LETTER FROM THE
VOLUME 8
CCA—
We’ve reached the end of another year—and produced our spring issue just in time! Our wonderful Catalyst team has worked long and hard to create this magazine for your enjoyment. As we end our 7th year as CCA’s science magazine, we continue to explore topics ranging from slimy slugs to the crisp beauty of the fMRI. We speak with a scientist in the pinnacle of drug delivery research, and discuss the implications of our forays into artificial intelligence and better communication. The diverse ideas found in this issue can pique anyone’s interest. Want to go to Yale to study alongside Nathan Chen? Learn about the physics behind his jaw-dropping quad, and maybe conduct your own experiments regarding centrifugal force. Pan over our article on viruses, and see how we can avoid viral pandemics in the future. Pull a Victor Frankenstein, and discover the secret to replenishing extinct species on our planet. Interested in cancer research? Take a journey with us as we explore the debilitating effects of neuroblastoma. Slip into your psychology persona, and learn about delusional misidentification disorder. Find out about the importance of vaccines, and trace their medical significance through our history. I’d like to acknowledge the Catalyst team for all their dedication and hard work, as well as our advisor, Mr. Gaughen, and our generous sponsors. And to you too, reader. Thank you for generously donating your time to read these pages—this would not be possible with you. And, on a personal note, thank you to my Catalyst family for four amazing years. Thank you for the incredibly poignant and interesting articles that inspire me every day. Thank you for showing me that when the sciences and humanities intersect, beautiful things are created. And most of all, thank you for providing a safe, welcoming space for people of all interests to construct fascinating things together. If you have any questions or comments, please feel free to email us at ccacatalyst@gmail.com. Also, check us out on our website catalystmag.weebly.com to see some past issues and our new blog, and like us on Facebook at facebook.com/catalystsciencemagazine to stay updated! Enjoy! Maggie Chen President of Catalyst Science Magazine
PRESIDENT
STAFF
ISSUE 2
EDITING TEAM PRESIDENT
Maggie Chen
VICE PRESIDENTS
Victoria Li Aida Razavilar
DIRECTORS OF FINANCE
Clara Guo Ashley Zhang
EXECUTIVE LAYOUT
Anjali Gopinathan
SUPERVISING LAYOUT
Amanda Tanaka
EXECUTIVE EDITOR
Judy Qin
SUPERVISING EDITORS
Aadil Rehan Jeanne Zheng
ADVISOR
Michael Gaughen
Trevor Cai Samantha Chai Amy Cheng Kevin Cheng Dominique D’Lima Sai Gantla Emily Kang Paul Kreymborg Mason Lee Susan Lee Jessica Li Andrea Liu Dhylan Patel Astha Patra Alisha Sandhu Alex Shahla Matthew Tsai Kate Wang Ashley Zhang Michelle Zhang Natalia Zorrilla
LAYOUT TEAM Alisha Sandhu Jack Granholm Elizabeth Kwon Alyssa Cho Katie Sheng
VOLUME 8
5 7 8 9 11
NEUROBLASTOMA ANDREA LIU
HOW DATA TRANSFER WILL CHANGE THROUGHOUT OUR LIVES PAUL KREYMBORG
DELUSIONAL MISIDENTIFICATION SYNDROMES ALEX TRAN & JASON HA
TAKE THE SHOT ELIZABETH KWON, MATTHEW TSAI, & PATRICK SUN
VIRUSES GO! CATCHING ALL 1.3 MILLION VIRUS SPECIES ALEX SHAHLA
CONTENTS
ISSUE 2
THE PHYSICS BEHIND A QUAD KAILA COIMBRA
A SEAT AT THE SYMPHONY: AN INTRODUCTION TO FMRI JOHNNY REN
SINGAPOREAN SEA SLUGS SAMMANTHA CHAI
BRINGING DEAD SPECIES BACK TO LIFE SAI GANTLA & PAYMON HADDAD
AN INTERVIEW WITH DR. JAIR LAGE DE SIQUEIRA-NETO CHRISTINA LEE
13 15 17 18 19 4
BY ANDREA LIU
Neurobla PEDIATRIC CANCER IS THE MOST DREADED CANCER TYPE IN THE WORLD. Why? Because it affects the young—the ones who haven’t yet had the chance to live their full lives. It takes away any possibility of them having a fulfilled childhood: days of playing in the cul-de-sac, days of swimming, days of going to school and making friends with kids in their classes—in short, the loss of youthful joy and unlimited happiness. There are many different types of pediatric cancers that I could introduce you all to, but in this issue, I’ll hone in on one: the most common solid cancer in kids, neuroblastoma.
Because of the demographic of those with the cancer, many scientists are trying to find ways to block further growth of the cancer without killing cells using chemotherapy or radiation.
WHY NEUROBLASTOMA? The demographic hit the hardest by neuroblastoma are those between one to two years old, and neuroblastoma makes up 8-10% of all pediatric cancers and 15% of all pediatric cancer deaths. Only 40% of those diagnosed with neuroblastoma are able to conquer this cancer. Each year, 700 cases of neuroblastoma are diagnosed. By the time the cancer is discovered, 70% of diagnoses are already showing advanced stages, which makes curing it extremely difficult. 50-60% of those diagnosed with advanced stages of neuroblastoma ultimately relapse—the cures are not long-term. 5
WHAT IS NEUROBLASTOMA? Neuroblastoma is common in kids. Typically, it begins its growth when the child is just a fetus or an embryo in underdeveloped cells. It’s aptly named because neuro refers to the nerves in the body, while blastoma refers to the cancer type that affects immature or developing cells. Neuroblastomas affect the sympathetic nervous system, which is made up of nerve fibers along the spinal cord and nerve-like cells found in the medulla (brain) and the adrenal glands (located above the kidneys). The tumor usually begins to grow in the tissues of the adrenal gland found in the abdomen, but may also begin in nerve tissue in the neck, chest, or spinal cord. Many times, however, neuroblastoma is not only limited to these areas; after a lot of growth, the tumor can spread. For about twothirds of diagnosed patients with neuroblastoma, it has already metastasized, or spread, to other areas of the body such as the lymph nodes, spinal cord, central nervous system, lungs, liver, blood, and bone marrow.
