Analyzing the Logic of Articles and Textbooks: Essentials and Practicum

Analyzing the Logic of Articles and Textbooks: Essentials and Practicum This prĂŠcis demonstrates how one can in written form apply intellectual standards such as clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, significance, and fairness to analyze and evaluate the reasoning behind an article or textbook.

Olivier Serrat 08/09/2017

1 To analyze and evaluate thinking, one can apply intellectual standards such as clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, significance, and fairness to its parts. For example, we can ask whether the purpose and question of an article or textbook are clear, the information relevant and accurate, the inferences and implications logical, the assumptions and concepts justifiable, the point of view relevant, etc.

Introduction Paul and Elder (2008) proposed that thinking critically involves three things: (i) an attitude of being disposed to consider in a thoughtful way the problems and subjects that come within the range of one's experiences, (ii) knowledge of methods of logical inquiry and reasoning, and (iii) some skill in applying those methods. To analyze and evaluate reasoning Paul and Elder (2008) urged that we should focus on its parts: the purpose of the thinking; the key question the thinking is pursuing; the data, information, and evidence being used; the inferences and conclusions being made; the relevant concepts and theories as well as the author's take on these; the assumptions that underlie the thinking; the implications and consequences if we accept the line of reasoning; and the point of view presented. Using Paul and Elder's 8-point template, this prĂŠcis demonstrates how the logic of a document can be assessed in written form, here in the case of Balyer (2012), an article selected at random.

The Logic of "Transformational Leadership Behaviors of School Principals: A Qualitative Research Based on Teachers' Perceptions" 1. Purpose The main purpose of Balyer (2012), revealed on the third page of an 11-page submission to the International Online Journal of Educational Sciences, was "to discover the level of transformational leadership behaviors that [in the Turkish system of education] school principals demonstrate during their administrative practices on [a] daily basis". The secondary purpose of the article is less clear: rephrasing for intelligibility at the risk of misinterpreting, the article hopes the findings will inform the ways school principals are selected and how training programs might be designed. Presumably, the main purpose of the article springs from the author's (unsubstantiated) claims (backed by referencing the work of many similarly-inclined researchers) that from "idealized influence, inspirational motivation, individualized consideration[,] and intellectual stimulation", transformational leadership is best placed to "make any organization a better performing place", especially in schools where transformational leadership behaviors have become more important [and] "are the dynamics of change for the society in which they operate" [sic].

2. Question The key question that Balyer (2012) hoped to address was clarification of the extent to which— or "level" at which in Balyer's (2012) own words—transformational leadership behaviors are demonstrated by school principals in their daily practice. "Transformational leadership", "school principals", and "school administration", the keywords for Balyer (2012), would seem to confirm the intent and dimensions of the question.

3. Data, Information, and Evidence The data gathering on which Balyer (2012) was based was qualitative. The participants were 30 teachers from 6 different schools, selected by using "a purposive sampling method described as

2 the best used with small numbers of individuals or groups which may well be sufficient for understanding human perceptions, problems, needs, behaviors[,] and contexts, which are the main justification for a qualitative audience research". The participants were first approached by electronic mail and then interviewed over approximately 50–60 minutes. The following semistructured questions, the correspondence among which was not explained in Balyer (2012), were raised: • Does your school principal consider your needs before his[her] own needs?

• Does s/he use power for personal gain?

• Does s/he demonstrate high moral standards?

• Does s/he set challenging goals for her/his followers?

• Does s/he display enthusiasm and optimism?

• Does s/he involve the followers in envisioning attractive future states?

• Does s/he communicate high expectations?

• Does s/he demonstrate commitment to the goals?

• Does s/he behave individuals as if they are special people?

• Does s/he act as a coach or mentor to develop her/his followers' potential?

• Does s/he stimulate followers to be innovative and creative?

To note, Balyer (2012) recognized that all participants were volunteers: therefore, Balyer (2012) acknowledged that they are not necessarily representatives of other teachers in other schools and that "caution should be exercised when attempting to infer about any of the results with regard to other populations". Balyer (2012) mentioned also that its author was the main instrument of data analysis, so that interpretation was based on his knowledge and social location; therefore, "the theory-laden nature of the investigation can be a recognized limitation as well as its strength". Why Balyer (2012) would want ex-ante to so openly (yet vaguely) limit its inferences and conclusions was not explained. [The section where Balyer's (2012) shortcomings are conceded is titled Trustworthiness and Rigor.]

