i3’s, so there’s no head-to-head match-up there. However, BMW has another ace up its sleeve, the i8, a futuristic, performance-oriented PHEV that just might give Model S a run for its money. It’s scheduled to debut at the Frankfurt Auto Show in September, and arrive in showrooms in early 2014, around the same time as the i3. However, it’s planned as a low-volume car, with a much higher price point than the i3.

The LEAF and the i3 have roughly similar form factors (actually the i3 is a bit smaller, and seats only four), and few would dispute that the i3 is a snazzier ride. You’d

Changing the way consumers think about EVs Qualcomm is redefining the way EVs are charged with its Qualcomm Halo™ Wireless EV Charging technology.

WEVC untethers the EV from unwieldy cables and delivers a little and often charging solution for anytime – anywhere wireless charging. qualcommhalo.com

expect a BMW to have a higher price tag than a Nissan, and you’d be right - the LEAF has an MSRP of $28,800 to $34,840 depending on the model, and that’s far enough below the i3’s $42,275 to make it unlikely that the i3 will be poaching very many of the LEAF’s customers.

The same logic applies to the Chevrolet Volt. The 2014 Volt has an MSRP of $34,995, whereas the i3 with the REx option carries a starting price of $45,200. Besides, the two cars look and feel very different, and they’re just not being marketed to the same type of buyers. The i3 is an electric city car, and a Volt is for people who want an EV, but need to have the capability to take long trips, something that the i3, even with the REx, is not designed to do.

All of this is excellent news for consumers. Different car buyers have very different sets of needs and wants, and EVs are really going to take off only when there are enough different models available to fill the various niches. When the i3 goes on sale, that day will be a whole lot closer.

Pl

FL small challenges,

HUGE

SAVINGS Four plug-in truck companies talk to fleet managers about electrification opportunities

By Michael Kent

lug-in Photo courtesy of Boulder Electric Vehicle

LEETS P

lug-in vehicles are different. Aside from the obvious changes in technology, they present a different financial model for corporate number crunchers. This means some challenges for those pitching EVs and PHEVs to fleet operators.

Fortunately for the EV industry and the fleets of the future, the carrot is so big, and the business case for plug-ins is so clear, that the right heads are beginning to come together, and the electric fleet market is taking shape.

Cha-ching, one electric mile at a time “Which is a better deal, a free printer or free ink?” David West of VIA Motors asked the audience. “You can spend two to three times a vehicle’s cost on gasoline today. So it’s not about the printer, it’s about the ink. You should be more worried about what fuel you’re going to buy for the next eight years rather than what vehicle you get a discount on.”

VIA Motors is in the process of ramping up production of its PHEV pickup trucks. VTRUX, as the company calls them, operate much like a Chevrolet Volt - they’re fully

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told the room. “It doesn’t say that on the window sticker. It says what you get when you use it like a gas-electric hybrid all the time. It doesn’t say the MPG normal people get when they charge it every day.”

His point was to illustrate the potential of PHEV technology that might not be so clear to the casual observer. VIA has found in their pilot projects that the typical VTRUX driver runs on electricity about 80 percent of the time, and only consumes gasoline the other 20 percent. Since electrically-driven miles are considerably cheaper than gas-powered miles, this is the most obvious benefit of plugging in a fleet.

The more fuel a vehicle uses, the better the case for switching to EVs. For large fleets of medium- and heavy-

Photo courtesy of VIA Motors. By Terrence Taylor.

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electric until the batteries run You can spend out of juice, then a gas generator in. two to three times kicks In 2012, West drove his Chevy a vehicle’s cost on Volt 15,000 miles and used 28 gallons of gas. “That turned into gasoline today. about 530 miles per gallon,” he

In June, four electric truck companies (VIA Motors, Boulder Electric Vehicle, Smith Electric Vehicles and Motiv Power Systems) came together at the Alternative Clean Transportation Expo to talk to fleet managers about the lessons they’ve learned. They told the crowd that clearing a couple of adoption hurdles will lead to great rewards.

THE VEHICLES duty trucks, the switch is very appealing, because they consume a ton of fuel in their lifetime, with very low MPG ratings compared to passenger vehicles.

Jim Castelaz, CEO of the electric powertrain firm Motiv Power Systems, asked the audience to think of

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You should be more worried about what fuel you’re going to buy for the next eight years rather than what vehicle you get a discount on.

a fuel bill as an investment, an asset, rather than something that you have to burn away every year. “As you look forward at your two- to five-year horizons, think about how all this money you’re spending on fuel could be an investment,” he said.

The problem is, at this point, EVs and PHEVs are more expensive up front. In the long run, they’ll save fleets big money, but the challenge is to effectively convey that fact.

Castelaz explored a few different scenarios of delivery routes running on gas versus electric. He looked at an 8-10 mile per day route, a 120-150 mile per day route, and one that varied between 50 and 150 miles per day.

The initial investment and fuel cost figures he presented painted a clear picture of the potential for lifetime savings and the associated payback period.

The bottom line for all-electric routes: long and consistent daily routes are the best suited. The 120-150 mile per day route showed a payback of 3.5 years, with a seven-year savings of about $75,000. “If you make an investment in batteries, you have to use them to get the payback,” said Castelaz. “So route consistency is important.”

The electric vehicles in these examples were all built with “right-sized” batteries, which means the size of each battery pack was chosen specifically for the given route.

Motiv’s expertise is in software and control - it doesn’t build the vehicle, or even the whole powertrain. The company makes a control system that can be used in all sorts of medium- and heavy-duty vehicles that are economical to electrify. From shuttle buses to garbage trucks, Motiv’s control system allows builders to put in as many batteries as needed in each individual case.