stoma WHAT ARE THE SYMPTOMS? The symptoms of neuroblastoma include lumps in the abdomen caused by the tumors on the adrenal glands, trouble breathing because of the tumors in the abdomen, fever, and high blood pressure. Other symptoms of cancer metastasis include pain, fatigue, limping, paralysis, and weakness due to bone marrow involvement. HOW IS NEUROBLASTOMA DIAGNOSED? To diagnose neuroblastoma, doctors typically administer blood tests and a complete blood cell count, urine tests to try and identify chemicals secreted by the tumor, neurological exams that examine the brain, spinal cord, and nerve function, and imaging studies to pinpoint the tumor to determine treatment options. Doctors might also check the bone marrow to determine the number, size, and maturity of blood cells and abnormal (tumor) cells in the body. WHAT ARE THE CAUSES? There are no definite causes for neuroblastoma; though the only determined risk factor is heredity, most cases are not inherited. The age of diagnosis in cases that are genetically linked is younger than in those that are not. Cancer that presents itself in many different areas at once, rather than starting in one place and then spreading, may be a sign that it’s genetically inherited. ARE THERE ANY TREATMENTS? Currently, the only way to treat neuroblastoma is through surgery or chemotherapy and radiation, but each of those may be harmful to the patient in different ways. Chemotherapy and radiation, the most common treatments of neuroblastoma, don’t just kill cancer cells: they kill all cells, including healthy ones. Considering that neuroblastoma can appear in the brain, chemotherapy often can cause the death of healthy nerves as well. The cancer may be cut down in size with surgery, but there is no guarantee that the tumor taken out won’t just IMAGE CREDIT: WIKIMEDIA @ REID OFFRINGA, JENSFLORIAN, SARAHKAYB, MARIA TSOKOS (NCI)
grow back, as shown by the common relapsing of patients. Bone marrow transplants may also be done if the cancer becomes concentrated in the patient’s bone marrow. The prognosis of neuroblastoma, or its likely course, is determined by the patient’s age, the stage of the cancer, the size and location of the tumor, the tumor’s response to therapies and treatment, and the patient’s tolerance of medications, procedures, and therapies. Scientists currently are trying to use therapeutic drugs, or drugs that target the cancer cells specifically and require no chemotherapy or radiation, thus causing less damage to the body. These drugs are designed to deactivate protein pathways that allow cancers to grow uninhibited. About 70% of all diagnosed neuroblastoma cases are of those in late stages, when the cancer has already metastasized. Of those, about 60% end up relapsing within five years, and these relapses are typically more malignant tumors. Of all the cancers, neuroblastoma was my choice because it impacts the children in society, and finding its cure is up to us. I hope this brings to light the tragic nature of pediatric cancers, and inspires some of you to continue the incredible research and discovery of current pediatric oncologists. With your help, this cancer could no longer be a problem for our society. 6
ABS
H OW DATA TRMISIDENT AN S F ER WIL L CHAN GE T HRO UGHOUT O U R LI V ES BY PAUL KREYMBORG_
THE THUNDERBIRD SUPERCOMPUTER IS INSPECTED AT SANDIA NATIONAL LABORATORIES IN ALBUQUERQUE, NEW MEXICO. IT WAS ONE OF THE MOST POWERFUL SUPERCOMPUTERS IN THE WORLD, CAPABLE OF RUNNING COMPLEX NUCLEAR WEAPONS SIMULATIONS.
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omething many consider to be an advantage we humans have over most animals is our ability to encode and decode thoughts, through speech, writing, hearing, reading (especially) and more. The difference this ability creates between humans and a simpler animal is comparable to the difference created by DNA between animals and inanimate objects. DNA provides a way for evolution to accumulate information useful in the creation of successful creatures, with random branching of DNA lines and mutations acting as the parallel agents of the change. Similarly, our ability to communicate allows the new insights and knowledge from many individuals to be transmitted to others, not down to those individuals’ descendants (as with DNA), but to anyone who reads what they write or hears what they say. Already we humans have amplified our abilities to communicate and transfer information, through telegraphs, telephone
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lines, radio, and internet connections. These innovations lower the time it takes for information to get from one place to another, but they don’t improve the rate at which a person can interpret what’s in front of them. The minimum time it takes for a signal to travel the around earth is about 0.13 seconds, but it takes several times longer for a person to feel a phone vibrate in their pocket, pull it out, lift it a couple of feet, look at the screen, and then understand that they’ve received a message. The major constraining factor of human communication is no longer the time to transmit a message, but the rate at which the sender and receiver may process or encode the information. The speeds of even the fastest typists and readers to poke their fingers at keyboards and move their gaze across text seem glacial when compared to the speeds of machines to repeat, recall, and record data. Advancing technology has yet to improve the data processing abilities of the IMAGE CREDIT: FLICKR @SANDIA
human body, which remains almost as non-user-friendly as ever in this regard. There is speculation that physical interfaces between human beings and machines will become practical at some point in the future. Another possibility is that a person will be able to effectively communicate quickly and reactively by passing some of their responsibilities to semi-autonomous artificial assistant which would act on their behalf. However, since an artificial intelligence capable of that would likely be close to exceeding all human abilities, its specific ability to read people’s mail for them would be relatively unimportant. Whether a machine-brain interface, an AI assistant, or something else will become the first solution to the communication problem is unclear. Another possibility is that human existence will end before any of those things happen, for whatever reason. Whatever happens, there is no doubt that the way humans live and communicate will be significantly changed.
DELUSION TIFICATION DELUSIONAL DELUSIONAL MISIDENTIFICATION SYNDROMES By Al e x Tran & J as on Ha
Pi c t ure t h i s: you are relaxing on your bed, away from stress, comforted by the familiar sense of your household. Your mom is in the other room, talking on the phone with one of her friends. All is tranquil and you begin to drift away. Suddenly, your mind turns against you. You begin to question if this is really your house. Oh, my God. It looks like your house. It sounds like your house. It smells like your house. It feels like your house. It tastes (as much as a house can) like your house. But is this really your house? Or is it just a perfect replica? Your attention suddenly goes to your mother. Oh, my God. Is that my mom? Or is it just her doppelgänger? Doubt engulfs you and your mind becomes resolute and you come to a grave conclusion. This
is not my house. That is not my mom. This is just a house that looks like mine. And that is a woman that looks like my mom. What the hell is going on here? Delusional misidentification syndromes may take the blame. DMS is a group of different disorders in which people misidentify people, objects, or even themselves. There are multiple subtypes, all of which are as mysterious as the category itself. DMS is not necessarily common throughout the world; in fact, it is so rare that little to no research can be found on it. Interestingly enough though, the number of DMS cases is slowly on the rise. Whether that effect can be attributed to some kind of change throughout the last couple years can only be truly found through proper study of these psychological disorders.
