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I Arrive First (Emma Jane Unsworth) 8 Short story Assessing your Language Skills 16 Factual text Developing your English Skills: Reading and Listening 19 Factual text Texts for Developing Reading Strategies
separate election and is not a member of the parliament (or Congress, as it is called there).
Unlike Norway and the USA, Britain cannot trace its constitution back to a time when a group of (inevitably) men sat down around a table and said, “Okay, what’s a sensible way of organising this?” The British constitution is not a single document composed at one time, but simply the hundreds of laws and conventions developed over the centuries that, taken together, regulate the system of government and political life in Britain and protect the rights of the individual. Most of the institutions at its core were developed at a time when democracy was still unthinkable.
The electoral system
This applies not least to the electoral system. It came about at a time when only a tiny proportion of the population was represented in parliament (as one wit put it: Nowadays it’s the votes that count. In the old days, it was the counts that voted!). The aristocracy and the high clergy had their seats in the House of Lords, which to start with was where the real power lay. However, the land-owning gentry were also allowed to have their representatives, in a separate chamber called the House of Commons. In order to ensure that all parts of the realm were represented here, the country was divided up into voting districts, called constituencies, each of which corresponded to, literally, a seat in the Commons. Voting was based on what is called a first-past-the-post system, meaning simply that the candidate with most votes in each constituency wins the seat.
So the voting system was in place long before the advent of political parties (the 18th century) and votes for all (the early 20th century). Its survival into the modern age has had a profound effect on the way the political life of the United Kingdom developed. It has strengthened the position of the two largest parties and generally hindered the rise of smaller ones. In doing so, it has encouraged adversarial politics, i.e. politics where two sides oppose each other vigorously. This is reflected in the layout of the House of Commons, where the government and the opposition physically face each other. For the last 100 years, these two sides have been the right-of-centre Conservative Party and the left-of-centre Labour Party. These two parties have generally taken it in turns to govern the country.
There are currently 650 constituencies in the UK, giving the same number of Members of Parliament (MPs). These constituencies vary in size. The largest has over 100,000 people who can vote; the smallest has fewer than 30,000. Most, however, have an electorate of between 60,000 and 75,000. On the day of a general election, there is an election in each of these constituencies. These general elections are held every five years on the first Thursday in May. Exceptions are if either the government is given a “no confidence” vote by Parliament or if a 2/3 majority of MPs votes for an earlier election.
The Conservative Party
Also referred to as the “Tory party”, the Conservative Party was originally the party of Britain’s land-owning class. It extended its appeal as the electorate grew in the transition to democracy, becoming in the 20th century the favoured party of the middle class and of business interests. They were the party of government for two-thirds of that century. Traditional strongholds for the Conservatives are in affluent, rural Southern England. In
constitution grunnlov convention konvensjon House of Lords Overhuset House of Commons Underhuset realm kongerike constituency enmannskrets/ einmannskrins first-past-the-post system
«førstemann-i-mål»-system proportional representation mandatfordeling etter forholdstallsvalg / mandatfor- deling etter forholdstalsval electorate velgermasse/ veljarmasse general election parlamentsvalg/ parlamentsval affluent velstående/velståande
Proportional representation means that the votes of the electorate are represented proportionately in the elected body. PR voting systems, like the one we have in Norway, ensure that also smaller parties are represented, rather than the first-past-the-post system that favours larger parties and is more likely to deliver parliamentary majorities.
UNDERSTAND
a What are some similarities and differences between the political systems in the UK and the USA? b What is the first-past-the post voting system, and how has this system affected British politics? c How do general elections work in the UK?
B Becoming a World Power
REFLECT
Write down examples of American movies, TV series or digital games that you have enjoyed over the course of your life. To what extent and how do you think this type of input has influenced your own way of thinking and behaving?