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AUG 2013 61

Photo courtesy of VIA Motors. By Terrence Taylor.

Adding up the savings “It’s a tool, not a Tesla,” said Carter Brown, CEO of Boulder Electric Vehicle. “Our vehicles are designed to save a fleet money. There needs to be an economic case for it.” Over the life of the trucks, Boulder predicts some customers will see savings well north of $100,000.

Brett Gipe of Smith Electric Vehicles reports similar savings potential. The company’s early customers are finding the reduction in fuel and maintenance costs to be about 75-80 percent compared to traditional trucks. “It’s pretty significant savings,” said Gipe.

Frito-Lay, Smith’s biggest customer, has said it plans to buy EVs for about 50 percent of fleet purchases over the next ten years. With a delivery fleet of its scale, the snack company is projecting to save some serious cash by switching to electric - tens of millions of dollars.

After pilot programs, operators of VIA Motors’ pickup trucks also see leaner fleets in their futures. Pacific Gas & Electric, for example, has about 3,000 trucks in its fleet. If the utility company replaced them all with VIA’s PHEVs, it would save millions of dollars each year in fuel costs.

Beyond fuel savings Early adopters of electric fleet vehicles are seeing an ROI that extends beyond savings on fuel. EVs require less maintenance, which also means less downtime for each vehicle. Staples, which operates some of Smith’s trucks, reports that brake pads and rotors are lasting four times longer, because of the regenerative braking process. In addition to a 74 percent reduction in fuel costs, the office supply company has found a 72 percent reduction in preventive maintenance costs.

Companies like Frito-Lay are also seeing revenue per route go up with electric vehicles. The trucks aren’t as noisy as their diesel counterparts, so they can deliver in off-peak hours in areas where they were previously restricted by ordinances that limit noise at night and early in the morning.

Driver feedback has been phenomenal. EV truck operators love the lack of noise, vibration and fumes.

Staples has added electric-powered roll-up doors on some of its Smith-built trucks, and reports eight more stops per route. The new doors are quicker, and don’t require

a tool, “It’s not a Tesla. ”

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Photo courtesy of Boulder Electric Vehicle

THE VEHICLES

the driver to reach up to grab the door, eliminating some potential injuries.

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energy feed. “That is a size that a utility will look at and really want to manage,” said Brown. “We think it will go towards frequency regulation, so the power companies don’t have to build new power plants to have steady reserves. When you can take a FedEx or UPS station and give it up to 3 MW on tap 12 hours a day, all of a sudden you don’t have to have that spinning reserve.”

Brown suggests that for extremely fast incremental frequency response, around six seconds at a time, the demand charge might be as high as 5 or 10 dollars per kWh. “Once high power is there - 60 kW, 100 kW, 200 kW - with a depot of 50 trucks that becomes incredibly economically valuable.”

Smith also thinks fleets that spend long and predictable amounts of time off the road could play a critical role on the grid. “If you look at something like the school bus market, there is a perfect opportunity for vehicles that are sitting for three months during the summer,” said Gipe.

Once high power is there - 60 kW, 100 kW, 200 kW - with a depot of 50 trucks that becomes incredibly economically valuable.

Power out The energy storage capabilities of these vehicles are also being exploited to add value for customers.

VIA’s trucks have a built-in power export capability that allows drivers to use 110 V or 220 V for things like tools and local backup power. VIA is also working on a vehicleto-grid (V2G) solution to help utility companies restore power during outages. With portable power in the field, these intermittent problems could be solved faster than ever before.

The builders of all-electric trucks think large centralized fleets of vehicles with big battery packs will present a valuable tool to utility companies. Boulder Electric Vehicle has demonstrated a turnkey V2G solution with its trucks and a Coritech Services DC fast charging system capable of 60 kW bidirectional

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Photo courtesy of Georgia National Guard

“They could charge at night during off-peak hours and sell back to the grid during the day. It could change the whole ROI on those systems.”

For military operations, vehicles that can export power could be a game changer for things like weapon systems and power for critical facilities during an outage. A lot of military bases are trying to become autonomous, completely off the grid, for security purposes. Coupling the energy-storing capabilities of EVs with the installation of solar and wind generation is a great way to achieve that.

to the grid. Using that energy to displace gas or diesel instead could significantly shorten the payback period of the investment.

For example, it’s not uncommon to generate wind power at a cost of about $0.20 per kWh and sell the excess power at night to the grid at an off-peak rate as low as $0.04 per kWh. If that energy were stored in vehicles, it could be used during the day to displace $4-per-gallon gasoline. Depending on the efficiency of the vehicle, buying gas can be the equivalent of paying up to $0.50 per kWh, so the renewable-energyinvestment math begins to look a lot more attractive.

Organizations that have large solar and wind installations could pay them off in five years rather than 25 years.

Using [renewable] energy to displace gas or diesel instead could significantly shorten the payback period of the investment.

Rewriting renewable ROI Large renewable installations typically have excess capacity at random parts of the day, so they sell it back

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THE VEHICLES in with a whole team and sit down with each department to walk them through what electrification is going to look like. “We have to be really engaged with detailed information for everyone, from finance and treasury to facilities, drivers and technicians.”

Over the past few years, Smith has learned some valuable lessons and developed solutions that it’s now applying to new customers. “In the beginning, working with the infrastructure was a challenge we didn’t expect,” said Gipe. “Now we have partnerships in place, so that customers don’t have to do anything besides look at a proposal. We work with the contractors and utilities to help them negotiate things like facility assessments.”

“Another thing that we’ve learned is to make sure that route review is done on 100 percent of the vehicles that we launch. We use a data logger that is like a GPS on steroids. We’ll put it on a regular route truck, with a technician that will ride around all day and take notes.