DMS is different from disorders like schizophrenia in that there seems to be a physical cause of the delusions. In specific syndromes like Capgras, where patients view their loved ones as imposters, head trauma to the frontal and occipital lobes is enough to create long lasting delusions. Luckily, they can also be treated by physical substances. Trials and research have shown that certain medications may be effective in treating these disorders permanently. On the topic of long lasting delusions, it can be hard sometimes to diagnose someone with a delusional misidentification syndrome. After all, anyone who has experienced head trauma may experience delusions to some degree. A psychologist must be well-trained enough to determine whether or not the delusion
is strong enough to resist any sort of persuasion and has lasted long enough to be considered unnatural. If it is both resistant and persistent, it is most likely a delusional misidentification syndrome. However, the real issue with delusional misidentification syndromes is that not nearly enough research has been conducted. Because there is so much that is not understood about DMS, it is hard to come up with concrete facts and evidence-based conclusions regarding this category of psychological disorders. But with the increasing number of cases, DMS is starting to fall on the radar of more and more psychologists. Perhaps it will be possible to see a more focused attempt at researching DMS sometime in the near future.
ILLUSTRATION BY VICTORIA LI
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THE Smallpox. Measles. Polio. Influenza. These are just four out of the innumerable diseases that have plagued mankind for the entirety of its existence. Thankfully though, medical advances have brought forth vaccination to combat disease. Vaccines have become a necessity in society today. More and more, a current vaccination record is listed as a prerequisite for many important tasks: like travelling abroad, applying for a job, or enrolling in school. They’ve become such an integral part of everyday life, so perhaps it’s worthwhile to consider the mechanisms, controversy, and evident benefits that vaccines possess. For those who have not taken AP Biology or are unfamiliar with the exact mechanisms of vaccines, here is the general rundown of the biological processes involved in modern place vaccinations. A vaccine is essentially an exposure to the disease using preparation of antigen of killed or weakened pathogens. Vaccines mostly work in a part of the immune system that is referred to as adaptive. In the adaptive immune system, B cells and T cells work together to help fight off the pathogens that have invaded the body: B cells release antibodies that bind to antigens so that they cannot infect other cells while the T cells release perforin which induces apoptosis in target cells. The cells that
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are the most significant in the process of vaccines, however, are the memory B cells and memory T cells. After the first immune response, memory B cells and T cells remain in the blood or lymph. That way, when the body is exposed to the pathogen a second time, the activation of B cells and Cytotoxic T cells is much faster and more efficient. This produces a primary immune response and immunological memory, allowing the body to be able to have a more rapid and harmless secondary response when exposed to the antigen for the second time. The first vaccines were slightly different from those of the modern day. Early attempts at the concept of vaccination can be dated back to the 1100s, when in several countries including Turkey, Africa, China, and Europe people used dried scabs of smallpox patients in an attempt to variolate children and adults. One of the first successful vaccines ever created was in 1796, by physician Edward Jenner in England. Jenner inoculated a patient with pus from a blister of a milkmaid with cowpox, a less fatal strain similar to the smallpox virus. People infected with cowpox, although suffering some symptoms, were generally immune to smallpox, the much deadlier disease. Now let’s jump back to present day. For many people, the influenza vaccine is the most frequently received as it is a
virus that mutates frequently. This past flu season of 2017-2018, the flu vaccine was found to be around 36% effective overall (around 25% effective for H3N2 strain, 42% effective for the B strain, and up to 67% effective for the H1N1 strain), which is not as severe or terrible as it may seem when one considers the intensity of the season. Why are certain strains harder to predict than others? Specifically for the H3N2 strain, an accurate vaccine is hard to develop because of the virus’ tendency to mutate as it is cultured. Especially recently, it has been noticed that the strain H3N2 was dominant in the American population, which accounts for the number of hospitalizations there were. Despite the life-saving changes vaccines have brought to the world, diseases such as the flu that have yet to be prevented through vaccination (such as HIV, Chagas disease, RSV, malaria, etc) serve as reminders that there is still much research, trial, and error required to improve current vaccines or create new ones. Throughout history, numerous points have been brought up promoting vaccination, though they have continued to be met by differing angles of opposition. The case for government-mandated vaccination has always been to maximize public health and disease control and scientific research often seems to
spike in measles cases up to support the use of vaccines over twenty thousand, across to combat the spread of viral the entire continent. Just over diseases. They appear to be half of European countries have effective in theory, and most of vaccination rates for measles the time, results agree. On the above 90 percent, and even less other hand, when considering above the recommended 95 opposing arguments over the percent. ethics of vaccination, different ideas have developed over the Regardless of the reason for centuries, though some contiavoiding vaccination, whether nuities in the case persists. In it be ethical, ideological, or the time widespread vaccinafinancial, not being vaccinated tion was truly born, referring against contagious diseases exback to the case of Edward poses an individual and those Jenner and his smallpox vacthey come into contact with cine, there was already much to possibly deadly ailments. In conservative criticism of the the generally healthy and thus new medical technology. Some disease sheltered environment argued that vaccines were found in developed countries, “unchristian” because they citizens engage in the luxury originated from animals (in the of debating whether vaccines case of the smallpox vaccine, should be used or not. These cows). Others simply refused sheltered denizens of the to believe in the actual efficacy first world have forgotten the of the vaccine. Perhaps most horrors that diseases brought notably though, many thought their ancestors. Before a that vaccines actually directly measles vaccine was developed, caused more medical 90 percent of children under complications rather than age 15 contracted the disease, The argument against vaccines on the and millions of deaths were protecting against disease; this point of criticism grounds that they are not effective is thus caused as a result. Measles, as of the ineffectiveness of grounded in false claims and denial. a disease, causes fevers around 104 degrees fahrenheit, which vaccines has continually often causes brain swelling and been a focal point in the thus hearing or vision damage. case against vaccination. The situation we find ourselves Even today, the belief in the vaccinations continue to rage on as in is almost poetically ironic. Measles causational link between vaccination and they did in the time of Edward Jenner vaccination is so effective that it has mental defects lingers on. In the DTP himself. From where we stand today, eliminated the disease from the majority controversy which occurred in 1970, despite the recent situation involving the public outcry erupted following reports of first world countries; and because the measles outbreak, the answer to the agefrom the Great Ormond Street Hospital vaccine is so effective, the very people old debate could possibly be coming into for Sick Children in London that 36 chilthat it protects now advocate against sight again. dren who received the DTP (Diphtheria, vaccines because they no longer witness In recent years, there has been a Tetanus, Pertussis) vaccine were afflicted the pain and death that diseases cause. record number of measles outbreaks by neurological problems following their Vaccination as a whole has completein the United States since the docuvaccinations. In a mere 25 years later, ly eliminated smallpox, which now only mented elimination of measles in 2000. further controversy arose in England exists in laboratories, and has dramat2014 demonstrated a massive return of regarding the MMR (Measles, Mumps, ically decreased the infection rates of measles within the United States with Rubella) vaccine following claims of diseases such as mumps, measles, and 667 documented cases, an over threefold bowel disease and autism