4. Inferences and Conclusions The main inference/conclusion of Balyer (2012), drawn from the 11 questions raised, is that " … teachers' opinions concerning their principals' transformational leadership behaviors are positive in general. It can also be inferred that female principals' behaviors are perceived more polite than male colleagues" (p. 588). From this, Balyer (2012) settled that: • Principals have important influences on student and teachers' performance, so principal candidates should be trained as transformational leaders during their college trainings.

• Principals have to deal with heavy official procedures which take too much time. This could be reduced by empowering school managements with co-principalship.

• Current principals should be supported to be transformational leaders with in-service trainings prepared by university–ministry cooperation.

• Principals should be asked to have a degree from educational administration field to be eligible for that post in the future.

• Principals should be chosen and appointed to their posts based on their qualities and qualifications without any political manipulations. (p. 588) 5. Concepts and Theories The key concept we are to understand from Balyer (2012) is that "transformational leadership behaviors, such as idealized influence, inspirational motivation, individualized consideration, and intellectual stimulation are positively related to greater employee acceptance, better

3 performance, and increased job satisfaction at schools. Basically, these effects are vision building, high performance expectations, developing consensus about group goals and intellectual stimulation. Therefore, transformational leadership is very substantial for schools to move forward. However, it is an ongoing matter of discussion whether principals demonstrate this characteristics [sic] properly, which is main [sic] concern of this study" (p. 588). We are, of course, meant to understand that idealized influence, inspirational motivation, individualized consideration, and intellectual stimulation—the list belongs to Bass (1985)—equate with transformational leadership, however wide-ranging the characteristics of that have been recognized to be in time and space. We are also to understand that there is no leadership unless it is transformational.

6. Assumptions The main assumption underlying Balyer's (2012) thinking is that, however arbitrarily it is defined, transformational leadership is the only kind of leadership. And yet, from the four (overlapping) characteristics reported, the traits of transformational leadership can only be considered so wide-ranging that no one could possibly be trained in their development.

7. Implications and Consequences The implications and consequences, if we take Balyer's (2012) line of reasoning seriously, is that there is no room for styles of leadership that might include, say, contingency leadership, distributed leadership (which, incidentally, has been welcomed in schools), or transactional leadership (or a mix thereof). Must we await, on bended knee, the appearance of some Great Man Ă la Mahatma Gandhi or Moses? "No institution can possibly survive if it needs geniuses or supermen to manage it. It must be organized in such a way as to be able to get along under a leadership composed of average human beings", said Drucker (1946, p. 26). So, if only because modern times throw so many challenges to organizations, it is probably best to ignore Balyer's (2012) reasoning and investigate how "ordinary" people can lead in the workplace.

Thankfully, perhaps, it is in any event difficult to see how the five conclusions in Balyer (2012) relate to transformational leadership and how it might be advanced (if that were warranted).

8. Point of View The single point of view presented in Balyer (2012) is that school administrators can only cope with a rapidly changing world if they develop "abilities such as being team-oriented, strong communicators, team players, problem solvers, change-makers[,] and transformational leaders" (p. 581). If this is, for sure, how Balyer (2012) saw things, it is however difficult to understand what that article was looking at: Balyer (2012) never represented the reality of the Turkish system of education (even less that of "the world" and the two are in any case surely not equal).

What exactly was it about the Turkish system of education (systems might be a better word) that calls for transformational leadership? And, has transformational leadership delivered results in other education systems of the world?

Conclusion Without doubt, transformational leadership is necessary in instances; more often than not, such instances tend to be dire, hence the appeal of heroic leaders. Yet, transformational leadership finds wide appeal in normal circumstances too. Why? In my opinion, the main reason is that such leadership absolves us of responsibility for developing leadership capabilities more broadly. Kofman and Senge (1995) showed that there is in every walk of life a preference for

4 shifting the burden: a perceived need for leadership (a symptom) can be met by developing capacities throughout the organization (the fundamental solution) or by relying on a heroic leader (the symptomatic solution). But, success in finding a heroic leader reinforces belief in powerlessness, thus making the fundamental solution even more difficult (Kofman & Senge, 1995).

References Bass, B. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectation. New York, NY: Free Press.

Drucker, P. (1946). Concept of the corporation. New York, NY: John Day Company.

Kofman, F & Senge, P. (1995). Communities of commitment: The heart of learning organizations. In S. Chawla and J. Renesch (Eds.), Learning organizations: Developing cultures for tomorrow's workplace. Portland, OR: Productivity Press, Inc. Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2008). The miniature guide to critical thinking: Concepts and tools. Dillon Beach, CA: The Foundation for Critical Thinking.

Balyer, A. (2012). Transformational leadership behaviors of school principals: A qualitative research based on teachers' perceptions. International Online Journal of Educational Sciences, 4(3), 581–591.