The logger data is sent to our engineers to develop a worst-case scenario, and recommend the right size battery for each and every route.”

Photo courtesy of FedEx

A group effort With clear financial advantages to plugging in, the question becomes: How do we effectively pitch it to the world’s fleet operators?

First, there are capital budget constraints. If you can buy two or three conventional vehicles instead of one electric, that can be a tough pill to swallow. Organizations need to think three to five years ahead in their budget plans, and not just year to year. To accomplish that, plug-in vehicle builders need to spend a lot of time with potential customers - at the highest levels - so everybody understands what it takes to have these vehicles in the fleet.

Smith has found that “everyone is interested, but the reality is that it’s difficult to convert them from the way things have been done for a long time,” Gipe explained.

“We realized that we have to get much deeper than just the fleet management folks in an organization.”

Smith uses a process it calls the Electrification & Transportation Achievement (ETA) system. When a company expresses interest in engaging, Smith will come

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Photo courtesy of Motiv Power Systems

Electric leasing “If you look at some of the big fleet managers out in To get around the capital constraints of some companies’ California, they’re finding twice the value at auction for budgets, plug-in truck builders are beginning to offer standard hybrids over typical gas models,” said West. He attractive leasing options. In many cases, the budget believes the market for used PHEVs will be even stronger. previously used for diesel fuel can be allocated to the “If you were buying a four-year-old vehicle at auction, leasing company, and the truck is basically free. which would you rather have, a 12 MPG van with the VIA Motors, for example, is offering an eight-year warranty up, or a 100 MPG van that has four years left on lease model on its vehicles. “The savings are definitely the warranty?” there,” said West. “It’s about finding the right financial As for battery life, all four companies report a gradual model, and part of that is getting the leasing companies capacity fade of around 20 percent after ten years, a to understand the durable life and residual value of these variable that can easily be accounted for through things vehicles.” like proper pack sizing.

If you were buying a four-yearWest believes that there There are many fleets old vehicle at auction, which has been a fundamental that will just change misunderstanding of a the route for the older would you rather have, a 12 battery’s durable life. “Early all-electric vehicles, MPG van with the warranty up, on, reporters would ask, sweating the asset down or a 100 MPG van that has four ‘what’s your warranty on for many years. There is years left on the warranty? the battery?’ We would tell also inherent value in the them eight years, and then batteries for a second life, they would ask how much a replacement costs, assuming perhaps for grid storage or data center backup. that you had to replace it after the warranty is over. The Motiv supplies systems for final-stage manufacturers typical warranty on an engine is four years. Do you that also offer leasing options. Also, the company is replace it after that? No. We don’t anticipate the batteries working with a battery manufacturer that offers battery coming out of these vehicles.” leasing programs. By combining a vehicle and battery Because the industry is so young, there is still a bit lease, a supplier could put together a unique financial of uncertainty about how to define a plug-in’s residual package for companies that are averse to making the value at the end of the lease term. The problem is that initial capital investments. Battery leasing could also there isn’t a history of resale value yet. However, many allow an electric truck operator to replace the pack every indicators point towards EVs and PHEVs retaining a five years with the next generation of smaller, lighter, high value. cheaper batteries - another attractive advantage.

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THE VEHICLES Full speed ahead Plug-in fleet vehicles are a bit of a sophisticated purchase.

You’ve got to think about the ink and the printer. The advantages are huge, yet a little nuanced. Luckily, fleet operators are good at making complex evaluations, so it’s full speed ahead for these four EV companies.

Photo courtesy of Motiv Power Systems

Photo courtesy of VIA Motors. By Terrence Taylor.

VIA Motors has about 50 vehicles built and deployed in various pilot programs. 200 more are going out this summer as part of a DOE ARRA-backed initiative with the Electric Power Research Institute. The company is building about 2,000 vehicles this year to give to partner fleets, and has plans to deploy about 20,000 more over the next two years.

Photo courtesy of Boulder Electric Vehicle

Boulder Electric Vehicle has been gradually ramping up production since its launch in 2008. “We’ve gone from one a year, to one a month, to one a week, and by the end of the year we’ll be at one a day,” said Brown. “By the end of next year we’ll be between five and ten a day.”

Motiv Power Systems uses the ship-through model of production, similar to what is done for many natural gas trucks. It takes a truck platform from an OEM and works with final-stage modifiers to install the electric powertrain. “Our school bus partner does seven vehicles per day, and our shuttle bus partner does six a day,” said Castelaz. “For us it’s a matter of producing electronics, and that’s a very easy thing to manufacture and scale.”

Photo by Alex Nunez

Smith Electric Vehicles has a little over 700 vehicles on the road with its new generation of lithium-ion technology. Frito-Lay, Smith’s largest partner, has over three million miles on its trucks, and Smith’s entire fleet has surpassed the five-million-mile mark.

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CURRENTevents

ClipperCreek has introduced a new charger that it says is the highest-power EV charging station currently available. The new CS-100-3P is a 30 kW, 80 Amp, three-phase charger. Like ClipperCreek’s existing CS-100 (19 kW, 80 Amps, single phase), it is aimed at commercial truck applications.

The new three-phase unit exceeds the SAE-J1772 standard power range, but it retains the SAE-J1772 communications protocol to allow customers to adjust supply current ratings to meet their specific needs. It is designed to let fleet operators charge their electric trucks in a fraction of the time required by existing EVSE. “We saw a need for higher power charging to help expand the fleet and allow our customers to minimize their utility cost,” said David Packard, President of ClipperCreek. “We determined that higher power charging could actually help with the impact on the utility bill by increasing the flexibility of our customers as to when they charge instead of having to charge at every possible moment. Now our customers can work with utilities to determine the best time to charge and are no longer forced to charge right through peak demand times.”