which resulted rubella. The argument against vaccines increase from the previous year. Among in vaccinated children. No clear conon the grounds that they are not effective these cases, a significant proportion were sensus on the validity of these claims is thus grounded in false claims and among Amish communities, which are has since arrived, but just a few years denial. Regardless of whether vaccines generally non-vaccinated communities ago in 2001, The Institute of Medimay or may not make you autistic, they due to their beliefs. The vulnerability of cine’s Immunization Safety Committee are effective in preventing the spread the Amish communities to infection by published a report that indicated there of deadly pathogens, and should be measles illustrates the danger posed by was insufficient evidence to conclude distributed and administered as a critical avoiding vaccination. Not only does the whether thimerosal (a mercury-based aspect of public health protection. The lack of measles inoculation within the compound commonly used in vaccines) current human populations turning Amish population endanger themselves, did or did not contribute to the onset their backs on vaccination are allowing it also poses a threat to neighboring peoof developmental problems including diseases such as smallpox, measles, and ples due to the highly contagious nature autism, ADHD, hyperactivity disorder, influenza the opportunity to decimate of measles. or speech and language delay. our population; and they may very well While the United States has clearget what they want, for a repeat of the Through cultural and societal shifts ly seen a problematic increase in the Black Death may be the only way for in the centuries since the breakthrough prevalence of measles, Europe’s vaccidiscovery of vaccination, the debate over anti-vaccination advocates to realize the nation programs prove to be even more flaw in their argument. the ethical implications of widespread lackluster. In 2017, Europe saw a massive
IMAGE CREDIT: PIXABAY @ QIMONO (LEFT), NIH (RIGHT)
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IMAGE CREDIT: FLICKR @ NIH
GO!
BY ALEX SHAHLA
CATCHING ALL 1.3 MILLION VIRUS SPECIES It’s a crisp and sunny day out. Yesterday’s rainstorm lingers in the fresh air, enticing you to leave your cave to make the best use of the weather and take a walk in the park. Sounds like a healthy, relaxing activity, right? However, rather than appreciating your surroundings, you whip out your phone and tap on the Pokemon Go app that seems to be screaming, “Play me!” While you may not necessarily be taking full advantage of this lovely day, on the bright side, your desire to “catch ‘em all” means you can relate to the researchers currently embarking on a ‘viral’ journey of their own. You have likely already heard of the Human Genome Project from biology class. Initiated by public funding in 1990 and completed in April of 2003, the project was a highly ambitious undertaking that successfully sequenced and stored all three billion base pairs of our genome on a public data-
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base. The origin of genetics studies can be traced back to Gregor Mendel’s research on heredity via pea plants in his monastery, where he learned how traits are passed down to offspring. Later on, James Watson and Francis Crick, with the help of Rosalind Franklin’s contributions, discovered the double helix structure of DNA in the twentieth century. Centuries of such discoveries allowed Francis Collins to take on the formidable task of mapping out of the human genome. The Human Genome project has contributed to significant advances in the field of science, and much of the project’s potential still remains untapped. It has already greatly impacted our judicial system, which now utilizes DNA samples collected from crime scenes to aid in prosecution. Furthermore, this sequencing has shed light on the links between genetics and a myriad of diseases. These new findings could potentially
AN EBOLA VIRUS ISOLATED FROM A PATIENT’S BLOOD IN MALI, 2014.
AN NIH SCIENTIST PREPARES SAMPLES OF ZIKA VIRUS FOR SCREENING.
hold the clue on how to better prevent and treat numerous ailments, from hereditary disorders such as sickle cell anemia to multifactorial diseases such as cancer. As a result of the Human Genome Project, the study of genetics has greatly expanded and diversified. If you read the title of this article, you may be wondering what the Human Genome Project has to do with catching viruses! Another project building off of the knowledge gained through the Human Genome Project, creatively named the Global Virome Project, has an ambitious plan to identify all the 1.3 million virus species in the world. Knowledge of genetics will prove useful in the identification and mapping of all unknown, possibly dangerous, viruses. This plan comes in light of recent disease outbreaks, including the Ebola outbreak in West Africa that killed over 11,000 people. Ebola was first discovered in 1976, when it was initially transferred from primates to humans, and its latest outbreak had the World Health Organization scrambling to stop it. New virus species like the Ebola virus are being discovered regularly, often by
chance, according to the United States Agency of International Development (USAID). Due to the ease and efficiency of modern day transportation, a new viral outbreak found in a rural corner of the world could spread to a major city such as New York in less than a day. Additionally, with the lack of a reliable treatment for many viral infections and the spread of antiviral resistance, we are highly vulnerable to a future outbreak. To make matters worse, as we spread further into animals’ native habitats, we come into closer contact with various organisms, especially primates and birds, that carry dangerous diseases. One can only remember the global spread of the bird flu and the swine flu during the 21st century. However, the international collaboration of high-level researchers behind the Global Virome Project is seeking to prevent such outbreaks. The plan gained momentum when the leading scientists in charge of the project attempted to gain funding at the 2016 Bellagio Meeting in New York. Their attempt was a moderate success. Considering that only 263 pathogenic viruses have been identified to this date, a mere 0.01% of the 600,000 to 840,000 unknown zoonotic (animal-infecting) viruses that could potentially infect humans, there is still a substantial way to go, so naturally, funding such a daunting operation was seen as risky. Fortunately, this project has recently been verified as highly doable by USAID’s PREDICT program, which oversees the growing surveillance of pathogens to prevent future pandemics. This sent scientists abuzz and earned the project a lengthy article in the February 2018 Science Magazine issue. The Global Virome Project has researchers stationed in over 30 countries, and currently over 250,000 samples have been collected to be researched. Financially speaking, the estimated 1.9 billion dollars for the project pales in comparison to the 2.7 billion dollars that the Human Genome Project cost. However, there are several uncertainties in the long run in regards to the
project. For example, there is no guarantee that its completion will prevent us from another major outbreak, according to Michael Osterholm, director of the University of Minnesota’s Center for Infectious Diseases Research and Policy. Osterholm stated at the Bellagio Meeting, “I wouldn’t sit here and say, ‘Such studies shouldn’t be done,’ but I still fail to see at this point how it’s going to better prepare the human race for the next infectious disease that jumps from animals to humans.” We will have to see how the project pans out to confirm whether or not the implications will truly be as revolutionary as researchers are hoping. Additionally, it was concluded at the Bellagio Meeting that the project, which will span across the globe, can only be completed with the continued help and cooperation of the governments of the host countries where the project will take place. Unfortunately, the picture may not be so rosy when the project goes into full swing. For example, during the bird flu outbreak roughly a decade ago, the Indonesian government prohibited foreign scientists from collecting and studying the virus, since they feared that none of the monetary benefits from scientists’ potential vaccine would go to their country. This is not an isolated event; similar clashes between researches and host nations, such as in Saudi Arabia, have been reported frequently. As a result, there is ample evidence that as the project, which is currently in its initial stages, develops and expands, the road to mapping all virus species may become a rocky one. Due to multiple factors, including antiviral resistance, increased contact with infected animals, and the interconnectedness of the world today, we are at a high risk for future pandemics. However, while there are some uncertainties with the Global Virome Project, it may be the answer to how we will better take action against viral outbreaks. Although the road ahead is arduous, catching all 1.3 million virus species might be the necessary first step in ensuring public health.