KEY CONCEPTS
– soft power – hard power – isolationism – interventionalism – internationalism – containment policy – the Cold War – Americanization
imperfect uferdig, mangelfull linguistic språklig/språkleg
Hard and Soft American Power
stephen colbert, american comedian (Goltz, 2017, p. 88)
Stephen Colbert is being ironic, of course, but what he says illustrates a long history of tension between those who have wanted the United States to stay out of international co-operation and internationalists. Regardless of any initial desire to keep to itself, the U.S. has had a great impact on the world in many areas. The founding of a modern democracy – even as imperfect as it was – was in itself an inspiration for many other nations that wanted democratic rule. Later, much of the influence has been based on military and economic power, often referred to as “hard power.” This has been accompanied by linguistic and cultural influence through “soft power,” which here means how a nation gets others to “want what you have” instead of “forcing others to do what you want” (Wolfley, 2021, p. 16). American soft power is noticeable in, for example, music, film, social media, education and innovative technology.
In the following, some aspects of the development of the U.S. into a military, economic and cultural superpower will be described. Other examples
are in the news – and on all kinds of media platforms – every day. The aim of working with this part of the chapter is to become more aware of such influence and reflect on how it affects us as individuals and how it affects other societies.
Avoiding alliances
The Founding Fathers – people like George Washington and Benjamin Franklin who drafted the American Constitution in 1787 – were committed internationalists who did not want the new nation to turn away from Europe. But they were also tired of being involved in Britain’s wars and other disputes, mostly with France. Therefore, some form of isolationism seemed like a good idea. George Washington – the first American president – famously confirmed this policy towards the end of his presidency by saying that the United States was to “steer clear of permanent alliance with any portion of the foreign world” (Library of Congress, 2017). That was also the dominant policy until after World War II.
The beginning of military and economic imperialism
Still, it is fair to say that the U.S. has never been truly isolationist, as the building of a military and economic empire started early in the 19th century. The expansion of U.S. territory westward was part of this growth and involved both Native Americans – who were forced to give up their lands –and a number of other nations. Some of the treaties and deals with European nations were signed peacefully. In 1803, for example, President Thomas
George Washington crossing the Delaware during the War of Independence.
expansion utvidelse, ekspansjon / utviding, ekspansjon treaty avtale, traktat, pakt
- First, discuss arguments for and against using the nuclear bomb in 1945. Then discuss the use of the bomb with the perspective of today. In what way do you think that changes the arguments for and against? - It has been claimed that the horror of the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki has kept nations from using the atomic bomb later. Find arguments both for and against this statement. - In what circumstances would you generally accept the use of military power – if at all?
5 | COMPARE
Compare the following quotes and discuss U.S. foreign policy in light of them. Then discuss how the same discussion relates to British foreign policy.
“War is an ugly thing, but not the ugliest of things: the decayed and degraded state of moral and patriotic feeling which thinks that nothing is worth a war, is much worse.” (John Stuart Mill)
“The truth is that neither British nor American imperialism was or is idealistic. It has always been driven by economic or strategic interests.” (Charley Reese)
“A country that demands moral perfection in its foreign policy will achieve neither perfection nor security.” (Henry Kissinger)
“Perhaps there has been, at some point in history, some great power whose elevation was exempt from the violent exploitation of other human bodies. If there has been, I have yet to discover it.” (Ta-Nehisi Coates)
“Good guys don’t always win, especially when they are divided and less determined than their adversaries.” (Madeleine Albright)
“American foreign policy, for all its shortcomings, has underpinned political stability around the world.” (Michael Mandelbaum)
– “[I]f you think that American imperialism and its globalised, capitalist form is the most dangerous thing in the world, that means you don’t think the Islamic
Republic of Iran or North Korea or the Taliban is as bad.” (Christopher Hitchens)
6 | CREATE: Writing
a How often do you observe American celebrities in the media? Write a personal essay where you discuss how and to what extent they influence lifestyle choices, such as fashion and the way people dress around the world.
b The United States has often aimed for the moral high ground, but the aims are not always reached. Write an expository essay discussing current and historical events when the differences between ideals and reality have been particularly obvious.
c What do you think are the most important “baubles and amusements” for teenagers today, compared to 1959 (see p. 121)? What are the differences between a teenager’s life in the U.S. and a teenager’s life in
Norway today? Write a personal text.