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With the introduction of its new CT4000 series of charging stations, ChargePoint seeks to address two issues: the cost of installation and the growing demand for charging spots.

The CT4000’s power sharing feature allows a single circuit to power a dual-port station, so that operators can double the number of charging locations without increasing installation costs. Other features include a self-retracting, lightweight cord and a color LCD screen that allows station owners to run video content of their choice.

“The electric vehicle market is accelerating at an incredible rate and electric vehicle infrastructure needs to not only pace that growth, but stay ahead of it,” said ChargePoint CEO Pat Romano. “The CT4000 Series changes the equation by offering more charging ports at every station while dramatically cutting installation costs. The CT4000 is truly a customercentric EV charging station. Its creation is the result of understanding the needs of both drivers and station owners alike.”

The ChargePoint network includes over 12,000 charging locations in a dozen countries. Its cloud service supports a range of hardware from other manufacturers in addition to its own models, and gives charging station owners control of billing, access control, remote driver support and usage statistics.

Photo courtesy of ChargePoint

ClipperCreek introduces high-power truck charger

ChargePoint launches new CT4000 series EVSE

THE INFRASTRUCTURE ABB to build fast charging network in the Netherlands

Japan’s automakers work together on infrastructure

Image courtesy of ABB

Fastned, a Dutch operator of EV charging stations, has chosen Switzerland-based ABB to build an extensive network of fast chargers in the Netherlands.

Once completed, the 200+ station network will put all 16.7 million Dutch residents within 50 kilometers of a charging station.

Photo courtesy of NissanEV (flickr)

Toyota, Nissan, Honda and Mitsubishi have announced a new agreement to work together to promote the installation of EV chargers in Japan, and to make the country’s charging network more convenient and accessible.

At the moment, Japan has around 3,000 standard chargers and 1,700 quick chargers, which is generally considered insufficient, according to a press release issued by the four companies.

Coordination among existing charging providers could also be improved to offer better charging services to customers.

The agreement identifies three categories of charging: basic charging at homes or workplaces; destination charging at locations such as shopping malls and restaurants; and en-route charging at locations such as expressway service areas. The companies propose to deploy 8,000 more standard chargers and 4,000 more quick chargers, the latter to be installed at en-route charging spots.

Assisted by Japanese government subsidies of some 100.5 billion yen (around $1 billion!) for fiscal year 2013, the four automakers will bear part of the cost to install the charging facilities. Each prefecture in Japan is currently making plans for the use of the subsidies.

The new agreement will also increase collaboration among charging providers in which each automaker has already invested (Japan Charge Network, Charging Network Development and Toyota Media Service) to create a more convenient charging network. Paralleling the efforts of Collaboratev in the US and Hubject in Europe, the Japanese automakers want to enable drivers to charge their EVs at any charging spot with the same card.

Each station will feature a solar canopy, and will be equipped with several of ABB’s multi-standard fast chargers, such as the 50 kW Terra 52 and Terra 53 models, which allow EVs to be charged in as little as 15 to 30 minutes. The first chargers are due to be delivered in September, and construction of the stations is expected to be completed by 2015.

“Fastned chose ABB for its proven expertise in deploying and managing nationwide EV charging networks,” said ABB CEO Ulrich Spiesshofer. “ABB provides the chargers and industry-leading software solutions for remote servicing as well as connectivity to subscriber management and payment systems.”

ABB deployed a similar charging network in Estonia last year, which features an open standardsbased cloud connectivity solution to handle payments and access.

The Netherlands’ plan to deploy fast charging stations started in 2011 when Fastned asked the Ministry of Infrastructure for permission to implement an EV charging network. The government announced a public-tender process to facilitate the deployment of chargers at 245 service stations along Dutch highways, and Fastned was awarded concessions for 201 locations.

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AUG 2013 69

THE INFRASTRUCTURE OnStar and TimberRock partner on solar charging

Image courtesy of GM

GM and TimberRock have announced a partnership to combine OnStar software with TimberRock’s solar canopies, allowing for the management and storage of solar energy using electric vehicle fleets.

TimberRock will use OnStar’s aggregation software to monitor the output of its solar charging stations, how much stored energy is available, and at what times during the day it can sell energy back to the grid during peak demand. TimberRock will use its fleet of Chevrolet Volts to regulate energy flow.

“The future of electric vehicle charging will be a marriage of renewable energy and battery storage as we look to address the intermittency of renewable solar and wind power,” said Rob Threlkeld, GM’s manager of renewable energy.

OnStar’s technology allows TimberRock to start, stop, and modulate the amount of charge going to a particular Volt, enabling the charging system to match the level of energy needed by the grid. The software determines when EVs can be used to transmit power back into the grid.

This technology could be used to offer consumers financial benefits in exchange for allowing a company to manage the charging of their EVs. Paul Pebbles, GM’s global manager of Smart Grid and EV Services, notes, “Down the line, this could really incentivize solar charging for EV drivers. This opens the door for solutions like this to be brought to the public, which could increase the benefits of owning an electric vehicle.”

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An Israeli court has approved the sale of bankrupt Better Place’s assets to a consortium led by solar energy pioneer Yosef Abramowitz, also known as Captain Sunshine. The group also includes Canadian investment banker Henry Shiner, and the non-profit EV Drivers Association.

It will pay 18 million shekels ($4.9 million) for Better Place’s Israeli assets, and will also pay 25 million shekels for the intellectual property of Better Place Switzerland, Abramowitz told Reuters.