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BY KAILA COIMBRA
In February
of this year, the world watched as men and women performed gravity-defying feats at the Pyeongchang Winter Olympics. One feat that was particularly anticipated was the quadruple jump in figure skating. US figure skater Nathan Chen, nicknamed the “Quad King,” threw a record six quads into his free skate program, the second and longest part of the competition. Top male figure skaters nowadays almost always include at least one quad jump in their program if they hope to make the podium in international competitions. A handful of female figure skaters are also attempting quads, but it is much rarer. Miki Ando of Japan was the first female skater to land a quad salchow in competition in 2002; since then, only thirteen year old Alexandra Trusova from Russia has landed a quad salchow in competition. Although successful quads look beautiful and effortless, they only come after long hours of training, dedication, and athleticism. In order to have a successful quad jump, a skater must jump very high, complete four revolutions in the air, and land (stopping their rotation) all in under one second. In physics terms, the perfect combination of linear momentum, angular velocity and height is needed to accomplish this physically demanding jump. Linear momentum is defined as the product of mass times velocity. From a physics perspective, increasing one’s mass will increase the momentum for their jumps; however, in the world of ice skating, skaters need to be as light as possible to reach a good height for their jumps and to have enough stamina for the rest of their program. Therefore, skaters must resort to moving at a high velocity to increase their linear momentum. Some elite figure skaters travel at maximum speeds of 15 miles per hour into a jump, which is as fast as an average cyclist. Imagine launching yourself into the air at 15 miles per hour, only to land on a thin metal blade (never on two blades, otherwise points are deducted) on a slippery ice surface. Pretty terrifying, right? But every day, skaters attempt this (often falling in the process) to reach their Olympic goals. Angular velocity is how fast the skater is spinning in the air. As figure skating analysts would say, greater linear momentum comes with greater angular velocity. Transferring all of the linear momentum that the skater builds up prior to the jump into angular momentum will increase their angular velocity. Another way to increase angular velocity is to reduce their moment of inertia, or the body’s tendency to resist angular acceleration. Moment of inertia is measured by the distribution of a body’s mass away from the rotational axis. When you see figure skaters executing a double jump, their arms and legs are generally not as tight to their body axis as they would be in a quad because they do not need that much angular velocity. In a quad, every muscle is locked such that there is barely any space between their legs or arms. Skaters try to stay as straight as possible so less mass is distributed away from their rotational axis. This proves to be another reason why elite skaters need to be light and thin so that their mass does not increase their moment of inertia. Once in the air, figure skaters can rotate as many as four times in less than a second; on average, skaters will need to achieve a rotational velocity of 340 rotations per minute to complete a quad. If a figure skater has a slower rotational velocity, they compensate by jumping higher, extending their time in the air. The maximum speed ever recorded for a skater was around 440 rpms, which is exceptionally fast. For comparison, the average rotational speed for the blades of a fan at low speed is 250 rpm and 440 rpm at high speed. However, in order to execute a quintuple jump (one with five rotations), which has never been landed before, a skater must reach around 500 rpm. Yuzuru Hanyu of Japan has declared that his next goal is to land a quad axel, a supposedly impossible jump, after winning his second gold medal at the Pyeongchang Winter Olympics. Since the quad axel is just a half rotation less than a quintuple, it is a logical next step to take before attempting a quint. Because of the
intense rotational velocity that the skater must already endure in a quad, scientists are doubting if it is even humanly possible to land quad axels and quints unaided. Finally, achieving good height is essential in jumps. Male skaters normally jump about two feet in the air. According to Newton’s Third Law of Motion, for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Therefore, when a skater pushes down on the ice by forcing their boot downward, the ice pushes back, providing a force upward and allowing them to achieve a vertical velocity. Standard jumps follow a parabolic path with the maximum height reached halfway through the jump. Often times, the actual rotation starts after it reaches the maximum height for single and double jumps; however, since the quad necessitates four revolutions, skaters start rotating before they reach maximum height to land in time. In terms of energy, all of the kinetic energy that the skater accumulates with their linear speed is transferred into potential energy at the maximum height of their jump, and then transferred back into kinetic energy when they land, allowing the skater to glide backward so effortlessly. Other factors that also play a role in a figure skater’s ability to jump is the equipment and the ice’s properties. Figure skaters generally wear stiffer boots than those of hockey or speed skaters because the impact of figure skating landings can be up to five or eight times the skater’s body weight. If the boots were too flimsy, the skater would face multiple ankle injuries as well as other possible knee and hip injuries from impact. Tendonitis in the ankles are common injuries among figure skaters even with stiff boots. Water also has an interesting property such that its solid state (ice) liquefies under pressure: When you step on the ice, the surface of the ice liquifies just enough for you to glide on a thin layer of water. Additionally, the friction between the blade and the ice creates enough heat to melt the ice slightly. Ice quality also affects performance. Ice technicians are careful to remove contaminants such as fluorine from the ice through reverse osmosis and deionization techniques. If not removed, these contaminants tend to pool together and form undesirable ripples when frozen. In major figure skating competitions such as the Olympics, where the stakes are incredible high, any little detail can make a difference between silver and gold, as illustrated by the famed Russian rivalry between Evgenia Medvedeva and Alina Zagitova (the final score difference was a mere 1.31 points). Behind the beauty and elegance of figure skating, there is an overwhelming amount of physical endurance and physics concepts at play to satisfy the ever-increasing demand for technical difficulty. This race to reach the “humanly impossible” will keep going on as elite figure skaters continue to bedazzle judges and audiences with jumps that test the limit of the human body.