REFLECT
According to a Gallup poll, the U.S. is still the most popular destination for potential migrants, and its colleges and universities attract large numbers of international students. a Give examples of what migrants and students may find attractive about the United States. Are there examples of any features both groups could be attracted to? b Have you changed your own opinion about the U.S. in the last few years?
If so, how and why? c While reading the text, consider the what-who-why-how questions on page 20 and write notes to answer them.
The New American Dream
By Martha Bayles
TEXT 3 –
regional assembly delstats- forsamling to heckle å avbryte, å komme med tilrop prolific produktiv to bash å kritisere (kraftig), å henge ut state deputy delstats- representant to embody å personifisere to obtain å oppnå, å skaffe seg obesity fedme, (sykelig) overvekt / fedme, (sjukeleg) overvekt
What’s the Japanese for QAnon?
Social media are turbocharging the export of America’s political culture. Movements like Black Lives Matter have spread as far as Hungary, Nigeria and South Korea.
Arthur do Val just wanted to be somebody. A sitting lawmaker in São Paulo’s regional assembly – with, as he boasts in his Twitter bio, the second-largest number of votes of any candidate – Mr do Val rose to fame by heckling lefties at marches. He learned this tactic, he explains, from the documentaries of Michael Moore, an American political film-maker.
Mr do Val has since become a talented and prolific producer of web-friendly content. His team pumps out hundreds of images and video clips weekly through social media. People want to be entertained, he argues, so politics must be entertaining, too. Political arguments should be delivered in funny memes and silly videos which, in Mr do Val’s case, tend to focus on promoting economically liberal ideas and bashing the left.
“I tried being a rock star; I failed. I tried to be a fighter, an athlete; I failed. I was simply a frustrated businessman. Then, I saw in YouTube an opportunity to exploit my indignation,” he explains. “I just wanted to stand out, and by accident, it took me to a political career.”
Mr do Val’s rise from a nobody to a state deputy by the age of 32 was both unlikely and impressive. But he embodies a new transnational class of political entrepreneurs who communicate in memes, videos and slogans. They draw on a global flow of ideas, adapt them to local conditions and return them to the ether. Many are activists or ordinary people. Social media are their most important means of influence – both over their followers and each other. The result is not only a new class of unorthodox politicians, but also the globalisation of political ideas, many from America.
America’s films, television and music are loved everywhere. Its consumer brands are world-beating. Its social-media stars have global influence. As the world’s most powerful country, with huge cultural reach, it has always had a hefty impact on political trends and movements.
In 1990 Joseph Nye, a political scientist at Harvard, introduced the concept of “soft power”, which he defined as “the ability to affect others and obtain preferred outcomes by attraction and persuasion rather than coercion or payment”. Hollywood, pop music, McDonald’s and Levi’s jeans are all expressions of America’s soft power.
For many people beyond its shores, consuming these goods was as close as they could get to sharing the American dream. When the first McDonald’s opened in Mumbai in 1996, Indians queued in their thousands to taste its fabled burger (though made without beef), replicating a scene from Moscow six years earlier. (The opening of a Starbucks in Mumbai a decade ago drew a similar response.) Mumbai’s film industry, the biggest in the world, is called “Bollywood” to mimic its counterpart in Los Angeles. Nigeria has “Nollywood”, Pakistan “Lollywood”.
Even if McDonald’s and Hollywood contribute to growing obesity and unrealistic expectations of police forensics, for policymakers the important thing is that, as Mr Nye puts it, “exerting attraction on others often does