The new owners plan to open the company’s network to different EV models, and give it a new name. Abramowitz said that his group has secured 25 percent of the funds needed to operate the company for the next two years, and is seeking new investment of as much as $36 million. The group plans to retain 50 of the company’s employees.

Abramowitz is the cofounder and president of Arava Power, which built a 4.95 MW solar field at Kibbutz Ketura two years ago.

Noam Grissel of the EV Drivers Association said that the company should break even on its investment in 18-24 months. “Our vision is to transform the charging network into an open, national technology and service platform for all current and future electric vehicles. We look forward to Israelis soon driving and charging Teslas and other electric vehicles that will save money for both drivers and government, fight climate change and keep our air clean.”

“We are committed to maintaining the 2,000 charging spots and basic battery swap services for all current and future EV drivers in Israel,” said Efi Shahak, co-chairman of the new company.

While a number of the battery swapping stations unique to the Renault Fluence ZE will remain open, Abramowitz said that battery-charging infrastructure will be capable of working with other electric vehicles, and that the charging grid will eventually be powered by renewable energy sources.

Photo courtesy of 246-You (flickr)

Captain Sunshine buys assets of Better Place

Fuji Electric’s New 25kW DC Quick Charger for Electric Vehicles Reinvented in the New Year Featuring a Slimmer Profile to Suit More Locations and Applications

Fuji Electric’s 25kW DC Quick Charging Station has a reputation for helping station owners minimize utility costs; now it features a sleeker design to save them valuable space, too.

EV owners will continue to enjoy the benefits of our cutting edge power electronics technology and convenient payment systems.

The ability to recharge quickly and economically gives electric vehicle owners the reassurance they need to guarantee the continued success of the EV market. As a Global Leader with over 300 DC Quick Charging stations installed worldwide, we have the capability to support both charging and payment systems that promote the growth of EV infrastructure.

Some say downsizing is a negative… we disagree.

Learn more at (201) 490-3914 www.americas.fujielectric.com

WHAT’S NEXT FOR THE ELECTRIC HIGHWAY?

Plug-in electric vehicles are at a crossroads.

September 30 – October 3, 2013 San Diego Convention Center San Diego, California USA

Sales are accelerating, but questions remain about technology costs, market evolution, consumer education and infrastructure development. At Plug-In 2013, we will discuss, debate and, ultimately, answer these questions.

• Join us for real-world reporting as we analyze how best to move forward using the data collected over the last three years.

• Secure your spot on our diverse exposition floor to connect with and develop long-term relationships with decision-makers who drive the vehicle and infrastructure markets.

It’s all here at Plug-In 2013 – the international gathering of automakers, utilities, EVSE and other component manufacturers, policymakers and key stakeholders – so mark your calendars now!

Bookmark www.plugin2013.com for continuing details.

ORGANIZER

REGIONAL SUPPORTER

THE INFRASTRUCTURE The interaction between smart grids and EVs is expected to be a key part of the transition to electric mobility.

The grid of the future will provide two-way communication between suppliers and consumers, responding to the actions of all users and ensuring efficient, sustainable power systems with low losses and high security.

Promoting common standards in electric mobility and smart grids on both sides of the Atlantic is the goal of the Electric Vehicle-Smart Grid Interoperability Center that was recently inaugurated at the DOE’s Argonne National Laboratory near Chicago. Companion centers will open in the Netherlands and Italy in 2014.

The new centers are the result of a cooperative effort between the JRC, the European Commission’s science service, and the US DOE. It’s all part of the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership currently being negotiated by the EU and the US, which is intended to reduce differences in technical regulations, standards and certifications.

Photo courtesy of Argonne National Laboratory

US-European EV-Smart Grid Interoperability Center opens

The new center will focus on three key areas: • • •

Establishing requirements and test procedures to assess EV-EVSE compatibility; Developing and verifying connectivity technologies, communication protocols and standards; and Identifying gaps where new standards or technologies are needed.

Resonating with

OEMs

the

WiTricity hopes to leverage a wireless energy transfer breakthrough out of MIT into a commercial solution with far-reaching potential

By Michael Kent

74

Photo courtesy of Pulpolux (flcikr)

I

nside a standard electrical transformer are two coils that transfer power wirelessly. They utilize the principle of magnetic induction, sending energy from a primary coil to a secondary coil without a direct electrical connection.

Inductive chargers, like those in electric toothbrushes, operate on this same principle. Alternating electrical current in one coil gives rise to an oscillating magnetic field around it. That field is contained in the “near field,” around the coil, which means it doesn’t propagate out like a radio signal. If you take two such coils and put them very close to each other, you can transfer energy between them using the magnetic field.

Typically, these systems require the coils to be the same size, in close proximity and carefully positioned to operate efficiently, which is why an electric toothbrush comes with a charging dock that keeps the coil in the toothbrush perfectly aligned to the charging coil in the cradle.

In the early 2000s, however, a team of physicists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), led by Professor Marin Soljačić, developed the theoretical basis for transferring power over longer distances using magnetic resonance. Their work centered on using a high degree of resonance to overcome the weak magnetic coupling that results when the coils are separated by distance, or aren’t perfectly aligned or matched in size.

AUG 2013 75

Magnetic coupling coefficient The magnetic coupling coefficient defines how well the magnetic flux of one coil is captured by the second coil. It is predominantly affected by three variables: the relative size of the coils with respect to each other, their alignment and the distance between them.

If you look at the example of a transformer - in which the coils are the same size, very close together and perfectly aligned - a magnetic coupling coefficient very close to one can be achieved. This means almost all the magnetic flux from one coil is coupled into the second.

If you move the coils apart, change the size of one or move one laterally with respect to the other, the coupling coefficient drops very rapidly, from something close to one to something close to zero, and the energy transfer efficiency goes down to an impractical level.