THE MEN’S PODIUM AT THE 2017 FOUR CONTINENTS CHAMPIONSHIPS. IMAGE CREDIT: WIKIMEDIA @ DAVID W. CARMICHAEL
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IMAGE CREDIT: WIKIMEDIA COMMONS @ 7MIKE5000
ILLUSTRATIONS BY VICTORIA LI
A SEAT AT THE AN INTRODUCT THE ORCHESTRA BEGINS. The violinists raise their bows, and golden melodies spill out from their instruments. Softly, the flutists add phrases that quiver in staccato, adding levity to the richness. And one by one, the other instruments join in—the booming bounce of the timpani, the deep thrum of the cellos, the proud cry of the trumpets—and the melodies, like brushstrokes on a canvas, become more and more vibrant, more and more enthralling with each layer. But the sanctity of the music is soon to be disturbed. The ringing of a telephone in the aisle behind quickly jolts you out the bliss of the musical melodies. The person in front starts coughing manically. Soon, you begin to realize that sound is erupting all around you. Within seconds, the auditorium is a discordant blend of screaming and shattering. You hear it all and strain to hear the orchestra—which, despite the disturbance, has continued to play resolutely. This is the brain to a fMRI researcher. It is not a neatly compartmentalized structure with clear distinction between lobes and regions as our anatomy textbooks might suggest, but a storm of signals, the underlying melodies of our brain hidden among layers of dissonance. fMRI is about making sense out of the seemingly incomprehensible, finding clarity within the discord, and showing how, after decades of development and millennia of unawareness, we can finally endeavor to understand the inner workings of the neural networks inside our own skulls.
AFTER STRENUOUS EXERCISE, our lungs heave involuntarily, and oxygen rushes in to replenish our depleted stores. In short, the more active we are, the more oxygen we require. This same principle applies to neurons: the more active the neurons in a particular region of the brain, the more ox-
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ygen they require to function. These subtle regional changes in oxygenation levels are not something we are innately conscious of, nor are they something that can be readily observed. Yet, we can see beyond the layers of skin, skull, and cerebral fluid into the functioning brain by exploiting the magnetic properties of hemoglobin, which is responsible for transporting oxygen within our brain and our bloodstream. When stimulated by a strong electromagnetic field, the varied magnetic landscape of the brain, a result of varying hemoglobin concentrations, yields distinct signal magnitudes. The meaning of fMRI—functional magnetic resonance imaging—is actually by itself a terse summation of the entire field. By using the magnetically resonant properties of hemoglobin, researchers can, by proxy, observe the functional changes in neuron activity. But the word imaging is deceptive. Many people immediately associate fMRI with stark, stationary images. This misconception is perhaps due to the closely related field of MRI, which yields images more akin to the x-ray images or black and white photographs we are accustomed to seeing depicted in the doctor’s office or in our biology textbooks. On the contrary, fMRI is dynamic. Instead of mapping signals from one moment or one instance, an fMRI scanner takes into account the changing of signals in voxels—three-dimensional pixels—throughout the brain and throughout a sequence of time, effectively creating something more like a video than a picture. The guiding principles of fMRI are simple, yet the practical challenges of creating effective fMRI models have proven otherwise. For one, the BOLD (blood oxygenation level dependent) signal, the signal that almost entirely determines the relative activity of neurons, is incredibly volatile. Often times, researchers base entire studies off of what is only a one percent deviation from an average resting state. This means that the data from fMRI scans
SYMPHONY: TION TO FMRI
BY JOHNNY REN
are incredibly susceptible to disturbances from sources other than the brain itself—a phenomenon researchers have given the fitting moniker of noise. A tilt of the head imperceptible to the human eye can completely skew an entire scan’s worth of data. Elevated heart rate and irregular breathing patterns are also common culprits of scan sabotage. Especially considering that subjects have to lay in a small, confined space for extended amounts of time during the fMRI scan, it is a rare occurrence to find a subject who does not have the occasional held breath or pounding chest. Furthermore, many of the challenges that fMRI researchers deal not with noise itself, but the proper ways to process and interpret noise. In 2009, Dr. Craig Bennett, a professor from UC Santa Barbara, was running fMRI experiments in the lab on salmon. He would show the salmon pictures of humans engaged in different social activities and then measure the signals occurring in the brain, mapping them and measuring statistical significance. Miraculously, Dr. Bennett discovered that the fish seemed to respond to the images, as if different human activities yielded different responses from the fish. Was this the first sign that fish could empathize with humans? Could we once and for all have proven that fish are friends and not food? Alas, the data was insufficient, and the reason was simple—the salmon was dead. Dr. Bennett’s experiment was not meant to invalidate the field of fMRI, nor was it meant as a cynical exposition of its faults. Instead, his experiment was a cautionary tale of the dangers of improperly controlled or processed fMRI data, an illustration of the aforementioned volatility of signals. Indeed, when done correctly, fMRI is an incredibly powerful tool. By analyzing signals in the brain, researchers have successfully engaged in models that can reconstruct our visual experience. For example, by simply looking at images of our brain, a researcher can determine whether
we are looking at an image of a dog or a cat, a number or a letter. With the advent of machine learning, these types of models will only become more refined and more potentially life-altering in the future. And the prospect of mind-reading is only a sliver of the potential contained within fMRI. By continuing our expansion of the field, we can elucidate the mechanisms behind neural diseases, the secrets behind our emotions, and learn, after so many years spent in the dark, how our brain truly works.
SO TAKE A SEAT AT THE SYMPHONY. Relish the joy of the music created by the orchestra in front of you and the jolting dissonance created by the audience around you. It is an idiosyncratic blend of experience, a blend that has not only shaped our perception of the world, but our own identity—after all, this is your brain. It is a storm of signals that will surge on until death—perhaps even beyond death if the salmon has anything to say about it—and we all need to learn how to live with it. fMRI can show us how.
