Figure 3: A social-ecological system (SES

Many research findings can make a relevant contribution to SD. But a disciplinary approach may conceal detrimental side-effects that are taking hold elsewhere – such as in other parts of the same system. This is why a “systems approach” is needed, as illustrated in Figure 3 for “social-ecological systems”. Achieving SD involves sociocultural, economic, and environmental issues all at the same time, and consequently cannot be captured within the boundaries and approaches of individual scientific disciplines. Complex systems are still insufficiently understood, which indicates a lack of interdisciplinary (id) research taking place. Science organized in disciplinary structures acts like a number of blind persons investigating an elephant by touching different, non-overlapping parts. They come to entirely different conclusions about what the elephant really is. All are somehow right, all are somehow wrong, and nobody captures the entire context. And to take a step further – to not only understand complex systems, but also to improve, change, or transform them – we require a transdisciplinary research approach.

What is a social-ecological system?

A system is a combination of elements (components, variables) that continuously interact (through flows of e.g. energy, matter, information, money) to form a complex entity that serves a specific purpose or includes specific functions. Systems are dynamic, which means they are subject to constant change. Understanding complex society–environment interrelationships thus requires an interdisciplinary, systemic perspective (social-ecological systems approach, or SES, Ostrom 2009). However, achieving SD must go further than just understanding SES. Instead, unsustainable SES must be transformed, to enable them to reach more sustainable stages, which is only possible if scientists and practitioners (policymakers, decision-makers, resource users, farmers, etc.) cooperate closely. Such cooperation is what we call transdisciplinarity.

Figure 3: A social-ecological system (SES) The figure represents selected relationships between an environmental subsystem on the one hand (bluegreen), and a sociocultural & economic subsystem (orange) on the other. The figure demonstrates that understanding an SES and its biophysical and socio-economic processes requires a holistic approach to which various scientific disciplines and faculties can make relevant contributions (e.g. climatology, biology, hydrology, soil science, sociology, social anthropology, economy, political sciences, and veterinarian and medical sciences.) In addition, farmers, planners, policymakers, etc. are actors to cooperate with to transform the system, enabling it to reach a more sustainable stage. (Design: K. Herweg)

While transdisciplinarity (td) may be interpreted in different ways, in this book we use the definition and application of td as suggested by transdisciplinary net (td-net), Hurni and Wiesmann (2004), Lang et al. (2012), and Schneider and Buser (2018). Further thoughts about td can be found in the UN’s Global Sustainable Development Report (Independent Group of Scientists 2019). According to Pohl and Hirsch Hadorn (2007), transdisciplinary research is appropriate under specific preconditions, e.g. if knowledge about a problem of societal relevance is uncertain, if the problem definition itself is still contested, and if stakes are high for those affected by the problems and their solutions. Td research is applied with a fourfold purpose: first, to capture the complexity of the problems; second, to consider the diversity of scientific and societal perspectives on the problems; third, to integrate abstract scientific knowledge and case-specific practical knowledge; and fourth, to assure that knowledge contributes to a practical solution that is oriented towards the common good.

Transdisciplinary research – in which different disciplines work with the participation of various stakeholders from practice – is appropriate for addressing: • ill-defined problems i.e. problems that are difficult to define clearly, also referred to as ill-designed or ill-structured problems; and • wicked problems, which are so complex that they are difficult or impossible to solve.

No weather extremes in the next two months …

Cartoon 4: Wicked Problems – when reality changes faster than the model (Illustration: K. Herweg)

The proportion of research grants awarded to interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary projects has risen considerably in the last years (e.g. increased orientation of the European Union’s Horizon programme towards the “third mission” of universities to promote service learning). However, id and td research grants are still underrepresented and disciplinary career paths still favoured. Consequently, there are only few examples of interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary learning opportunities for students. Generally, while students are able to take a range of courses, instruction remains discipline-specific and students lack in-programme, experiential, and transdisciplinary learning opportunities.

Much current research is relevant for specific aspects of SD. However, we need more inter- and transdisciplinary research to help us understand and shape complex social-ecological systems (SES).