Resonance A second property that determines the efficiency of wireless energy transfer is known as resonance. It’s a phenomenon that occurs in nature in many different forms, and in general involves energy oscillating between two modes.

In wireless power transfer systems designed by WiT-

Since Michael Faraday discovered the principle of magnetic induction in 1831, engineers have developed inductive energy transfer systems with high coupling coefficients

ricity, energy moves between two or more magnetic resonators - devices that store energy oscillating between a magnetic field around the device and an electric field inside the device, while incurring minimal losses.

There are different loss mechanisms that engineers can reduce through careful design.

These losses can arise from the electronic components, materials and wiring used in the system, and from certain types of objects that may be near the devices.

MIT Since Michael Faraday discovered the principle of magnetic induction in 1831, engineers have developed

One example of how resonance can enhance energy transfer is an opera singer performing in a room filled with identical wine glasses, each glass filled with a slightly different amount of wine.

When the singer hits the right note, one of the glasses starts vibrating, deforming and then shatters.

This occurs because the wine glass is a resonator and the singer was coupling energy very effectively into that one glass at its resonant frequency.

The amount of wine in the glass affected its resonant frequency. Because the singer’s voice and that glass were tuned to the same note, only it absorbed enough energy from sound waves in the air to shatter - while the other glasses remained unharmed.

In this example, energy is transferred very efficiently between sound waves in the air and the mechanical vibrations of the glass, at the partially filled wine glass’ resonant frequency.

76

Photo courtesy of Steven Duong (flcikr)

Shattering efficiency

Photo courtesy of Deval Patrick’s Office

THE INFRASTRUCTURE

WiTricity CEO Eric Haynes (left) and Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick (right)

The idea was to use highly resonant devices to overcome weak magnetic coupling, enabling efficient energy transfer over distance even at low coupling levels. inductive energy transfer systems with high coupling coefficients - carefully aligning coils that are well-matched in size with minimal distance between them.

That is, until the 21st century, when a team of physicists from MIT set out to develop a way to transfer power

efficiently over mid-range distances with less dependence on alignment and matching of coil sizes.

The idea was to use highly resonant devices to overcome weak magnetic coupling, enabling efficient energy transfer over distance even at low coupling levels.

The devices are carefully tuned to resonate at the same frequency, and the designs seek to make the systems as lossless as possible.

In other words, the scientists demonstrated, through their new techniques, that energy could be transferred very efficiently over a larger distance, with misaligned and mismatched-sized coils. That had never been seen before - and is proving to have enormous practical applications in many fields.

They refer to the technique as Highly Resonant Wireless Power Transfer (HR-WPT), and in 2007, the team

AUG 2013 77

THE INFRASTRUCTURE published experimental results that proved the validity of their earlier theoretical predictions. That same year, the group from MIT formed WiTricity to commercialize the new technology as the exclusive licensee of the intellectual property. WiTricity is currently working in five vertical markets, including consumer electronics, medical devices, industrial equipment, military applications and (our favorite) automotive.

Technological edge The realm of wireless EV charging is currently seeing a flurry of activity. In the January/February 2013 issue of Charged, we discussed a host of companies working on systems for automotive applications in the article “What’s Up With Wireless.” Among them are systems that use various techniques of wireless energy transfer technology.

WiTricity believes it’s well positioned in the space because of the key attributes of its HR-WPT technology.

David Schatz, VP of sales and business development,

told Charged that other wireless systems that use traditional magnetic induction “will need to be much larger and heavier, or be much closer to the ground to achieve a similar power level and efficiency as an HR-WPT system.

Neither of which the car companies like. They don’t want big heavy things on the car, and they need to have a good ground clearance between the car and a charging source on the ground. We deliver devices that are about 25 by 25 cm and are designed to work over a distance of 10-15 cm, compared to an inductive device of about 80 cm in diameter for the same power level and ground clearance. We know of no way to exchange energy using the magnetic near field at high efficiencies over these distances with devices that are that small, other than with HR-WPT.” In early prototypes and demo vehicles, wireless car charging systems have proven to be only slightly less efficient than typical conductive charging. If you just look at transferring the energy from the pad that’s on the ground

Photos courtesy of Deval Patrick’s Office

WiTricity is currently working in five vertical markets, including consumer electronics, medical devices, industrial equipment, military applications and (our favorite) automotive.

78

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THE INFRASTRUCTURE to the pad attached to the bottom of the car, that efficiency is between 95 and 98 percent. Add to that another 5 or 6 percent loss from the power electronics, and the most efficient wireless systems are around 90 percent efficient end to end.

For a very good conductive charging system, the efficiency is around 95 percent end to end. Because the wire itself is very efficient, most of those losses come from the electronics. However, over time the connectors wear and oxidize, which reduces efficiency a little more.

Schatz said that the OEMs are interested in developing residential systems for the first generation of wirelessly charged vehicles at a power level of 3.3 kW. He thinks we’ll see the first vehicles with wireless charging capabilities, deployed as original equipment by a carmaker, on the roads somewhere around 2016.

By that time, the additional cost of a wireless system is expected to be marginal. The electronics requirements are very similar to that of conductive charging. With careful design, a vehicle could share the cost of many of the components needed for wired and wireless charging. Then, the vehicles would only need the addition of a wireless power receiver (in the case of HR-WPT, this is called a “capture resonator”). At high volume, it should be a very inexpensive option, and in some cases it might even be provided on every vehicle. Customers could then decide if they want to buy a wireless or wired charger for their home, office, and so on.

The road ahead Going forward, WiTricity will remain a technology development, technology transfer and IP licensing firm.

“We do reference designs, prototypes and research.