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Singaporean Sea Slugs
BY SAMANTHA CHAI
W
ould you ever consider a slug to be one of the most beautiful animals on the planet? No? Google the “Southeast Asian Slug”. Rather than coming face to face with plates of escargot, you will instead encounter nudibranch, beautiful neon-patterned sea slugs. Nudibranch (NEW-dih-bronk), meaning “naked gills,” are a soft-bodied, gastropod mollusk with cannibalistic tendencies found in the surrounding oceans of Southeast Asian countries such as Malaysia, Singapore, and the Philippines. They can also be found in some coasts of Australia and other shallow tropical waters. Only about 3,000 of these sticky creatures have been identified while scientists are discovering new species to this day. They are famous for their bold displays of the color spectrum, but be warned: these small beauties tend to be lethally poisonous. Like poison dart frogs, these slugs sport their colors as a defense mechanism to deter hungry predators. While some nudibranch genuinely secrete toxins, others only feign deadliness through their appearance. It’s the opposite of clickbait; no sea animal wants to take the bait. The majority of these creatures exhibit blindingly bright colors thanks to the absorption of their prey’s pigmentation; there are very few colorless nudibranch.
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A NUDIBRANCH (CHROMODORIS QUDRICOLOR) ON A RED ROPE SPONGE. IMAGE CREDIT: WIKIMEDIA @ GABRIEL RIF
Their diet consists of barnacles, corals, sponges, and other species found in their saltwater reef homes. As they feed, they “adopt” the colors, and sometimes even the toxic abilities, of their food. This phenomenon is known as “cryptic coloration.” Cannibalism among nudibranch is also not unheard of, hence their nickname as “animal zombies.” As a result of this, they are what they eat. This characteristic is especially beneficial since their shells were lost in the process of natural selection, making them more vulnerable to being feasted upon. So at times, the colors can help with camouflaging against a coral reef surrounding; otherwise, they are quite conspicuous. However, this obvious appearance still deters prey since it is a scientific truism-among predators at least-that animals that look nice tend to not taste as nice. Moreover, these slugs contain rhinophores, or club-shaped tentacles on the head, which allow for a sense of smell but can also be retracted back into a flap of
the skin when they sense danger. There are actually two types of nudibranch: dorid and aeolid. While dorid sea slugs breathe through plume-shaped gills in their posterior, their aeolid brothers have cerata, or smaller appendages, throughout their entire body which can be utilized in times of defense by storing poisons. However, a shared characteristic is the slow movement of the animal; because of this, opportunities to mate must be taken to full advantage. Therefore, sea slugs are actually hermaphrodites, meaning they are both male and female, in order to boost chances of reproduction and survival of offspring. If you’re itching to see one, a stunning variety of these sea slugs can be found in Pulau Hantu, Singapore. Locals and tourists alike dive to catch a glimpse of the bright animals under the green algae facade. Not only are they admired for their beauty, but many scientists are also studying their biochemical traits in order to find cures to various human diseases.
SUDAN, SEEN HERE IN 2015, WAS THE LAST MALE NOTHERN WHITE RHINOCEROS. HE WAS EUTHANIZED THIS PAST MARCH.
BY SAI GANTLA & PAYMON HADDAD
BRINGING DEAD SPECIES
BACK TO LIFE N
ews of species facing extinction is becoming more and more frequent, with multiple species close to their end. Perhaps the most notable among these species is the Northern White Rhino, whose last male rhinoceros has recently died. But is extinction really the end for these animals? Through the process of de-extinction, scientists are attempting to bring back species such as the Northern White Rhino by reconstructing their genomes and placing them into eggs to grow. In order to even sequence these genomes, scientists must first find tissues of extinct animals to get genetic material from. These tissue samples are generally taken from museum specimens. For example, tissue samples of the Tasmanian tiger were taken from the Museums Victoria. A common problem encountered here is that the extracted genetic material is very fragmented because DNA tends to decay very quickly. However, this problem is easily solved by genome sequencers. Rather than trying to obtain continuous DNA strands, sequencers simply assess how many different nucleotides the DNA has and make
IMAGE VIA MAKE IT KENYA PHOTO/STUART PRICE
counts of each type. Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids and are composed of a nitrogenous base (adenine, thymine, etc.), a sugar (for instance, deoxyribose), and one or more phosphate groups. It may seem useless to count how many nucleotides we have if we don’t know the order they go in, but sequencers are able to deduce where to place nucleotides based on the genomes of related species that are still living. For example, researchers trying to sequence the genome of the little bush moa used the genome of the emu to determine where to place the nucleotides they discovered in the prehistoric bird. Since these species are very similar, certain genetic codes tend to code for the same phenotype, or physical traits. However, scientists are not necessarily going to be able to bring back the exact same animals that went extinct many years ago. For one, they may want to alter the genetic code of the animal, as was done with the mammoth to give it resistance to the herpes virus. For another, it’s almost impossible to perfectly recreate an animal—a resurrected species
might look and eat the same things as it did before it went extinct, but could have different social or mating behaviors. There are many benefits to bringing back an extinct species. First, in their journey to bring back extinct animals, scientists are drastically improving sequencing technologies which could easily be applied for human use. Another more obvious benefit is the return of biodiversity that comes from the existence of so many animals that are endangered or extinct. This technology could be used to save currently endangered species as well by creating many copies of the species to re-inflate its numbers. Not only are they important to preserve biodiversity, many of these animals are keystone species, or species that have an especially big impact on different ecosystems. Without them, these environments often suffer, hurting other animals living there. Lastly, this could be a way for humans to prevent themselves from destroying nature. Replenishing low animal and plant populations across the world could be a way to counteract issues such as global warming.
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AN INTERVIEW WITH
DR. JAIR LAGE DE SIQUEIRA-NETO BY CHRISTINA LEE
Screening Core. My primary research is still focused on discovering new and better treatments for infectious diseases, including protozoan parasites and emerging virus diseases. Could you tell me about yourself and your history as a researcher? In Brazil, where I grew up, we have to choose a career when we apply for college. I was deciding between engineering and biological sciences. I visited a research laboratory in a hospital in my hometown to learn about a project they were doing with Chagas disease. I was fascinated by the scientists’ work and the designing of experiments to better understand the disease. I consider myself a very curious person and I realized curiosity was essential for a scientist; after all, research is about understanding the unknown. After this experience, I chose biological sciences. In my second year as undergrad, I started an internship in a laboratory of human genetics where I learned how to perform manual sequencing of specific areas of the genome. I was studying a non-coding region of the Conexin-28 gene, involved in human deafness. After that, I worked in a bioinformatics research group and my project was to predict secondary structures of proteins based on the nucleic acid sequences that coded for those proteins. When I received my B.S. degree, I had plenty of research experience, and I was accepted to a Ph.D. program in Genetics and Molecular Biology. My thesis involved the characterization of the telomeric complex in Leishmania sp. parasites, the causing agents of leishmaniasis. I was very produc19
tive in my Ph.D. and published 7 scientific manuscripts from my results. I was invited to go to South Korea to the recently created Institut Pasteur Korea, to work on drug discovery for leishmaniasis. This marked a transition in my research focus from a basic science (more fundamental biology) to more applied/translational science (drug discovery). It was challenging, and I had to learn new methods and develop novel technologies to achieve my research goals. It was a very fruitful period of my research career and I was a pioneer in developing methods to test compounds in large throughput scale against some protozoan parasites. I was then recruited as director of the Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, and moved to San Francisco, California. I was in charge of the drug discovery projects against pathogenic protozoans Leishmania sp., Trypanosoma cruzi and T. bruei. In 2014 I applied for a faculty position in San Diego, and was hired by UC San Diego starting summer that year. With the support from the Dean James McKerrow from the Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences I designed and set up a facility that enables tests of compounds in high-throughput scale for drug discovery projects. The facility under my responsibility is similar to the ones found in the pharmaceutical industry and biotech companies, and is now a University Core: UCSD
What made you pursue the field of drug discovery? I get more excited when I am working on something that can generate a tangible benefit to positively impact society. Drug discovery definitely fits that criterion. My mission is to identify chemical molecules that will remediate pathologies that affect vulnerable populations. What led you to start working with neglected tropical diseases? Coming from a country where these diseases are present in my daily life played an important role in my decision. All diseases are important and should be treated, but the ones that affect an economically unprivileged population gain less interest from the pharmaceutical sector. This leaves a big gap in drug development for these neglected tropical diseases and significantly reduces the chances of new drugs being discovered against them. I feel like I can work to fill that gap. Also, working at a public university involves a responsibility to give back to the community. What is the mission of the Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases? The mission of the Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases is to research new and better treatment options
for neglected tropical diseases, train the next generation of scientists in the field of drug discovery for infectious disease, and bring awareness about such diseases. The center is a multidisciplinary environment, where biologists, chemists, computational scientists, pharmacologists and medical doctors all come together to identify unmet medical needs and the strategies to address these needs. What is your role in the CDIPD? I am responsible for the high-throughput drug-screening platform (UCSD Screening Core) and am involved in the development of new assays to allow tests of compounds on a large scale to identify the active chemical scaffolds. I am also directly responsible for four out of 10 diseases that the center is currently focused on: Chagas disease, sleeping sickness, leishmaniasis and Zika virus. The other ones are amebiasis, filariasis, hook worm, naegleriasis, onchocerciasis and schistosomiasis.
and get interested in NTDs is also memorable. It would be hard for me to mention a single memorable project of finding since all have their own importance. Probably, the most impactful so far was the discovery of pyronaridine as a potential anti-Chagas compound, now in pre-clinical stage and may be ready to test in patients in 1 or 2 years. To put in perspective, it takes in average 10 years from starting a project and getting the drug approved to be used in patients. What was the most difficult or challenging moment for you as a researcher? Research is filled with challenges. Sometimes, getting an experiment to work is not easy and requires a lot of persistence and resilience. I would say that the current funding situation is probably the biggest challenge and limitation I am facing right now. It feels like we could be doing so much more if the funding resources were available.
“Coming from a country where these diseases are present in my daily life played an important role in my decision.� Could you tell me about neglected tropical diseases? Neglected Tropical Diseases, or NTDs for short, are diseases that affect an underprivileged population unable to afford expensive medications, therefore the lack of economic incentives for the pharmaceutical industry sector. The process to discover, develop and bring a new drug to the market is very expensive, in average $1 billion per drug. If a return over an investment is not feasible, companies will not get very interested in those diseases. Most of the NTDs are transmitted by insect vectors that thrive in tropical areas, hence their higher prevalence in the tropics of the globe and the term Neglected Tropical Diseases. Climate change and intense population migration is already modifying the endemic profile of these diseases, and significant number of cases are now a reality in the developing world as well. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), there are 20 NTDs. What was the most memorable or significant moment for you while working at the CDIPD? (most memorable project, finding, event) To me, every time we start a new project means a new hope to find a good therapy. Of course, when we get good results on the molecules that we are developing I feel also much rewarded. Getting students to learn IMAGE VIA JAIR LAGE DE SIQUEIRA-NETO
Could you tell me briefly about your current projects? I have a number of collaborations projects developing different series of chemical compounds to treat Chagas disease, leishmaniasis, sleeping sickness and Zika virus. These collaborations include other academic organizations such as Northwestern University, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, Stanford University, Oklahoma University, University of Washington and private companies as well (Johnson & Johnson, Calibr, Eisai). The process of discovering and developing a drug is very extensive. I work on the early stages of that process, developing assays, testing compounds, identifying the active molecules, characterizing their activity, understanding their mechanisms of action, defining their pharmacokinetic profiles, finding proof-of-concept in pre-clinical models, and optimizing for a lead candidate. A lead candidate would be a molecule that fulfills the criteria to advance to toxicology studies before being tested in humans.
discovery against neglected diseases. The more recent interest and participation of the private sector will also play an important role. There was a meeting held in London in 2012 (London Declaration on Neglected Tropical Diseases) in which leadership from several countries and major pharmaceutical industries agreed to take actions to address the needs for these diseases. What measures have to be taken to take diseases off the neglected tropical disease list? Well, advancing research so we can better understand the diseases and identifying new strategies to reduce their burden is the best way to eliminate the word neglected from these diseases. How can people, such as students, help those who are suffering from these neglected tropical diseases? I believe understanding the issue may already have a positive impact in the future of these diseases. A student that is touched by the problems might decide to actively work on remediating them. That was more or less what happened in my case. I only decided to build my scientific career on neglected diseases after I became aware of the problem and decided to do something about it. There are many students that are interested in pursuing research. Could you give them some advice? Research requires many skills; among the most important ones are patience and resilience. Results do not happen in one day and requires a lot of planning, literature revision, careful execution of experiments and proper analysis of data. Good communication is also key for a successful scientific career. For the students interested in research, I recommend trying it. Look for laboratories and ask about their research, and see if you can shadow some of the scientists or even partake in a short internship, during the summer. Once you live it you will be in a better position to decide if that is really what you want and which areas of research are more interesting for you. The more you explore, in different fields of research, the more educated your decision will be. I wish you good luck!
What advancements do you think will be made regarding neglected tropical diseases in the future? I believe the advances in technologies like the CRISPR/Cas9 method for relatively easy genetic manipulation of organisms will contribute to advances in the field of drug 20