Then we license the IP to other companies to actually make things,” said Schatz. The company has announced a number of partnerships already, including two tier-one partners: Delphi and IHI, and three automakers: Toyota, Mitsubishi and Audi, which have all publicly shown prototype systems that use HR-WPT. The biggest challenge for wireless car charging is that it’s a new technology in an old industry. Automotive has a very high hurdle for validation and integration.

“All of the technical risk elements - Is it efficient enough? Is it safe for people? Does it comply with regulations for electromagnetic radiation? - those items are either completely checked off or nearly checked off the list,” said Schatz. “What remains is industrialization and integration, which is under way.”

The biggest challenge for wireless car charging is that it’s a new technology in an old industry.

There are also standards gaps that are starting to take shape and will hopefully be filled in sooner rather than later. The car charging industry has a bad taste in its mouth after the conductive charging standards debacle, which cost the carmakers a bundle of money and needless worry. WiTricity is active in the wireless standards discussion and reports that “the community is working very hard to come up with international standards so we can build the same kind of components that will work all over the world.” According to Schatz, “the standards organizations are doing a good job collaborating, and we’re optimistic that we’ll see initial guidelines published by the end of this year.”

It is possible that the carmakers will adopt different wireless charging technologies. Although they are watching each other pretty closely, interoperability could be an issue if “my car won’t charge on your wireless charging pad.”

However, the first use-case, or application, for wireless charging that the OEMs will target is residential. You’ll buy a car from the dealer with a wireless charging mat in the trunk, go home, put the mat down on your garage floor and plug it in - with little opportunity to use charging systems from other manufacturers. So, while it’s possible that in the very first generation not all systems will work together, it might not be an issue for consumers.

The initial set of guidelines will probably only define international standards for safety and performance, and may not fully define interoperability. The theory is that because the technology is so young, there needs to be some room for innovation.

However, before any sort of public charging infrastructure takes hold, there will certainly need to be interoperability standards that define communications, electromagnetic properties, frequency, the nature of the resonator, etc. Both Schatz and WiTricity hope those definitions lean towards HR-WPT technology. Depending on which automaker debuts what technology, they just might. In the end, however, it’s possible that a few different wireless charging topologies may take hold.

AUG 2013 81

CONNECTING

Europe’s

Charging

Networks

C By or sM rle

ha r is

M

any have posed the question of why the EV market in Europe has lagged behind the market in the US, considering the Continent’s higher fuel prices and strong green tradition.

While there are several plausible answers, on closer examination the question itself makes little sense, because in fact there is no European EV market, but rather 50 national markets, some of which (Norway) have seen spectacular EV sales, while some (Greece) have, to the best of our knowledge, seen none at all.

In many ways Europe grows more integrated every year, but for the auto industry, the fragmented nature of the market remains a major headache. While the US EV scene does have some major regional challenges (as Arizona LEAF drivers can attest), North America seems like a smooth single market compared to Europe’s fractious mosaic.

This is certainly the case when it comes to public charging. Different countries, and different regions within countries, have implemented widely different government policies to encourage the rollout of chargers. There are not many large players in the charging market, but there are dozens of small and medium-size networks, each dominant in its own geographic area, and there is little cooperation among charging providers, electric utilities and automakers.

Hubject, a Berlin-based joint venture of six global companies committed to the development of electric mobility, aims to break down these barriers by building a framework for the various players to cooperate, promoting standardization, and creating a more sustainable model for the buildout of public charging infrastructure.

In many ways Europe grows more integrated every year...

...but for the auto industry, the fragmented nature of the market remains a major headache.

Hubject board members at the go-live event.

The six current Hubject shareholders are global automakers BMW and Daimler, technology and equipment powerhouses Siemens and Bosch, and international electric utilities RWE and EnBW. Such a cooperative venture among different industries vested in electric mobility is something of a first, according to Andreas Pfeiffer, Hubject’s Managing Director.

Pfeiffer knows EV charging - before coming to Hubject, he was the CEO of smartlab, a joint venture of the public services in Aachen, Duisburg and Osnabrück, three cities in Germany near the borders with the Netherlands and Belgium. He managed the development of concepts and technologies for smart grids and electric mobility for the municipal utilities and served in the Nationale Plattform Elektromobilität, a commission of experts advising the German government on electric mobility.

84

Pfeiffer is convinced that the lack of a comprehensive and convenient system for public charging is a key factor holding back EV sales in Europe. Auto OEMs are well aware of the situation and find it frustrating, given their investments in EV technology.

Hubject’s goal is to give EV drivers the peace of mind

It doesn’t aim to build a monolithic single network, but rather to manage contracts between providers in a way that’s transparent to users.

Photos courtesy of Hubject

Left to right: Dr Herbert Diess (BMW), Dr Volkmar Denner (Bosch), Prof Dr Thomas Weber (Daimler), Andreas Pfeiffer (Hubject), Dr Frank Mastiaux (EnBW), Dr Arndt Neuhaus (RWE), Dirk John (Siemens)

THE INFRASTRUCTURE Pfeiffer is convinced that the lack of a comprehensive and convenient system for public EV charging is a key factor holding back EV sales in Europe.

of knowing that they can charge anywhere they go. It doesn’t aim to build a monolithic single network, but rather to manage contracts between providers in a way that’s transparent to users. Hubject’s platform has been in production for several months now, and it is steadily building partnerships with charging providers all over Europe.

The concept is best described as roaming for EVs - it’s analogous to the networks that tie together cell phone providers and ATMs. Each user has his or her own contract with a charging network (as one has with a phone company or a bank), but can locate and use chargers from all participating networks, using existing vehicle- or smartphone-based apps. Although drivers may use charging stations owned and operated by various providers, they need carry only one card and receive only one bill.

Collaboratev is doing something very similar in the US. Pfeiffer is closely following the efforts of his transatlantic counterpart. Collaboratev and Hubject are both platforms that enable roaming, giving EV drivers the ability to seamlessly charge anywhere they like.

Pfeiffer underlines that Hubject has nothing to do with prices - it leaves EV charging location owners and operators free to set and publish their own pricing policies, and allows each actor to have relationships with others without having to manage a bunch of different contracts and interfaces. An organization signs one contract with Hubject, then roaming is managed globally.

Different industries tend to have different timelines, and there has been a lag between the development of the new generation of EVs and that of the charging infrastructure. For instance, standardization of charging connectors has been “a nightmare,” according to Pfeiffer, because different countries have rolled out different types of plugs. In January, the European Commission mandated the Type 2 connector, commonly called “Mennekes” after one of the companies that makes it, as the European standard for DC fast charging. European governments at all levels are keen to encourage EVs, and have invested quite a bit of money in charging infrastructure projects. However, with little coordination among the various deployments, the majority of them are like islands, each with a small number of charging stations, and each with its own access method and policies.

Europe has no networks on the scale of ChargePoint or ECOtality (each of which has over 12,000 charging points). There are a dozen or so networks of over 500 stations each, and a handful with a few thousand each.

Several of the larger players, such as RWE in Germany and the Electric Traffic Consortium in Finland, have partnered with Hubject, and several are already using the live platform.

AUG 2013 85

Photo courtesy of Hubject

THE INFRASTRUCTURE Driving investment Another aspect of Hubject’s mission is to provide incentives for more sustainable development of EVSE. So far, most of Europe’s chargers have been installed with public money, and governments have felt obliged to make charging free. That’s good news for today’s drivers, but not a good omen for future EVSE development. In fact, Pfeiffer sees this as a bubble that will eventually burst, because governments won’t be able to keep investing indefinitely, and if no one is making money, there’s not likely to be much private investment.

Hubject’s solution is to create a pool of money to incentivize new development. It collects a small fee from drivers, and Hubject matches the funds. Every year, this pool is distributed to the owners of charging locations, based on the number of charge spots that each operates.

This gives them an incentive to install more spots in the future.

Hubject is working to standardize the RFID cards that are widely used to give access to EV charging, and developing a simpler, more efficient mode that it calls Plug&Charge. Hubject provides a smartphone app that its partners can use or integrate with their own. This allows drivers to scan a quick-response code on a charging station, which contains information about the network.

Next to it, Hubject’s recognizable “E” logo tells drivers that they can charge wherever they go - just like the little Visa logo you see on the back of your credit or debit card.

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CHARGING FORWARD

THANKS TO SMART PRICING, EVS GAIN MOMENTUM The BMW i3 “megacity” car is finally priced, at $42,275 (including destination charge) as a battery-only vehicle, and $45,200 with a two-cylinder, 650 cc “range extender.” I went to the coming-out party for this electric debutante in New York, an event celebrated simultaneously in London and Beijing. Once again, journalists, munching on the circulating hors d’oeuvres, got to photograph it and sit in it, but not drive it. We got a rough idea of the experience by piloting the next best thing, a 1 Series ActiveE with the same drivetrain.

Another thing we didn’t get on the i3 is its US lease price. A range of EVs on the market are now available for $199 a month, though in some cases (especially the Fiat 500e) you’ll have to look hard to find a car at that price. But the tantalizing lease options - Honda’s Fit is $259, but that’s with no money down, unlimited mileage and a free charger - have really challenged consumers. What more do you want?

At $199 a month, auto companies are almost certainly losing money on their electric cars. Peter Schwarzenbauer, a member of BMW’s board of management, told me that the company will make money from the first i3 sale, but that’s because it has already written off the development costs. Basically, the auto industry’s loss - unavoidable, given California’s zero-emission car mandate and the federal 54.5 mpg fleet goal - is the consumer’s gain.

Think of it, especially you California residents. For your lease payment, you get a commuter car that can travel unhindered in the HOV lanes. If you buy it, you get not only the federal $7,500 income tax credit but also a $2,500 California rebate (as long as the money holds out). There’s charging on the main highways and, increasingly likely, at your workplace, too.

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You’ll sail past gas stations, and save a ton of money in operating expenses. Driving, for instance, a smart Electric Drive, costs just four cents per mile (according to federal figures) compared to 46.4 cents in a small sedan (says AAA).

An increasing number of Californians are figuring this out, which is why the state has almost 40 percent of all US EV sales and leases. The state is processing about 2,000 rebate requests a month, which is why the program could run out of money. It’s a good problem to have - worse would be no takers.

The $199 leases definitely jump-started the EV market. June 2013 was the best month yet for plug-in cars, with more than 8,000 sold or leased in the US. I think competitive pricing was the right move. Automakers could have assigned market prices to these cars, but few would have moved, and the state and federal goals would be unmet. Remember Toyota’s affordable pricing strategy to goose hybrid sales with the Prius, and how other automakers groused about how much money the company was losing? Now, with electrics, they’re all thinking strategically and long-term.

People are always asking me if I’m bullish on the future of the electric vehicle. Frankly, I am. I didn’t expect them to charge out of the gate like Secretariat winning the Kentucky Derby in 1973. The i3 will be fun to drive, but I don’t think there will be overnight defections from the 5 and 7 Series - that will take a while. After all, this is a quiet revolution.

JIM MOTAVALLI is a contributor to the New York Times, Car Talk at NPR and Mother Nature Network. He is the author most recently of High Voltage: The Fast Track to Plug in the Auto Industry (Rodale).

Photo courtesy of BMW Group

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